1. The document presents 11 claims and then states that all of them are false. It emphasizes the importance of the scientific method to verify answers rather than accepting claims without evidence.
2. People's beliefs and knowledge can come from many sources like rumors, parents, friends, and experiences that are not always accurate. The scientific method helps minimize errors by standardizing steps that can be replicated.
3. The last part of the document discusses identifying problems, forming testable hypotheses, designing studies, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings to help verify answers through the scientific process.
What is the significance of p value while reporting statistical analysis. Is there an alternate approach for Fisher, if so what is that approach. These are some of the issues addressed here.
This document discusses diagnostic testing and key terms related to test accuracy. It defines sensitivity as the ability of a test to correctly identify those with a condition, and specificity as the ability to correctly identify those without a condition. Sensitivity answers what percentage of sick people a test identifies, while specificity answers what percentage of well people a test identifies as negative. Predictive values depend on disease prevalence in the population and indicate the likelihood a positive or negative test result is correct. High sensitivity means fewer false negatives, while high specificity means fewer false positives.
Research methods are important in psychology because it is a science based on research. There are several biases and effects that can skew research, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the Barnum effect. Research can be either applied, with clear practical applications, or basic, exploring questions out of curiosity. Key terminology in research includes the hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, operational definitions, sampling, experimental and correlational methods, and statistics.
P Values and Replication: the problem is not what you think
Lecture at MRC Brain Science & Cognition, Cambridge 16 December 2015
Abstract
It has been claimed that there is a crisis of replication in science. Prominent amongst the many factors that have been fingered as being responsible is the humble and ubiquitous P-value. One journal has even gone so far as to ban all inferential statistics. However, it is one thing to banish measures of uncertainty and another to banish uncertainty from your measures. I shall claim that the apparent discrepancy between P-values and posterior probabilities is as much a discrepancy between two approaches to Bayesian inference as it is between frequentist and Bayesian frameworks and that a further problem has been misunderstandings regarding predictive probabilities. I conclude that banning P-values won’t make all published results repeatable and that it is possible undesirable that it should.
1) The document discusses a study by Carlisle that analyzed distributions of means from randomized controlled trials. It found an excess of trials that appeared too well balanced, potentially due to how trials are actually randomized and analyzed.
2) Three explanations are provided for Carlisle's findings: covariates in trials may not be independent; trials are often randomized using blocking or other techniques that balance covariates but the analysis does not account for this; and the published trials analyzed are a selected subset due to publication bias.
3) The key points are that how trials are randomized and analyzed can impact balance in unexpected ways, covariates are often correlated not independent, and publication bias further selects the trials seen, limiting what can be concluded from
Researchers use hypothesis testing to evaluate claims about populations by taking samples and analyzing the results. The four steps of hypothesis testing are: 1) stating the null and alternative hypotheses, 2) setting the significance level typically at 5%, 3) computing a test statistic to quantify how unlikely the sample results would be if the null was true, and 4) making a decision to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis based on comparing the test statistic to the significance level. The goal is to systematically evaluate whether a hypothesized population parameter, such as a mean, is likely to be true based on the sample results.
The document outlines the steps of the scientific method, including problem/question, observation/research, formulating a hypothesis, experimentation, collecting and analyzing results, drawing a conclusion, and communicating results. It then provides an example of a student, John, applying these steps to investigate how the amount of sugar affects the rise of bread dough. John formulates the hypothesis that more sugar will result in higher bread, conducts an experiment to test this while controlling other variables, analyzes the results, and ultimately draws a different conclusion, sparking further investigation.
What is the significance of p value while reporting statistical analysis. Is there an alternate approach for Fisher, if so what is that approach. These are some of the issues addressed here.
This document discusses diagnostic testing and key terms related to test accuracy. It defines sensitivity as the ability of a test to correctly identify those with a condition, and specificity as the ability to correctly identify those without a condition. Sensitivity answers what percentage of sick people a test identifies, while specificity answers what percentage of well people a test identifies as negative. Predictive values depend on disease prevalence in the population and indicate the likelihood a positive or negative test result is correct. High sensitivity means fewer false negatives, while high specificity means fewer false positives.
Research methods are important in psychology because it is a science based on research. There are several biases and effects that can skew research, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the Barnum effect. Research can be either applied, with clear practical applications, or basic, exploring questions out of curiosity. Key terminology in research includes the hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, operational definitions, sampling, experimental and correlational methods, and statistics.
P Values and Replication: the problem is not what you think
Lecture at MRC Brain Science & Cognition, Cambridge 16 December 2015
Abstract
It has been claimed that there is a crisis of replication in science. Prominent amongst the many factors that have been fingered as being responsible is the humble and ubiquitous P-value. One journal has even gone so far as to ban all inferential statistics. However, it is one thing to banish measures of uncertainty and another to banish uncertainty from your measures. I shall claim that the apparent discrepancy between P-values and posterior probabilities is as much a discrepancy between two approaches to Bayesian inference as it is between frequentist and Bayesian frameworks and that a further problem has been misunderstandings regarding predictive probabilities. I conclude that banning P-values won’t make all published results repeatable and that it is possible undesirable that it should.
1) The document discusses a study by Carlisle that analyzed distributions of means from randomized controlled trials. It found an excess of trials that appeared too well balanced, potentially due to how trials are actually randomized and analyzed.
2) Three explanations are provided for Carlisle's findings: covariates in trials may not be independent; trials are often randomized using blocking or other techniques that balance covariates but the analysis does not account for this; and the published trials analyzed are a selected subset due to publication bias.
3) The key points are that how trials are randomized and analyzed can impact balance in unexpected ways, covariates are often correlated not independent, and publication bias further selects the trials seen, limiting what can be concluded from
Researchers use hypothesis testing to evaluate claims about populations by taking samples and analyzing the results. The four steps of hypothesis testing are: 1) stating the null and alternative hypotheses, 2) setting the significance level typically at 5%, 3) computing a test statistic to quantify how unlikely the sample results would be if the null was true, and 4) making a decision to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis based on comparing the test statistic to the significance level. The goal is to systematically evaluate whether a hypothesized population parameter, such as a mean, is likely to be true based on the sample results.
The document outlines the steps of the scientific method, including problem/question, observation/research, formulating a hypothesis, experimentation, collecting and analyzing results, drawing a conclusion, and communicating results. It then provides an example of a student, John, applying these steps to investigate how the amount of sugar affects the rise of bread dough. John formulates the hypothesis that more sugar will result in higher bread, conducts an experiment to test this while controlling other variables, analyzes the results, and ultimately draws a different conclusion, sparking further investigation.
Methodology in Psychology for A-Level Classesmind29x
This document provides an overview of various research methods used in psychology, including experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, case study, and survey methods. It defines key terms like hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, validity, reliability, and population and sampling. Experimental methods aim to establish cause and effect and control for confounding variables through random assignment to groups. Correlational methods examine relationships between variables without implying causation. Ethical guidelines established by the APA require voluntary and informed consent from human participants with minimal risk and protected privacy.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychological science research methods. It discusses the importance of psychology as a science and describes common research methods like case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and experimentation. It also covers important statistical and analytical concepts used in psychology like correlation, statistical significance, and making inferences from data. The overall document serves as an introduction to critical thinking and the scientific process in psychology.
This document summarizes a statistics lecture about the research process and why statistics are needed in optometry and vision science. It discusses the steps of evidence-based practice including asking questions, acquiring evidence, appraising evidence, and applying evidence. It also covers generating and testing theories, levels of measurement, measurement error, validity, reliability, types of research such as correlational and experimental research, and methods of data collection and analysis. The goal is to explain the research process and why statistics are an essential tool for evidence-based practice in optometry.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology including:
- The scientific method and how psychologists ask and answer questions through description, correlation, and experimentation.
- Common research methods like surveys, interviews, and longitudinal studies.
- The importance of control groups, random assignment, and double-blind studies in experiments.
- Statistical analysis and making inferences from data through measures like mean, median, standard deviation, and statistical significance.
- Frequently asked questions about the field address topics like laboratory research, cross-cultural comparisons, animal research ethics, and the value-laden nature of psychology.
The document discusses research methods in psychology. It explains that psychology relies on empirical research using observation and experimentation. There are two main types of research - applied research which has practical applications, and basic research which explores questions out of curiosity. Some key research methods discussed include descriptive research using surveys and case studies, correlational research which examines relationships between variables, and experimental research which tests causal relationships by manipulating the independent variable. Important concepts like hypotheses, variables, sampling, ethics are also covered.
This document summarizes key concepts related to experimental and correlational research methods. It discusses the major features of experimental research, including manipulating an independent variable and measuring dependent variables. It also covers correlational research, validity types (construct, internal, external), measurement considerations, and the tradeoff between internal and external validity when generalizing from lab studies.
Science is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the world through objective and evidence-based research. The document discusses key aspects of the scientific method including forming testable hypotheses, conducting experiments and studies, and drawing conclusions from the data while avoiding bias. It provides examples of descriptive research methods like case studies and surveys that observe behaviors, as well as experimental research that tests hypotheses by manipulating variables and using control groups. The importance of reliability, validity, and statistical significance is emphasized when evaluating research findings.
The document discusses key concepts in psychological science including the scientific method, experimental design, correlation versus causation, and research ethics. It provides examples of different research methods like surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observation. It also explains the difference between correlation and causation, defines correlation coefficient, and gives examples of positive, negative, and no correlations. Finally, it discusses important concepts like independent and dependent variables, confounding variables, measures of central tendency and variation in data, and evaluating study results.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology and research methods, including:
- Different approaches to psychology like psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive.
- Common research methods like observation, surveys, experiments, and longitudinal studies.
- Key terms like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups.
- Ethical standards for psychological research involving informed consent and protecting participants.
- Ways of organizing data like frequency distributions, and measures of central tendency and variability like mean, median, and standard deviation.
The document introduces several key concepts in psychology including intuition, common sense, psychological science, critical thinking, the scientific method, theories, hypotheses, research methods, experiments, and statistical analysis. It discusses how psychology aims to provide a scientific understanding of human behavior and mental processes through rigorous empirical study rather than relying solely on intuition or common sense.
The document discusses key concepts in psychological science research methods. It covers the limits of intuition and common sense, the need for the scientific method in psychology, and various research techniques used including case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, experiments, and statistical analysis. Experimental research involves manipulating independent variables, measuring dependent variables, and controlling for other factors. Statistical analysis allows researchers to describe patterns in data and make inferences about populations.
Psychologists use the scientific method to construct testable theories about human behavior and mental processes. This involves making careful observations, developing hypotheses and operational definitions, conducting experiments and studies while controlling for biases and alternative explanations, analyzing results statistically, and replicating findings. The goal is to gain objective knowledge about psychological phenomena while recognizing the limitations of any particular study or perspective.
Psychologists use the scientific method to construct testable theories about human behavior and mental processes. This involves making observations, developing hypotheses and theories, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions. Critical thinking is important in psychology to avoid biases, examine assumptions, and evaluate evidence rather than blindly accepting arguments. Theories are explained using principles and predict observations, while hypotheses make testable predictions.
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a psychology course for week 2. It includes a syllabus, chapters on correlation and experiments, and a section on biology and the brain. The biology section describes the major parts of the brain from the brainstem to the cerebral cortex. It outlines the specialized functions of areas like the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral hemispheres. The document concludes with assigning homework and noting what will be covered in the next week's class.
1) Psychology research aims to understand human behavior scientifically. It relies on empirical research methods to test hypotheses and establish causal relationships.
2) There are several types of descriptive research methods, including case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. However, these are limited because they cannot prove causation.
3) Experimental methods allow researchers to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its impact on the dependent variable. Control groups help rule out alternative explanations.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 1 of Myers' Psychology textbook, including:
1) The scientific method involves forming testable hypotheses based on theories and using various research methods like experiments, surveys, and case studies to evaluate hypotheses.
2) Different research methods have strengths and limitations - experiments can establish causation but surveys and naturalistic observation only show correlations.
3) Statistical analysis and the concept of statistical significance are important tools to interpret data and determine whether research findings are likely due to chance.
The document summarizes key concepts in psychology research methods. It defines psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The four main goals of psychology are described as description, control, understanding, and prediction. Scientific methods like the scientific method, hypotheses, theories, experiments with variables, groups, and blinds are explained. Other research methods like clinical studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys are also outlined. Different types of populations studied like case studies, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional studies are defined.
The document discusses various research methods used in psychology and science, including surveys, case studies, and experiments. It provides details on how each method works, its advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses key concepts in research such as correlations, the scientific method, ethics of research on humans and animals, and issues around informed consent.
This document discusses different types of research designs, specifically experiments. It covers key components of experimental designs like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, pre-testing and post-testing. Various threats to internal and external validity are explained, such as history, maturation, testing, instrumentation. Different experimental designs are presented like one-group pre-test post-test, static-group comparison. Strengths and weaknesses of experiments are that they allow manipulation and control but can lack generalizability and be expensive. Validity is important to evaluate whether conclusions can be supported.
Developmental psychology studies changes across the lifespan. Prenatal development involves three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. During the embryonic stage, major physical structures and organs form. The fetal stage lasts until birth, when growth and brain development occur. Babies are born with the capacity for all senses and reflex behaviors controlled by the spinal cord. Attachment theory holds that infants need contact comfort from caregivers for healthy social-emotional development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes four stages from infancy to adulthood involving changes in cognitive abilities and limitations.
Operant conditioning is a learning process that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. It involves pairing a behavior with a consequence. Behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences, like praise or a reward, are likely to increase, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences, like punishment, tend to decrease. Key aspects of operant conditioning include reinforcement versus punishment, primary versus secondary reinforcers/punishers, and positive versus negative consequences. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts.
Methodology in Psychology for A-Level Classesmind29x
This document provides an overview of various research methods used in psychology, including experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, case study, and survey methods. It defines key terms like hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, validity, reliability, and population and sampling. Experimental methods aim to establish cause and effect and control for confounding variables through random assignment to groups. Correlational methods examine relationships between variables without implying causation. Ethical guidelines established by the APA require voluntary and informed consent from human participants with minimal risk and protected privacy.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychological science research methods. It discusses the importance of psychology as a science and describes common research methods like case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and experimentation. It also covers important statistical and analytical concepts used in psychology like correlation, statistical significance, and making inferences from data. The overall document serves as an introduction to critical thinking and the scientific process in psychology.
This document summarizes a statistics lecture about the research process and why statistics are needed in optometry and vision science. It discusses the steps of evidence-based practice including asking questions, acquiring evidence, appraising evidence, and applying evidence. It also covers generating and testing theories, levels of measurement, measurement error, validity, reliability, types of research such as correlational and experimental research, and methods of data collection and analysis. The goal is to explain the research process and why statistics are an essential tool for evidence-based practice in optometry.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology including:
- The scientific method and how psychologists ask and answer questions through description, correlation, and experimentation.
- Common research methods like surveys, interviews, and longitudinal studies.
- The importance of control groups, random assignment, and double-blind studies in experiments.
- Statistical analysis and making inferences from data through measures like mean, median, standard deviation, and statistical significance.
- Frequently asked questions about the field address topics like laboratory research, cross-cultural comparisons, animal research ethics, and the value-laden nature of psychology.
The document discusses research methods in psychology. It explains that psychology relies on empirical research using observation and experimentation. There are two main types of research - applied research which has practical applications, and basic research which explores questions out of curiosity. Some key research methods discussed include descriptive research using surveys and case studies, correlational research which examines relationships between variables, and experimental research which tests causal relationships by manipulating the independent variable. Important concepts like hypotheses, variables, sampling, ethics are also covered.
This document summarizes key concepts related to experimental and correlational research methods. It discusses the major features of experimental research, including manipulating an independent variable and measuring dependent variables. It also covers correlational research, validity types (construct, internal, external), measurement considerations, and the tradeoff between internal and external validity when generalizing from lab studies.
Science is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the world through objective and evidence-based research. The document discusses key aspects of the scientific method including forming testable hypotheses, conducting experiments and studies, and drawing conclusions from the data while avoiding bias. It provides examples of descriptive research methods like case studies and surveys that observe behaviors, as well as experimental research that tests hypotheses by manipulating variables and using control groups. The importance of reliability, validity, and statistical significance is emphasized when evaluating research findings.
The document discusses key concepts in psychological science including the scientific method, experimental design, correlation versus causation, and research ethics. It provides examples of different research methods like surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observation. It also explains the difference between correlation and causation, defines correlation coefficient, and gives examples of positive, negative, and no correlations. Finally, it discusses important concepts like independent and dependent variables, confounding variables, measures of central tendency and variation in data, and evaluating study results.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology and research methods, including:
- Different approaches to psychology like psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive.
- Common research methods like observation, surveys, experiments, and longitudinal studies.
- Key terms like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups.
- Ethical standards for psychological research involving informed consent and protecting participants.
- Ways of organizing data like frequency distributions, and measures of central tendency and variability like mean, median, and standard deviation.
The document introduces several key concepts in psychology including intuition, common sense, psychological science, critical thinking, the scientific method, theories, hypotheses, research methods, experiments, and statistical analysis. It discusses how psychology aims to provide a scientific understanding of human behavior and mental processes through rigorous empirical study rather than relying solely on intuition or common sense.
The document discusses key concepts in psychological science research methods. It covers the limits of intuition and common sense, the need for the scientific method in psychology, and various research techniques used including case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, experiments, and statistical analysis. Experimental research involves manipulating independent variables, measuring dependent variables, and controlling for other factors. Statistical analysis allows researchers to describe patterns in data and make inferences about populations.
Psychologists use the scientific method to construct testable theories about human behavior and mental processes. This involves making careful observations, developing hypotheses and operational definitions, conducting experiments and studies while controlling for biases and alternative explanations, analyzing results statistically, and replicating findings. The goal is to gain objective knowledge about psychological phenomena while recognizing the limitations of any particular study or perspective.
Psychologists use the scientific method to construct testable theories about human behavior and mental processes. This involves making observations, developing hypotheses and theories, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions. Critical thinking is important in psychology to avoid biases, examine assumptions, and evaluate evidence rather than blindly accepting arguments. Theories are explained using principles and predict observations, while hypotheses make testable predictions.
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a psychology course for week 2. It includes a syllabus, chapters on correlation and experiments, and a section on biology and the brain. The biology section describes the major parts of the brain from the brainstem to the cerebral cortex. It outlines the specialized functions of areas like the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral hemispheres. The document concludes with assigning homework and noting what will be covered in the next week's class.
1) Psychology research aims to understand human behavior scientifically. It relies on empirical research methods to test hypotheses and establish causal relationships.
2) There are several types of descriptive research methods, including case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. However, these are limited because they cannot prove causation.
3) Experimental methods allow researchers to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its impact on the dependent variable. Control groups help rule out alternative explanations.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 1 of Myers' Psychology textbook, including:
1) The scientific method involves forming testable hypotheses based on theories and using various research methods like experiments, surveys, and case studies to evaluate hypotheses.
2) Different research methods have strengths and limitations - experiments can establish causation but surveys and naturalistic observation only show correlations.
3) Statistical analysis and the concept of statistical significance are important tools to interpret data and determine whether research findings are likely due to chance.
The document summarizes key concepts in psychology research methods. It defines psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The four main goals of psychology are described as description, control, understanding, and prediction. Scientific methods like the scientific method, hypotheses, theories, experiments with variables, groups, and blinds are explained. Other research methods like clinical studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys are also outlined. Different types of populations studied like case studies, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional studies are defined.
The document discusses various research methods used in psychology and science, including surveys, case studies, and experiments. It provides details on how each method works, its advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses key concepts in research such as correlations, the scientific method, ethics of research on humans and animals, and issues around informed consent.
This document discusses different types of research designs, specifically experiments. It covers key components of experimental designs like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, pre-testing and post-testing. Various threats to internal and external validity are explained, such as history, maturation, testing, instrumentation. Different experimental designs are presented like one-group pre-test post-test, static-group comparison. Strengths and weaknesses of experiments are that they allow manipulation and control but can lack generalizability and be expensive. Validity is important to evaluate whether conclusions can be supported.
Developmental psychology studies changes across the lifespan. Prenatal development involves three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. During the embryonic stage, major physical structures and organs form. The fetal stage lasts until birth, when growth and brain development occur. Babies are born with the capacity for all senses and reflex behaviors controlled by the spinal cord. Attachment theory holds that infants need contact comfort from caregivers for healthy social-emotional development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes four stages from infancy to adulthood involving changes in cognitive abilities and limitations.
Operant conditioning is a learning process that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. It involves pairing a behavior with a consequence. Behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences, like praise or a reward, are likely to increase, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences, like punishment, tend to decrease. Key aspects of operant conditioning include reinforcement versus punishment, primary versus secondary reinforcers/punishers, and positive versus negative consequences. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts.
Classical conditioning is the process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and responses. It involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response. Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus and comes to elicit the same response, which is now called the conditioned response. The neutral stimulus is now termed the conditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning involves identifying the unconditioned stimulus and response, acquiring the association through repeated pairings, checking for learning by presenting just the now conditioned stimulus, and changing the stimulus and response titles if learning has occurred. Examples are provided to demonstrate the classical conditioning process.
The standard memory model describes the process of forming a memory through three stages:
1. Sensory memory encodes events through the senses for 1-2 seconds before the information either fades or moves to short-term memory through paying attention.
2. Short-term memory holds 5-9 items for about 30 seconds before they either fade or move to long-term memory. The total time hypothesis suggests that thinking about an item over multiple sessions increases the chances it will move to long-term memory.
3. Long-term memory seemingly has unlimited capacity and can store memories forever once encoded, though retrieval is needed to determine if information was successfully consolidated into long-term memory.
The document provides instructions for navigating Blackboard and accessing course content. From the calendar page, students can click quick links like "Course Documents" which includes the syllabus and schedule. To access weekly content, students click "Weekly Modules & Content" and then the relevant module and week. Within each week's contents is a "Table of Contents" to navigate assignments. Students click the top item or use arrows to open the table of contents and click assignments to launch them. Registered access codes may be needed to access external activities.
The document provides instructions for navigating Blackboard and accessing course content. From the calendar page, students can click quick links like "Course Documents" which includes the syllabus and schedule. Students can also access content by clicking "Weekly Modules & Content" and then the relevant module and week. Within each week's contents, there should be a "Table of Contents" to help navigate that week's materials. Students click the items in the table of contents to launch the content. Some content may require registering an access code.
Cognition involves acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. There are two basic elements of thought: language and mental pictures. The brain organizes information into concepts, with each concept containing related mental pictures called prototypes that help with thinking about objects that are not present. When encountering new objects, the brain uses either artificial concept logic based on rules or natural concept logic comparing to prototypes to determine what concept an object belongs to. Effective problem solving involves defining the problem, generating options, deciding on the best option, planning its implementation, taking action, and evaluating the outcome. Reasoning can be inductive, making broad generalizations from specific examples, or deductive, making logical predictions from general premises.
This document provides an overview of the key concepts in psychology. It defines psychology as the scientific study of both observable behaviors and non-observable mental processes. The four main goals of psychology are to describe behaviors and mental processes, understand why they occur, predict what triggers them, and influence or change them. The document also outlines several contemporary perspectives in psychology for understanding why behaviors happen, such as biopsychology, behavioral, cognitive, social, and evolutionary approaches. It concludes by explaining that psychology analyzes phenomena at the levels of the brain, individual person, and social groups.
Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli to create conditioned responses. It involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus alone elicits the response.
The document defines key terms in classical conditioning like unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. It provides examples of how classical conditioning works and discusses concepts like stimulus discrimination, stimulus generalization, and extinction. Higher order classical conditioning is described as layering the classical conditioning process by using an existing conditioned stimulus to condition a new neutral stimulus.
Operant conditioning is introduced as involving pairing a behavior with a consequence to shape future behaviors rather than pairing two stimuli as in classical conditioning.
The document describes Robert Sternberg's triangular theory of love, which identifies seven types of love based on combinations of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment. The seven types are: liking (intimacy only), empty love (commitment only), infatuation (passion only), companionate love (intimacy and commitment), fatuous love (passion and commitment), romantic love (passion and intimacy), and consummate love (all three components, described as the ideal type of love).
Therapists use around 400 different types of psychotherapy to treat psychological disorders. The main therapeutic approaches include psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive behavioral, and biological therapies. Psychotherapies aim to help individuals understand and change unhealthy behaviors and thoughts by using techniques like free association, dream interpretation, exposure therapy, cognitive restructuring, and medication management. Therapists work from different theoretical perspectives to help patients improve mental health and functioning.
This document discusses abnormal psychology and defines it as actions, thoughts, and feelings that cause distress and dysfunction. It examines different perspectives on understanding abnormal behavior, such as the psychological, behavioral, neuroscience, cognitive, and group perspectives. It then discusses mood disorders like major depression and bipolar disorder. It analyzes the causes of anxiety disorders and mood disorders from psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and biological viewpoints.
This document provides an overview of different perspectives on personality including psychodynamic, trait, biological, and assessment perspectives. It summarizes Freud's psychodynamic theory including the id, ego, superego and psychosexual stages. It also describes the five-factor model of trait theory and discusses genetic influences on personality. Finally, it provides an overview of self-report and projective personality assessment methods.
Developmental psychology studies patterns of growth and changes throughout the lifespan. There are several periods of development: prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood. Prenatal development involves three stages from conception to birth. During this time, genetics, teratogens, and the environment can impact development. After birth, infants develop physically through reflexes, movement, vision, and other senses. Cognitively, Piaget's stages describe changes from sensorimotor thinking to more advanced thought. Language skills emerge through imitation. Adulthood brings physical and cognitive maturity, though changes also occur. Erikson's stages address psychosocial challenges of intimacy, generativity, and integrity in adul
This document discusses concepts related to sensation and perception from an introductory psychology perspective. It begins by defining sensation as the activation of sense organs by physical stimuli. It then describes the various sensory receptors and modalities humans possess. Thresholds such as absolute threshold and just noticeable difference are explained. The document also outlines the visual system in detail, including parts of the eye and visual pathways. Finally, it discusses perception as the interpretation and meaning-making of sensations, and various perceptual phenomena such as constancies and depth perception.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS has two divisions - the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic division controls voluntary muscles, while the autonomic division controls involuntary functions like digestion. The document then discusses neurons, synapses, and the major structures of the brain such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, hypothalamus and their functions.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in social psychology, including compliance and conformity (examined in Solomon Asch's line judgment experiments), obedience (examined in Stanley Milgram's shock experiments), attitudes and persuasion, attribution theory, aggression, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal attraction, types of love, and prosocial behavior. Social psychology seeks to understand how people think about and relate to one another and how social influences can affect behaviors, feelings, and thoughts.
This document discusses several concepts related to learning in psychology, including:
1. Classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. This is demonstrated through Pavlov's experiment with salivating dogs.
2. Operant conditioning, where behavior is reinforced or punished to increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. Reinforcers can be positive or negative.
3. Cognitive theories of learning emphasize thought processes between stimuli and responses. Tolman's experiments on latent learning in rats demonstrated learning that was not evident until later.
4. Insight learning involves sudden understanding of relationships that allow for rapid problem solving, as Kohler showed with tool-using
This document provides an overview of memory, including the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Topics covered include memory organization, location in the brain, forgetting, interference, and factors that affect retrieval like context. Memory encoding techniques like levels of processing, elaboration, and mental imagery are also examined.
This document provides an overview of chapter 7 from a psychology textbook on thinking, intelligence, and language. The chapter discusses the cognitive revolution in psychology, defines cognition, examines thinking processes like concept formation and problem solving, explores intelligence and language, and defines key terms related to these topics.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
2. 1. We need a full brain to function completely
2. Drinking coffee can help sober you up
3. Reading in dim light can ruin eyesight
4. Overweight kids are still carrying “babyfat” that will melt
away as they grow
5. Kids raised by homosexual parents have higher rates of
homosexuality
6. Women are worse drivers than men
7. Brainstorming ideas as groups is more productive
8. Most people who are abused as kids become abusers
9. The age group at highest risk of suicide is adolescents
10. Homicide is more common than suicide
11. Nicotine is less addictive than harder drugs
3. ALL of the questions from the previous slide
are FALSE!
This is why we need the Scientific Method – we need
to verify answers that we think we know.
We might have heard the answers from a parent,
teacher, friend, internet…… they might have been
right, they might have been joking, they might have
been wrong, they might have been lying!
4. Where do your beliefs, knowledge come from?
Rumor, class, parents, friends, religion, can’t
remember, your experiences?
These are NOT always accurate sources.
Scientific Method = STANDARDIZATION!
minimizes error, rumor, & made up stuff
Replication is easier because we are all using the
same steps in the scientific method.
5. Identify Problem
Theory of “WHY/SOLUTION” for a general issue
1. Formulate a testable hypothesis
2. Design study
3. Collect data
4. Analyze data and draw conclusions
5. Report findings
Replication
6. Operationally Define Variables
Choose between research options
Descriptive, Correlation, Experiment
Choose data collection options
S.O.T.L.
Survey (self-report)
Observation
Test Data
Life Outcome Data
7. Operational Definition
Researcher’s description of how the variable will be
used in his/her study.
Reason we need one: people interpret things different;
this is a problem for researchers. If I ask 100 people
how much they ate yesterday, one might say 3
(meaning 3 meals) and someone else might say 2,000
(meaning calories). We don’t want participants to
have to interpret the variable, so we do it for them.
What we need to define:
a) Unit of measurement (need to narrow down to 1)
b) What counts (what situations apply/don’t apply here)
8. Unit of measurement
Height
COULD BE: inches, feet, meters, hands (this is how you
measure a horse). In an operational definition you (as
the researcher) get to choose (1) of these. For instance:
Inches.
TV
Could be: how many TVs you have, how many hours
you watch, rate quality of yours 1-10 where 1= terrible
and 10=state of the art. You would need to choose
what unit you will be measuring.
9. What Counts
As a researcher you also need to identify what counts
and what doesn’t count and under what conditions
Height: do I measure with my shoes ON or OFF? Do I
measure to the top of the skull or hair (I might have
spikey hair that gives me 2+ inches)? Do I measure all
slumped over or standing with back against a wall? Do I
measure as of today or 5 years ago before I was done
growing?
TV: do I measure yesterday’s TV viewing or last week’s?
Do I count when the TV was on in the background, but I
was working on my computer? Do I count when the TV
was on but I was napping? Do I count when I was
watching a TV show streaming to my phone or only the
box on the wall?
10. Descriptive
Describes existing variable
Correlational
Looks at Relationships/Associations between two
items (used for future prediction)
Experimental
Looks at causality between items (used for
explanation)
11. Psychologists describe existing behavior or
characteristics of individuals engaging in it
Avg age, education level, number of occurrences,
typical environment, etc
13. Examines the relationship between TWO variables
Variables must be
Continuous
naturally occurring
Relationship description:
Strength
Direction
Used for making future predictions
Measure TWO variables from EACH participant
Scatter-plot
14. Prediction of outcome
Strength and direction
Strength
Mild, moderate, strong
Direction
Positive or Negative (or description)
15. 1. What is your shoe size?
2. What is your current GPA?
1. What is your golf ability (scale of 1-10)?
2. What is your golf handicap score?
1. What is your annual income?
2. What is your weight in lbs?
16. Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure relationship between variables
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Next
17. Positive Negative
X Y X Y X Y X Y
Back
Negative Direction
Examples
• Golf ability & Golf
Score
• Minutes workout &
weight
• Class attendance &
failure rate
Positive Direction
Examples
• Age & Height
• Hours practices &
playing time
• Liquid consumption &
frequency of urination
18. How well one
variable predicts
the other. (0-1)
Closer to 1 = better
predictive ability
Closer to 0 – less
predictive ability
Back
1
2
19. Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
could cause
could cause
or
or
and
20. We cannot make causal statements as there are
TOO many possible cause and effect options
If I want to know cause and effect, I have to
perform an Experiment.
It is set up different – so we are testing (1) possible
cause and effect relationship.
21. Experiment
Method in which one variable is MANIPULATED
under CONTROLLED conditions (IV) and observes
changes in a second variable (DV)
Independent variable (IV) – a condition or event
that is “manipulated” in order to see if it impacts
another variable
Dependant Variable (DV) – variable that is thought
to be affected by the IV (measured by the
experimenter)
26. Prediction of outcome
Cause and effect
Which level of IV would do better/worse than
other(s)
Students taking the test in the No light
condition would receive lower test scores than
those in the low and bright light conditions,
and there would be no difference between
students in the low and bright light conditions.
27. IV
Handedness
DV
“Quality of writing”
How many letters are
“correct” shape
Dominate Hand
Non-Dominate Hand
Compare Those who used Dominate hand to those who
used Non-Dominate hand.
28.
29. Hypothesis: People who smell
“bad” things will not eat as much as
those who do not smell anything
in particular.
½ of you will smell a skunk
½ will not smell anything specific
I am going to keep track of (through observation)
who eats more potato chips in 15 minutes
What is the IV (and levels), what is the DV?
30. IV
Smell in room
Conditions:
Skunk
Nothing in particular
DV
how much eaten
Operational definition: how many individual chips you
eat in the next 15 minutes
31. Experimental Condition(s)
the condition(s) of the IV that exposes participants to
the “active treatment” or the “non-status quo”
Minimum of 1 experimental condition
Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that is the “non-active
treatment” or the “status quo”
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment
Max of 1 control condition
34. Random Assignment
assigning participants levels/conditions of the IV
Assign to levels by chance
each participant has the exact same likelihood of being
placed in ANY of the conditions
minimizes pre-existing differences between those
assigned to the different groups
Works based in Statistical probabilities
35. Placebo Effect
Occurs when changes in behavior are produced by a
cognitive “decision” rather than the IV itself.
To solve:
A “fake” substance or condition administered instead of
an “active” agent, to see if it triggers the effects believed
to characterize the active agent
Double-Blind Procedure
both the research participants and the research staff are
“blind” to whether the research participants have
received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
38. Surveys - Participants are asked direct questions about a given
topic
Example: how intelligent are you on a 1-10 scale where 1=not
at all and 10=most ever
Observation – participants are watched to identify their level
on a topic
Naturalistic – in a natural setting
Laboratory – in a laboratory setting
Test Data – Participants are asked indirect questions about a
given topic
Example: given an IQ test to interpret how intelligent you are
Life Outcome Data – using existing data sources to pull
what we need
Example: use your existing ACT score to use as Intelligence
measurement rather than taking a new one
39. Population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may
be drawn for a study
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population
because each member has an equal chance of
inclusion
Convenience Sample
A sample of the population. Volunteers who
were available to the researcher.
40. Descriptive statistics- summarized data for large
groups of participants.
Measures of Central Tendency-
A number describing a “typical score,” around which
others fall
Mean- average
Add all scores divide by N
Median- midpoint in rank-ordered data
½ scores above, ½ below
Mode- score appearing most often