- Introduction to research methods in medical sciences - Journey through the main sections of a research manuscript

1. Introduction to the main parts of a health
research.
DINE Roseline Dzekem, MPH

2. Outline
1. Aim
This training aims
-To empower participants with skills to recognize the main parts of
a research article.

3. Outlines
2. Learning Outcomes
2.1. Knowledge
 A1. Demonstrate an understanding what research is
 A2.Demonstrate an understanding of the main parts of an articles.

4. Introduction to Research methods
What is a research ?
 The term ‘research’ consists of two words:
Research: Re+ search ‘Re’ means again and again
and ‘search’ means to find out something. The
following is the process:
 Person -- Observes ---> Phenomena - Collection of
data -------> Analysis of data , new fact
Conclusions Again and again

5. Introduction to Research methods, CTD
What is a research ?
 Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and
control the observed phenomenon.
 Research is to purposely and methodically search for new
knowledge and practical solutions in the form of answers to
questions formulated beforehand.
 Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates
hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and
poses new questions for future research to explore.

6. Introduction to Research methods, CTD
What is a research ?
-Research is often viewed as the cornerstone of scientific progress
(Marczyk, DeMatteo, Festinger, 2005).
-Process of asking questions and answering them in an organized way
through: Survey (observation/questionnaire/interview...) and
Experiment (laboratory, field/real subjects/simulation...)
-Is a systematic method of exploring, describing, explaining, relating, or
establishing the existence of a phenomenon ,the factors that cause
changes in the phenomenon, and how the phenomenon influences other
phenomena.


7. Introduction to Research methods, CTD
Research according to WHO (WHO Health research methodology, 1992,
is a guide for training in research methods):
- is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new
knowledge.
- Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures and techniques
applied in carrying out investigation or experimentation targeted at
obtaining new knowledge. Here research and scientific methods may
be considered a course of critical enquiry leading to discovery of
facts or information which increases our understanding of human
health and disease.

8. Introduction to Research methods, why research?
- To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet.
- To contribute new knowledge to the existing one as the scientific knowledge
develops in increments.
- To solve an existing health problem (applied research) .
- To contribute to the general body of knowledge in a particular area of interest
(basic/fundamental research)
- Validate intuition
- Improve methods
- Requirements of the Job/occupation
- For publication
- Help make informed decisions
- Need to produce research in career

9. What is the purpose for research
 The purpose of research is to answer questions and acquire new
knowledge
 Research is frequently used for describing a thing or event,
discovering the relationship between phenomena, or making
predictions about future events.
 Research can be used for the purposes of description, explanation,
and prediction (Marczyk, DeMatteo, Festinger, 2005).
 To solve a currently existing problem (applied research)
 To contribute to the general body of knowledge in a particular
area of interest (basic/fundamental research)

10. Research methods
Methods/techniques that are used for conducting research are
termed as research methods or research techniques.
They fall into 3 groups:
1. Data collection
2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing a given
relationship
3. Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

11. Research methodology
The methodology should be specific for a given problem
investigated and include the following:
1. How the research problem is defined?
2. Why a research study is being undertaken?
3. What data are to be collected?
4. What particular method has been adopted for
collection of data?
5. Why a particular technique of data collection has been
used?

12. What is the purpose for research ?
 Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields.
 In our life new problems, events, phenomena and processes occur
every day.
 Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions are required
for tackling new problems that arise.
 Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their
causes, solutions, explanations and applications.

13. General Characteristics of Research
The following characteristics may be collected from the definitions
of “research”:
• It collects new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand
sources.
• It places confirmation upon the discovery of general principles.
• It is an extent systematic and accurate investigation.
• It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
• It is logical and exact.
• The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
• Research is patient and unhurried activity
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
• Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and
cautiously (Singh,2006). 13

14. Criteria of a Good Research
 Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured
with specified steps to be taken in specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
 Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
Deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise.
Deductive research is designed to conform or reject original theories
already established
14

15. Criteria of a Good Research, CTDY
Example: A study to test the general belief (theory) that a certain
plant can reduce fever. This is a deductive study.
Conclusion: Most pure science are mainly deductive
Inductive research
➢ It starts with specific observation & measures of new situation
➢ Detects regularities in the events
➢ Formulates tentative hypotheses
➢ Test hypotheses
➢ Hypotheses confirmed or rejected

16. Types of research
The research is broadly classified into two main classes:
2.1. Fundamental or basic research
2.2.Applied research.
2.1. Fundamental or basic research
 Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for
occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also
called theoretical research.
 Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or
application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of
immediate interest.
 But it is original or basic in character.

17. Types of research , CTD
 It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and
facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and
conclusion on it.
 It helps build new frontiers of knowledge.
 The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied
research.
Thus basic research seeks:
 Generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in technical language of the topic

18. Types of research, CTD
2.2. Applied research
 An applied research solves certain problems employing well
known and accepted theories and principles.
 Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-
disciplinary research are essentially applied research.
 Applied research is helpful for basic research.
 Its outcome has immediate applicationand practical use to current
activity.
Thus appliedresearchstudies:
➢ Individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize
➢ Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
➢ Tries to say how things can be changed
➢ Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
➢ Reports in common language

19. Other types of research, CTD
 2.3. Action research: Fact findings to improve the
quality of action in the social world
 2.4. Policy-Oriented Research: Reports
employing this type of research focus on the
question ‘How can problem ‘X’ be solved or
prevented ?’

21. Publish or Perish
 Scientific papers are the vehicle through which scientists
report their work to the world.
 Their professional reputation is built on how these papers are
received by the scientific community.
 No matter how good the actual experiment is, a poorly written
paper may negatively affect one’s professional reputation, or
worse, prevent the paper from being published at all (thereby
keeping the scientist completely unknown).
 Therefore, it is extremely important to learn to properly write a
scientific paper.

22. Research Process
 Conceptual phase
 Design phase
 Empirical phase
 Analytic phase
 Dissemination phase

23. Research Process
The following guidelines should be observed throughout the entire paper:
 Paper MUST be typed and double-spaced
 Use a professional font (e.g. Times New Roman, 12 pt)
 Use only black ink
 Include section headings
 Write clearly – proofread to correct spelling and grammar
 Use past tense when referring to events of your experiment
 Keep writing scientific – no flowery language
 Be as concise and complete as possible
 Paraphrase or re-state source information in your own words. Do not quote

24. Main parts of a research
A scientific paper consists of the following parts: Title, Abstract,
Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Tables and Figures,
Discussion, and Literature Cited. But the main parts are:
 Background / introduction section
 Method section
 Results section
 Discussion / conclusion section

25. Title
The title of a paper is what often determines whether a potential reader will
actually read your paper.
It should be as specific as possible without being to long.
Title should accurately reflect the purpose of the experiment
Keep length to 10 words or less
Avoid using jargon

26. Abstract
The abstract is a short summary of the entire paper that should “stand alone.”
In other words, the reader should be able to get a complete idea of what was
done and what was concluded from reading just the abstract.
Summarize entire paper – include Introduction, Materials and Methods,
Results, and Discussion
Be concise – keep it to around 250 words or less. A good goal is one to two
sentences to summarize each section of the paper
Do not include references
This section is best if written last

27. Background / Introduction section
➢ The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the reader to your
experiment.
➢ This is done by giving some background on the subject in general
and explaining why your particular experiment was performed
(what will examining the questions that you examined add to our
body of knowledge on the subject?).
➢ To begin, start broad by introducing background on the general
question/problem at hand and end narrowing with the objectives
(purpose) and hypotheses of your particular study.
➢ Write in paragraphs. This section should have multiple
paragraphs.
➢ Background information should include references.
➢ State purpose of experiment and hypotheses clearly

28. Background / Introduction section, CTD
➢ Writing the reviewed literature
▪ Cite the reference in text and list of references
▪ There are numerous referencing system: Harvard, Vancouver, foot
note, APA.

29. Background / Introduction section, CTD
The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
• The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
• The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
• The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity.
• The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be
taken up into the investigation through a problem involved in so many
variables.
• The definition makes the research work practical.
29

30. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Indication for the motivation
➢ It is an explanation demonstrating that there is a problem and lack of knowledge
and how to solve the problem and therefore research is needed
➢ The evidence that there is some lack of knowledge
➢ Widelyknown information that has never been published in accessible report
➢ Remember that what you do not know, does not necessary mean that it is
unpublished.
➢ You have to search for literature exhaustively to be able to conclude.
➢ Motivation involves discussing various published results:
▪ Magnitude of the problem (show data)
▪ Time frame of the problem (how long existed)
▪ Geographical area

31. Background / Introduction section, CTD
▪ Population
▪ Why is that, what are the probable reason
▪ Solutions (what solutions have already been tried)
▪ Unanswered questions. What part of the problem need further
research
▪ The motivation from the study is the first part of the chapter of
introduction and it can be up to two pages

32. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Hypothesis & research questions
➢ Hypothesis
▪ It is a tentative guess and a specific statement of prediction
about the status a situation or system.
▪ Specifies relationship between two or more variables
▪ The validity of hypothesis is confirmed or rejected by the
research results
▪ A single study may have more than one research question or
hypothesis. For instance :
✓ Knowledge influence practices
✓ Knowledge influences attitudes

33. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Characteristics of research hypothesis:
➢ Simple, specific, conceptual clear
➢ Verifiable, feasible to collect data about it using variable
➢ Be operationalizable: expressed in measurable terms (number/
years)
➢ Based on already available knowledge
Types of hypothesis:
➢ Research hypothesis: The study intends to prove right or wrong
and therefore it is the basis for the investigation.

34. Background / Introduction section, CTD
➢ Null hypothesis: It is the statement opposite (negative) to the
research hypothesis expressing all possible remaining outcomes
(eg predictions)
➢ For instance : Taking 300 mg/ day of drug A, will not bring a
significant change I body temperature: eg there will not be a
significant difference in body temperature after taking the drug

35. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Importance of hypothesis
Research methodologists advocate the importance of hypothesis in the
following ways:
• Hypotheses are necessary in research because they build bridge between
the problem and proof that may solve the problem.
• A hypothesis provides the map that guides and speed up the investigation
of the event under consideration.
• The hypothesis directs the researcher’s efforts into productive channels. 35

36. Background / Introduction section, CTD
These hypotheses stimulate the researcher for further research
studies.
1. The hypothesis may suggest what subjects, tools, and instruments
are needed.
2. A hypothesis provides the framework for drawing conclusions.
3. These hypotheses stimulate the researcher for further research
studies.
36

37. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Kinds of hypotheses
There are four kinds of hypotheses. These are: (1) Question (2) Declaration
statement, (3) Directional statement, (4) Null form or Non-directional.
1. Question form Hypotheses: Some writers assert that the hypothesis may
be stated as a question. However, there is no consensus on this view.
2. Declarative Statement: A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative
which can provide an expected relationship between variables or differences
between variables.
3. Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be directional which connotes
an expected direction in the relationship or difference between variables.
4. Non-directional hypothesis: A hypothesis may be stated in the null form
which is an assertion that no difference exists between or among the
variables.
37

38. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Variables of hypothesis
There are five types of variables.
1. The Independent Variable: It is a stimulus variable. It is an input
which operates either within a person or within environment to affect
his/her behaviour. It is that factor which is measured, manipulated, or
selected by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed
event.
2. The Dependent variable: it is a response variable or output. It is an
observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated.
The dependent variable is that factor which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable. It is the variable that will
change as a result of variation in the independent variable. It is considered
dependent because its value depends upon the value of the independent
variable. It represents the consequence of change in the person or situation
studied. 38

39. Background / Introduction section, CTD
3. The Moderator Variable: It is defined as that factor which is
measured, manipulated, or selected by the researcher to discover
whether it modifies the relationship of independent variable to an
observed event.
4. The Control variable: It is defined as that variable whose effect
must be metalized or cancelled by the researcher. In general, while
the effects of the control variables are neutralized, the effects of the
moderator variables are studied. Examples of control variables are:
intelligence, and socio-economic status. They could be confounders.
39

40. Background / Introduction section, CTD
5. The Intervening Variable: Each independent variable, moderator
and control variables can be manipulated by the researcher and each
variation can be observed by him/her as it affects the dependent
variable. Often these variables are not concrete but hypothetical, the
relationship between a hypothetical underlying or intervening
variable and dependent variable.
An intervening variable is that factor which affects the observed
event, but cannot be seen and measured or manipulated. Its
effects must be inferred from the effects of the independent and
moderator variables on the observed phenomena. Examples of
intervening variables are: the attitude, learning process, habit, and
interest.
40

41. Background / Introduction section, CTD
Formulating hypothesis
➢ To formulate a hypothesis, researchers use induction and
deduction. Hypothesis construction enables researchers to
generalise their findings beyond the specific conditions which
they have obtained.
➢ Since a hypothesis is a formulation of expected findings,
researchers are advised to develop a hypothesis as a means of
demonstrating the basis for their study to themselves and their
audience. The task of introducing a study and discussing the
findings are facilitated by the existence of a hypothesis.
41

42. Methods section
➢ Selecting a research design
➢ Developing protocol for the intervention that specify clearly what
kind of intervention, when , who, how & variables
➢ Identifying population
➢ Sampling plan
➢ Methods to measure variables
➢ Developing measure to protect human / animal rights (ethical)
➢ Finalizing and reviewing research plan (eg check the readability
of instruments, pilot study needed).

43. Methods section, CTD
➢ Also called materials and methods
STUDY DESIGN
➢ Deciding on the data analysis you will use on the stage
➢ State the type of study: Qualitative, quantitative, cross
sectional, case control,

44. Methods section, CTD

45. Methods section, CTD
➢ Study area:
➢ Geographical characteristic pf the area show map (rain,
temperature, attitude)
➢ Demographics: men, women, years, fertility rates, tribes
➢ Social economic indicators: literacy rates, religion, income
distribution etc
➢ Economic activities: occupation, migrations
➢ Environmental characteristics: Clean, not clean

46. Methods section, CTD
➢ Health staff and facilities
▪ Facilities including pharmacies & drugs outlet
▪ Staff by type and distribution: Government, non government
organization, mission employed, private
➢ Epidemiological data of various endemic and epidemic diseases
Study population:
➢ Describe the pop including their demographic characteristics, ( age
group, sex, occupations)
➢ Why they were chosen
➢ Accessibility: Can they reached with ease
➢ Their cooperation
➢ Their representativeness
➢ Stabilitythey have to be followed up
➢ Criteria for assigning to case or control studies

47. Methods section, CTD
Sample size & sampling methods
Sampling:
➢ It is the process of selecting of units (eg people, villages,
dispensaries) from a population (a group ) of interest.
➢ By studying a sample, we may generalize our results from the
which they were chosen
➢ We study sample in stead of the whole pop. Because:
▪ Economical in term of resources, time. Labour, money
▪ Easier to handle the samples
▪ Carefully chosen sample yields (enough) information on the pop.
Of interest

48. Methods section, CTD
Terminology used in sampling
➢ Study pop. The total number of individuals from which the sample
is going to be obtained eg all children in a District, all cases of
HIV/ AIDS in a village
➢ A sampling frame: The way the sampling units are organized so
that we can select from them by a sampling methods. Eg a list of
sampling units
➢ List of school in a district, list of children organized by the school.
➢ Sampling domain or strata: a subdivision of study population. Eg:
children categorized by age –group, each group is a stratum

49. Methods section, CTD
Sampling units
➢ This is the smallest individual that can be selected from the study
pop. Eg one child, one school
Sample size
➢ This is the number of units- individuals needed for the study to
represent the whole study pop. Concerned. Eg 200 children chosen
from 2000 children found in college is the sample size
➢ A computer program can be used to find out the sample size

50. Results section
➢ This section summarizes the results of your study in written form. It should contain
only results. All interpretations and explanations of the results belong in the
Discussion and all methods belong in Materials and Methods.
➢ It provides important information that the article rest upon .
➢ It could be presented in form of tables, text , and figures.
➢ Only two methods should be used to present the results
➢ Results only communicate what has been found and no personal feelings or
discussions should be added.
➢ They should also be communicated according to research objectives.
➢ Often tables and figures are useful in presenting results.

51. Results section, CTD
➢ Keep it simple and concise – especially if tables and figures are used, this section should
not be very long.
➢ There must be some written description of results. Simply referring to tables and figures
is not sufficient.
➢ If any tables or figures are used, they must be referred to AND briefly explained in the
text.
➢ Appropriate way to reference a table or figure: “The temperature of the water was found
to increase with time as demonstrated in Figure 1.” OR “Table 2 lists absorbance values
of the chlorophyll solutions and shows that the most concentrated chlorophyll solutions
had the highest absorbance values.”
➢ Inappropriate way to reference a table or figure: “Results are in tables 1,2 and figure 1.

52. Results section, CTD
➢ Tables and figures can be very helpful in presenting information to the reader. They may be included in the body of
the paper, but this is not necessary. It is perfectly acceptable (and easier) to assign one page per table/figure and
include these in the back of your paper.
➢ All non-table materials are referred to as figures – this includes graphs, maps, pictures, diagrams, etc.
➢ All tables and figures should have a number, title, and short description.
➢ Number tables and figures independently of each other – e.g. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.
➢ Number tables and figures according to the order in which they are first mentioned in the text
➢ Tables are labeled at the top; figures are labeled at the bottom.
➢ Titles and descriptions must be self-explanatory – reader should be able to understand what a table/figure is
showing without having to read the text of the paper
➢ Tables and figures should be neat, easily understood, and correctly summarized the data
➢ DO NOT present the same results several times over: if a graph summarizes the trends observed, do not also
include the table of data used to create the graph

53. Discussion / Conclusion section
➢ The discussion should show how findings fit with
existing knowledge, what new insights they
contribute, and what consequences they have for
theory or practice.
➢ It has to be presented in an understandable and intriguing
way to the readers who are interested in studying the
analysis of results.
➢ Information gotten from the new studies should be
repeated. That is the a short statement of the result
that answers the main question of your research and
not more than a paragraph.

54. Discussion / Conclusion section, CTD
➢ This is the section where you pull everything in the paper
together and explain what your results mean and why they
matter. Interpret your results within the context of the
background information that you provided in the Introduction.
➢ This section will conclude your paper and thus will be
responsible for your final impression on the reader. Therefore,
this section requires a lot of thought and attention.
➢ Organize this section opposite to the introduction. Begin narrow
by discussing your specific experiment and end broad by
placing your experiment within the larger context of the general
field.

55. Discussion / Conclusion section, CTD
➢ Write in paragraph form. This section should contain multiple
paragraphs.
➢ Point out unexpected results and when doing so, be sure to
discuss possible sources of error.
➢ Be specific about sources of error and how exactly a particular
error would influence your results. DO NOT attribute such
results to simply “human error”
➢ Compare your results to existing literature.
➢ Clearly state your conclusions and whether the results support
or reject the hypotheses (in doing so, re-state your hypotheses)
➢ Make sure the paper ends appropriately

56. Discussion / Conclusion section, CTD
➢ The conclusion of a research paper is the section that links
everything together in a logical manner.
➢ A conclusion, as the final section of a research paper, gives a
clear explanation of your research’s findings in a way that
emphasizes the value of your research.
➢ The conclusion of a research paper is where you wrap
up your ideas and leave the reader with a strong final
impression.
➢ Thus it should given maximum attention because it
provides closure for the reader while reminding the
reader of the contents and importance of the paper.

57. Literature citing and bibliography
What is it
Types of citation tools