The document provides guidance on taking effective notes from academic texts and lectures. It recommends preparing for note-taking by reviewing relevant materials in advance so you know what information to focus on. During lectures, the document suggests thinking of yourself as an interpreter rather than just a recorder, and paying attention to what the instructor emphasizes. Key points include dating notes, using organizational strategies like headings and diagrams, and reflecting on notes after class to strengthen your understanding and memory over time.

1. Direct Quotation
A direct quotation is one in which you copy an author's words directly from the text and use that
exact wording in your essay. Try to use direct quotations sparingly: only use them when they are
focused precisely on the point you want to make and are both brief and telling, or where the
substance/ wording of the quote is what you wish to address.
When directly quoting, remember the following points:
for a short quotation, use quotation marks " " to indicate that these are someone elses words.
For example:
In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata "truly are the
building blocks of cognition" (1981: 33).
for quotations longer than three lines, take a new line and indent the quote to separate it from
the main text (in this case you do not require quotation marks)
For example:
In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata
truly are the building blocks of cognition. They are the
fundamental elements upon which all information
processing depends. Schemata are employed in the
process of interpreting sensory data (both linguistic and
non linguistic), in retrieving information from memory,
in organising actions, in determining goals and
subgoals, in allocating resources, and generally, in
guiding the flow of processing in the system (1981: 33-
34).
Rumelhart (1981) attempts to unravel the functions of
schemas, explaining them through a series of analogies.
when referencing the quote include the page number from which it was taken
For example:
In fact, Rumelhart (1981: 33) suggests that schemata "truly
are the building blocks of cognition".
ensure that the grammar of the quote is consistent with the grammar of your sentence
For example:

2. Incorrect:
Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems
"lead to the development of integrative and mixed structures
such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"
(Dawson, 1986:97).
Correct:
Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems
have led "to the development of integrative and mixed
structures such as committees, task forces and matrix
structures" (Dawson, 1986:97).
to omit words from the original quote use three period marks ... to indicate that you have
removed certain phrases or words
For example:
In fact, Rumelhart asserts that schemata "are the fundamental
elements upon which all information processing depends.
Schemata are employed ... in allocating resources, and
generally, in guiding the flow of processing in the system"
(1981: 33-34).
to add words to the original quote use
square brackets [ ]
For example:
In fact, Rumelhart asserts that since schemata "are the
fundamental elements upon which all information processing
... [and play a large role] in guiding the flow of processing in
the system" (1981: 33-34).
to indicate a grammatical or spelling error in the original quote place (sic) after the error
For example:
In 1845, the explorer, Eyre stated:
Whenever European colonies have been established in
Australia, the native races in that neighbourhood rapidly
decreasing(sic), and already in some of the older settlements,
have totally disappeared (cited in Coupe, 1991).
An example of direct quotation in the context of a paragraph.

3. Precisor Summary
A précisor summaryisan encapsulationof someone'swritingorideas.Itcan be useful forreadersif you
include high-qualitysummariesof academictextsinyourownacademicwriting,aswe all have alimited
time to accessall the informationthat'savailable.Itisa constantsource of delightinacademiclife to
speculate whetheranauthorhas actuallyreada texttheyare talkingabout,orsomeone’sprécis,or
evensomeone else’sdescriptionof thatprécis.
Summariesmaynotalwaysfollowadirectline throughwhatthey’re summarising –if you wantto
summarise someoneelse’sideasinafew sentences,itmightmake more sense if youbeginwiththeir
conclusion,andworkbackto the argumentstheyuse todevelopthatconclusion.Readersmightalso
appreciate youapproachingafamiliarpiece of workfroma surprisingangle:forexample,“Wealthyman
assaultsthe mentallyill”,forexample,isareasonable summaryof the filmBatman,while Twilightis
neatlyencapsulatedby“Girl givesupcollege forstalker”.

4. Summarisingatextisalsoan importantfirststepinwritinga bookreview,sothe linksonthe nextpage
offersome introductoryguidance tothatgenre aswell.Whateveryouwanttodo withsummaries,there
are certaingoodprinciplestofollow.Clickonthe linksopposite tolearnmore.
How to write an outline
Part 1 of 2: PlanningYourOutline
1. 1
Choose a topic. Whether your work will bereflective, persuasive,informative, research-based,or some
combination thereof, you must choosea general focus to help keep your thoughts on track.[1]
 At this stage it's okay to have a broad topic instead of trying to narrowitdown to your specific
thesis statement. For example, when you're juststartingout, instead of narrowingyour topic
down rightaway to "the attitudes of the French towards the Maquis resistancefighters in WWII"
you might look at French lifeduringthe German occupation in general.
 You can also makean outlinefor a creative piece, likea novel. You will still wantto focus on a
topic (steampunk reimaginingof Hamlet). You won't have a thesis,and the outline will followthe
structure of the novel (important events, for example).
1. 2
Determine the larger purpose of your work. Choosingan end goal will notonly give your topic direction,but also
help you structure your paper logically.If you’rewritinga formal essay, write a thesis statement that fulfillsthis
purpose, otherwise you'll need to determine what you're tryingto accomplish with your work.
 You could compareand contrasttwo things,which means that you'll bemaking connections,and
usingcritical thinkingto engage in analysisof the two (usually) pieces.This will need to go
beyond simply summarizing,butusually won'trequiremuch outsideresearch.[2]
 Present causeand effect. Show why something happened (particularly good for historical essays,
because you can look at something that happened in history and the effect ithad on events).
 Define or analyzea particular aspector concept. For example, you might talk about feminismand
talk about the history of the term, the different types of feminism, and what it means to different
groups.
 Present one sideof an argument (you should also provide,or atleastaddress,the counter-
argument).

5.  Provideevidence and draw a conclusion.You should always,when writingan essay,back up your
conclusionsand your thesis statement with specific evidence,even if you're writinga personal
essay,a persuasiveessay (especially when writinga persuasiveessay),or a creative essay.
1. 3
Gather supporting materials. These might be quotes, statistics, theories, images, plot
points, or personal reflections depending on the nature of your work. Make sure that these
things support what you're writing, or that if you do find conflicting evidence or ideas,
you address why these are wrong, instead of simply ignoring them.
 Expand upon your assertions with evidence, warrants and examples. Include proof
in your outline to strengthen the bones of your paper, and identify potential holes
in your research.
 If you're looking specifically for supporting information for a novel (since it is a
little different than an academic style outline), it's great to get information on
setting, characters, clothing, food etc. You want your story to be as believable as
possible.
 Make sure that when you're noting down information for your outline that you
note down page numbers for books, and where you found that information. That
will make it easier when you're going back through and setting up the outline
itself.
1. 4

6. Pick your type of outlines.A topicoutline usesshort,general phrasesandcanbe useful if your
outline isveryflexible;asentence outline usescomplete sentencesandaddressescomplexity
and detail.[3]
 Considerstartingyouroutline asatopicoutline withstructural flexibilityandthen
convertingittoa sentence outline asyougo.
 There isn'tmuch difference betweenthe twoexceptthatyoucan use the sentences
fromthe latterdirectlyinyourpaperor presentation.
Part 2 of 2: WritingYour Outline
1. Decide how to generallyorder your supportingevidence. Youwant to make sure that it
supportsyourlargerpurpose.You'll wantto make sure that you're orderingitinthe most
effectivemanner.Thatmeans,startingoff withyourstrongestpiecesof evidence,aswell as
makingsure that yourpiecesof evidence naturallyflow intoone another.[4]
 For example:if youare presentinganhistorical overview,youmaywanttoorder things
chronologically;if youarguingfora literaryinterpretation,youmaywantto orderthings
by theme;if youare weighingtwosidesof anargumentbefore takingastance,present
the evidence thatcontradictsyourstance first,andthendispel itwiththe counter
evidence toendona persuasive note.
1. 2
Identifyyour main categories.Basedon boththe larger purpose of the workand the nature of
the supportingmaterial youhave found,determine how besttobreakyourlargertopicdown

7. intological categories.These willformthe firstlevelof youroutline,whichistraditionally
labeledwith Romannumerals (I,II,III,IV,etc.).
 Whenwritingessays,itisverycommonto devote one categorytoeachparagraph: I.
wouldbe the introparagraph,II. wouldbe the firstbodyparagraph,and so on.
 For example:If presentingahistorical overview of the car,eachcategorymightcover a
majorera in the car’s history.
1. 3
Think of at least two points for each category. Select these sub-points based on both
the purpose of your paper and the list of supporting materials you gathered earlier. These
will form the second level of your outline, which is traditionally labeled in letters of the
English alphabet (A, B, C, D, etc.).
 Indent the second level of your outline 0.5 to 1 inch past the first level.
 For example: If presenting a historical overview of the car, each point might cover
a typical engine model during that era.
1. 4
Expand upon your points with sub-points if necessary. This will maximize the logical
grounding of your essay work. Put these in the third level of your outline, which is
traditionally labeled in numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.).

8.  Should you need to go another layer deeper into your outline, use lowercase
Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, etc.), then lowercase letters (a, b, c, d, etc.) and then
finally switch to numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.).
 It is unlikely you will need to have more than 4 layers in your outline. Consider
combining points if this is the case.
 For example: If presenting a historical overview of the car, each sub-point might
address a technological innovation for that engine model.
Tips
 Be concise and straightforward in your outline. This doesn't have to be
perfectly polished writing; it just has to get your point across.
 Don't be afraid to eliminate irrelevant information as you conduct more
research about your topic and narrow the area you want your writing to
focus on.
 Use outlines as a memorization tool. Choose concise words to trigger a
concept.
 Use a computer. Many provide outline tools. It's quick to add, delete, or
rearrange information.
 Indent each level of your outline 0.5 to 1 inch past the previous level.
 When you start creating an outline in Microsoft Word, it has an
automatic indentation feature that it imposes on your outline. If you
prefer to work with your own indentation system, read How to Make
Outline Text in Word.
 Increase the indent by the same increment for each level; do not indent
.5 inches, then 1 inch, then .75 inches, etc.
Cross-Referencing
a note in a book (such as a dictionary) thattells you where to look for more information
Technical reports and instructions often require cross-references—those pointers to other places
in the same document or to other information sources where related information can be found.
Cross-references can help readers in a number of different ways:

9.  It can point them toward more basic information if, for example, they have entered into a
report over their heads.
 It can point them to more advanced information if, for example, they already know the
stuff you're trying to tell them.
 Also, it can point them to related information.
Related information is the hardest area to explain because ultimately everything is related to
everything else—there could be no end to the cross-references. But here's an example from
DOS—that troll that lurks inside PC-type computers and supposedly helps you. There are several
ways you can copy files: the COPY command, the DISKCOPY command, and XCOPY
command. Each method offers different advantages. If you were writing about the COPY
command, you'd want cross-references to these other two so that readers could do a bit of
shopping around.
Of course, the preceding discussion assumed cross-references within the same document. If there
is just too much background to cover in your report, you can cross-reference some external
website, book, or article that does provide that background. That way, you are off the hook for
having to explain it all!
Now, a decent cross-reference consists of several elements:
 Name of the source being referenced—This can either be the title or a general subject
reference. If it is a chapter title or a heading, put it in quotation marks; if it is the name of
a book, magazine, report, or reference work, put it in italics or underline. (Individual
article titles also go in quotation marks.)
 Page number—Required if it is in the same document; optional if it is to another
document.
 Subject matter of the cross-reference—Often, you need to state what's in the cross-
referenced material and indicate why the reader should go to the trouble of checking it
out. This may necessitate indicating the subject matter of the cross-referenced material or
stating explicitly how it is related to the current discussion.
These guidelines are shown in the illustration. Notice in that illustration how different the rules
are when the cross-reference is "internal" (that is, to some other part of the same document)
compared to when it is "external" (when it is to information outside of the current document).

10. Examples of cross-references. Internal cross-references are cross-references to other areas within

11. your same document; external ones are those to books and documents external to your document.
Critical Note-Taking
How to learn and remember essential ideas
allotti Learning Center
Suffolk University ∙ Donahue 208
617.573.8235 ∙ learningcenter@suffolk.edu
BWhy do we take notes?
Memory after only listening in a class is less effective than the memory and
knowledge that results when one takes organized notes and purposefully
studies a topic. Reflecting and thinking critically on your notes over time,
and adding to them, helps you to create true knowledge!
Step 1: Prepare to take good notes before class
• Read relevant sections of texts and/or do learning activities such as
problem sets and review questions.
• Review notes from previous classes and think about ways that the notes
connect to the current topic and your prior learning.
Why prepare? Preparation allows you to:
• Identify important points during class. Because you will have built a
knowledge foundation in your brain, you will know what to listen for
and you’ll pay better attention to lecture facts or discussion ideas that
connect to material you already reviewed.
• Discover how to organize your new knowledge. For example, if you
have a key theme or term in mind from previous notes or readings—
such as “totalitarianism and elitism”—you’ll be able to group relevant
ideas or details you hear in class under that theme.
• Know what you don’t understand so that you can ask questions and
record answers in class.
In addition,
• Spending time over several days with class material allows you to
secure the information in long-term memory. The brain learns best this

12. way—you even process information while you sleep.
Step 2: Take purposeful notes during class
• Think of yourself as an interpreter and creator, not simply as a recorder
or stenographer, in order to truly capture and understand your course
material.
• Date your notes and keep them organized. Create a heading/title for
the top of each class’ notes—one that sums up the key topics that will
be covered.
• Pay attention to what is important. What is most important?
o Anything that illustrates your reading.
o Anything that the professor emphasizes, writes on the board,
or repeats from the textbook or previous classes.
o Key terms and definitions.
• Create organization in your notes that is meaningful to you as you
record important terms and concepts. Draw maps or diagrams to show
the relationships among ideas. Develop your own note-taking system,
with strategies that work for you (see the left column of this handout).
Visually enhance
notes: draw maps
and charts before,
during, and after
class.
Adapt these
examples in any way
that works for you!
Concept Map:
Life-Cycle Diagram:
Comparison Chart:
Comparison: Authors
George Eliot and Edith
Wharton
Daniel Deronda‐‐
novel by Eliot
Gwendolen
Harleth‐‐
protagonist
Daniel

13. Deronda‐‐
other
protagonist
The House of
Mirth‐‐novel by
Wharton
Lily Bart‐‐
protagonist
The Life
Cycle of a
Caterpillar
Egg
Larva
Pupa
Adult
Democracy
Totalitarianism
People
help
govern
State
governs
All people
are equal
Tendency
toward

14. elitism
Who
governs?
Belief in
equality
?
Step 3: Review and reflect on notes after class
• Take 5 to 10 minutes right after class to look through notes, clarify
any unclear points and fill in abbreviations; expand brief notes, and
summarize subsections of what you are learning. Don’t wait too long,
or you’ll forget valuable insights. The physical act of writing will help
you to remember, as well!
• Review again the main points of the notes within 24 hours;
imagine connections to readings or previous knowledge. Just like
reviewing notes and readings over several days before class, doing
several reviews after class helps to consolidate the information, or
transfer it from short-term to long-term memory.
• Make review interesting:
o Create new ways to re-experience the information, e.g. re-write
your notes, connect them with previous weeks’ work, or
integrate class notes with reading notes into one source.
o Find ways to compare and contrast what you’ve learned.
o Use some of the methods illustrated in the left column of this
handout; also consider color coding different themes and units
of information.
• Review all of your notes one day a week. You’ll build stronger neuron
networks, helping you to connect different parts of your learning!
Step 4: Test understanding
• Test yourself using the questions at the end of the book.
• Create your own questions to test your knowledge (for example, in the
cue column of your notes).
• Partner with someone—a friend, a tutor, a classmate—to test
understanding.
Why test yourself? These processes help you to solidify your learning and
prepare for tests. You will feel you have mastered the material.
References:
Zull, J.E. (2006). Key
aspects ofhow the brain
learns. In S. Johnson &
K. Taylor (Eds.), The
Neuroscience of Adult

15. Learning (pp.3-9).San
Francisco: New
Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education.
Carolyn Hopper in
Practicing College
Learning Strategies,3rd
edition (Houghton
Mifflin, 2003).
Cornell Style Notes:
Main Notes Area:
Take notes here during
class.
Summary/
Cue Column:
Write questions,main
ideas or connections
between topics.
Paragraph Summary
Area:
Condense notes
in yourown words
in 1-2 sentences.
References:
Jodi Patrick Holschuh, andLori
Price Aultman,
Comprehension
Development, in RonaF.
Flippo andDavidC.
Caverly, Handbook of
College ReadingandStudy
Strategy, 2ndEd. (2009)
New York: Routledge,
(pp.121-144).
Carolyn Hopperin Practicing
College LearningStrategies,
3rd edition(Houghton
Mifflin, 2003).
Rita Smilkstein in We’reBorn
to Learn: Usingthe Brain’s
Natural LearningProcess to
Create Today’s Curriculum
Corwin Press, 2003).
J.E. Zull, Key aspects of how
the brain
Making Note Cards
Tip Sheet 12
Ask these questions:
Why do it?

16. It isuseful totake noteson index cardsbecause itgivesyouthe flexibilitytochange the orderof your
notesandgroup themtogethereasily.Youcanbuya few packagesof 3x5 or 5x7 index cardsat most
drugstoresorstationerystores.
How do I do it?
1. Write the subtopic heading of the note at the top of each note card. (see Tip Sheet 11: Creating
Subtopic Headings)
2. Write only one main point on a note card
3. Only write information directly related to your Statement of Purpose. (see Tip Sheet 9:
Writing a Statement of Purpose)
4. Write only essential words, abbreviate when possible.
5. Be accurate: double check direct quotes and statistics.
6. Identify direct quotes with quotation marks and the person's name.
7. Bracket your own words [ ] when you add them into a quote.
8. Use ellipsis points (...) where you leave out non-essential words from a quote.
9. Distinguish between 'fact' and 'opinion'.
10. Include the source's number on the card (see Tip Sheet 4: Making Source Cards)
11. Write the page number of the source after the note.
12. Use the word 'over' to indicate information on the back of the card.
Sample note card:

17. WHERE TO GO FROM HERE:
Tip Sheet13: Writinga ThesisStatement
www.crlsresearchguide.org/13_Thesis_Statement.asp
Once you have answered your questionsand taken a lot of notesabout your topic, you are ready to
finalize yourStatement of Purpose into a ThesisStatement.
This is whenyou pick a definite pointofviewto write from. You will needto support your point of
viewwith the evidence youhave beenfinding.
Tip Sheet14: Making An Outline
www.crlsresearchguide.org/14_Making_An_Outline.asp
You may want to go to this tip sheetifyou are clear about the pointof viewyou will take on it, or if
you don'treally needto make a formal ThesisStatement for this project.Ask your teacher.