Recombinant dna
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DNA contains genes that code for proteins and hold the genetic information passed down from parents to offspring. Recombinant DNA technology uses genetic engineering techniques to cut and join DNA molecules from different sources, creating recombinant DNA. This allows for important medical applications such as producing insulin and vaccines through recombinant DNA, treating genetic diseases with gene therapy, and developing pharmacogenomics to tailor drugs to a patient's genetic profile.
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Mitochondrial dna
Mitochondrial DNA is the circular DNA found in mitochondria. It contains 37 genes and is 16,569 base pairs long. Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA is inherited solely from the mother. It replicates through a process called D-loop replication and lacks proofreading, resulting in a high mutation rate. Mitochondrial DNA encodes proteins that are essential components of the oxidative phosphorylation system, which generates energy for the cell.
Mitochondrial dna
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
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Mitochondrial dna
This document discusses the human mitochondrial genome. It notes that mitochondria contain their own small genome, separate from the nuclear genome, that encodes 37 genes. It describes the publication of the sequence of the human mitochondrial genome in 1981, noting features like its compact size and lack of repair mechanisms. The document also discusses the D-loop region of mtDNA, which contains transcription promoters and hypervariable regions used in human population genetics studies. It explains that mitochondrial DNA is only inherited maternally, unlike nuclear DNA which is a mixture of both parents'.
Mt DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is small, circular, double-stranded DNA located in cell mitochondria. It is maternally inherited and does not recombine. mtDNA contains 37 genes essential for mitochondrial function and ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. Compared to nuclear DNA, mtDNA evolves more rapidly, lacks introns, and is not bound in histones. Forensic analysis of mtDNA is useful when evidence is degraded or limited. Methods include DNA extraction, PCR amplification of mtDNA regions, sequencing, and comparing sequences to identify matches or mismatches. mtDNA analysis has applications in fisheries including individual identification, mixed stock analysis, and determining phylogenetic relationships between fish species.
Mitochondrial genome and its manipulation
Mitochondria contain their own DNA and play an essential role in cellular respiration by generating ATP. While small, the mitochondrial genome encodes components of the electron transport chain. Manipulation of the mitochondrial genome holds promise for crop improvement due to maternal inheritance and absence of position effects. However, transforming the mitochondrial genome remains challenging due to difficulties incorporating foreign DNA and a lack of selectable markers. Successful manipulation could generate cytoplasmic male sterility for hybrid seed production.
Mitochondrial DNA Replication
This presentation deals with DNA replication in mamalian mitochondria. Mammalian mtDNA is replicated by proteins distinct from those used for nuclear DNA replication. According to the strand displacement model, replication is initiated from two distinct origins, OH and OL.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering involves artificially manipulating or altering genes by removing a gene from one organism and inserting it into the DNA of another organism. This process involves using restriction enzymes to cut out the gene of interest and using vectors to splice the gene fragment into the recipient organism's DNA, creating a genetically modified organism. Some examples of genetic engineering applications include using E. coli bacteria to produce synthetic insulin for diabetes treatment and genetically modifying rice to produce beta-carotene to address vitamin A deficiencies. However, some genetic engineering techniques like reproductive cloning and stem cell research involving human embryos remain ethically controversial.
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Mitochondrial dna
Mitochondrial DNA is the circular DNA found in mitochondria. It contains 37 genes and is 16,569 base pairs long. Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA is inherited solely from the mother. It replicates through a process called D-loop replication and lacks proofreading, resulting in a high mutation rate. Mitochondrial DNA encodes proteins that are essential components of the oxidative phosphorylation system, which generates energy for the cell.
Mitochondrial dna
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
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Mitochondrial dna
This document discusses the human mitochondrial genome. It notes that mitochondria contain their own small genome, separate from the nuclear genome, that encodes 37 genes. It describes the publication of the sequence of the human mitochondrial genome in 1981, noting features like its compact size and lack of repair mechanisms. The document also discusses the D-loop region of mtDNA, which contains transcription promoters and hypervariable regions used in human population genetics studies. It explains that mitochondrial DNA is only inherited maternally, unlike nuclear DNA which is a mixture of both parents'.
Mt DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is small, circular, double-stranded DNA located in cell mitochondria. It is maternally inherited and does not recombine. mtDNA contains 37 genes essential for mitochondrial function and ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. Compared to nuclear DNA, mtDNA evolves more rapidly, lacks introns, and is not bound in histones. Forensic analysis of mtDNA is useful when evidence is degraded or limited. Methods include DNA extraction, PCR amplification of mtDNA regions, sequencing, and comparing sequences to identify matches or mismatches. mtDNA analysis has applications in fisheries including individual identification, mixed stock analysis, and determining phylogenetic relationships between fish species.
Mitochondrial genome and its manipulation
Mitochondria contain their own DNA and play an essential role in cellular respiration by generating ATP. While small, the mitochondrial genome encodes components of the electron transport chain. Manipulation of the mitochondrial genome holds promise for crop improvement due to maternal inheritance and absence of position effects. However, transforming the mitochondrial genome remains challenging due to difficulties incorporating foreign DNA and a lack of selectable markers. Successful manipulation could generate cytoplasmic male sterility for hybrid seed production.
Mitochondrial DNA Replication
This presentation deals with DNA replication in mamalian mitochondria. Mammalian mtDNA is replicated by proteins distinct from those used for nuclear DNA replication. According to the strand displacement model, replication is initiated from two distinct origins, OH and OL.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering involves artificially manipulating or altering genes by removing a gene from one organism and inserting it into the DNA of another organism. This process involves using restriction enzymes to cut out the gene of interest and using vectors to splice the gene fragment into the recipient organism's DNA, creating a genetically modified organism. Some examples of genetic engineering applications include using E. coli bacteria to produce synthetic insulin for diabetes treatment and genetically modifying rice to produce beta-carotene to address vitamin A deficiencies. However, some genetic engineering techniques like reproductive cloning and stem cell research involving human embryos remain ethically controversial.
Genomics
This document provides information about genomics and its various applications. It discusses the history of genomics including key figures like Hans Winkler, Tom Roderick and Frederick Sanger. It describes different areas of genomics like structural, functional, comparative and mutational genomics. It also discusses the human genome project, its goals and applications in healthcare, agriculture and forensics. In healthcare, genomics is helping in early disease detection, diagnosis and targeted therapies. The document highlights success in advancing cancer research and treatments.
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1. Biotechnology relies on restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. Different enzymes cut DNA in different ways, leaving either blunt or sticky ends. Restriction maps show the lengths of DNA fragments cut by these enzymes.
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1. What did researchers find when they sequenced the centromeres of Arabidopsis? Why was this finding surprising?
Ans: Before the Arabidopsis sequences were obtained it was thought that these repeat sequences were by far the principal component of centromeric DNA. However, Arabidopsis centromeres also contain multiple copies of genome-wide repeats, along with a few genes, the latter at a density of 7–9 per 100 kb compared with 25 genes per 100 kb for the noncentromeric regions of Arabidopsis chromosomes. The discovery that centromeric DNA contains genes was a big surprise because it was thought that these regions were genetically inactive.
2. What differences in gene distribution and repetitive DNA content are seen when yeast and human chromosomes are compared?
Ans. A typical region of a human chromosome will have few genes (most of which will contain introns), several repeated sequences, and a large amount of nonrepetitive, nongenic DNA. Yeast chromosomes have higher gene densities, with very few genes containing introns, and have few repeated sequences and much less nongenic DNA.
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Ans. These early estimates were high because they were based on the supposition that, in most cases, a single gene specifies a single mRNA and a single protein. According to this model, the number of genes in the human genome should be similar to the number of proteins in human cells, leading to the estimates of 80,000–100,000. The discovery that the number of genes is much lower than this indicates that alternative splicing, the process by which exons from a pre-mRNA are assembled in different combinations so that more than one protein can be coded by a single gene is more prevalent than was originally appreciated.
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Ans. Gene catalogs can be based on the known functions of genes, but such catalogs are incomplete because in most genomes many genes have unknown functions. Gene catalogs that are based on the identities of protein domains coded by genes are more comprehensive as these include many genes whose specific functions are unknown.
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Mitochondrial DNA is circular DNA located in the mitochondria of cells. It is 16kb in size and encodes 37 genes. Mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother and differs from nuclear DNA in several key ways, such as being maternally inherited only. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can cause diseases often involving the central nervous system or musculoskeletal system. The high mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA is due to lack of protective histones and DNA repair mechanisms.
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- Genetics is the study of genes, how they carry information and are expressed. A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes a functional product like a protein.
- DNA is a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides that is replicated semi-conservatively. It is copied by DNA polymerase in the 5' to 3' direction on both the leading and lagging strands.
- DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins. Transcription occurs from 5' to 3' using RNA polymerase and starts at a promoter sequence, while translation uses mRNA to join amino
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Heredity and evolution
1. Genes are pieces of DNA that contain instructions for traits and are made up of different arrangements of bases including adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
2. DNA carries hereditary information in the form of genes on structures called chromosomes in cell nuclei. It directs the synthesis of proteins through a process involving transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins.
3. Mutations, or changes in genes, over time due to errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens can lead to evolution as mutations result in hereditary changes and variations between organisms that natural selection can act upon.
Recombinant of DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology involves extracting DNA from different sources and joining them together, such as combining animal and bacterial DNA. It is used in genetic engineering to artificially recombine DNA from different organisms. Key applications include producing the enzymes chymosin for cheese making and insulin for diabetes treatment, as well as blood clotting factor VIII and vaccines. Recombinant DNA technology is important for basic research and has led to safer, more effective and abundant medical products.
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The document summarizes recombinant DNA technology and its applications in drug discovery. It discusses how recombinant DNA technology uses restriction enzymes and DNA ligase to isolate, insert, and clone desired genes. Vectors like plasmids, phages, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes are used to introduce recombinant DNA into host cells for replication. This allows large-scale production of proteins. Applications include insulin production, monoclonal antibody technology, gene therapy, and oligonucleotide therapy for diseases like cancer and muscular dystrophy.
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The document discusses genomic concepts including:
- Genomics is the study of genomes including large chromosomal segments containing many genes. Functional genomics aims to deduce information about DNA function.
- The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs with about 3% coding for proteins. Genome size is measured in picograms or base pair number and complexity is distinct from length.
- Chromosomal organization differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes possess multiple linear chromosomes packed into complexes while prokaryotes have single circular chromosomes.
- Much non-coding DNA in large genomes includes introns, regulatory elements, repeats and intergenic sequences. Nucleic acid thermodynamics
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This document discusses genome size variation in organisms. It begins by defining the genome and describing genome organization in prokaryotes, viruses and eukaryotes. In eukaryotes, DNA is organized into chromosomes within the nucleus. The document then describes models of chromatin fiber structure and components of the nucleosome. It explains that genome size refers to the total DNA content and can be measured in picograms or megabases. Genome size varies significantly between plant species from 130 Mbp in Arabidopsis to 2.5 Gbp in maize. Factors influencing genome size include cell size, developmental rate, transposable elements and chromosomal mutations.
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Unit 9 Manipulating Dna
1. Biotechnology relies on restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. Different enzymes cut DNA in different ways, leaving either blunt or sticky ends. Restriction maps show the lengths of DNA fragments cut by these enzymes.
2. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies specific DNA sequences. It uses DNA polymerase to copy short DNA segments billions of times over, by cycling between high and low temperatures.
3. DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals by analyzing variations in noncoding DNA regions containing repeating sequences. The probability that any two individuals will have identical fingerprints across multiple regions is very small.
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The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
Nuclear Genomes(Short Answers and questions)
1. What did researchers find when they sequenced the centromeres of Arabidopsis? Why was this finding surprising?
Ans: Before the Arabidopsis sequences were obtained it was thought that these repeat sequences were by far the principal component of centromeric DNA. However, Arabidopsis centromeres also contain multiple copies of genome-wide repeats, along with a few genes, the latter at a density of 7–9 per 100 kb compared with 25 genes per 100 kb for the noncentromeric regions of Arabidopsis chromosomes. The discovery that centromeric DNA contains genes was a big surprise because it was thought that these regions were genetically inactive.
2. What differences in gene distribution and repetitive DNA content are seen when yeast and human chromosomes are compared?
Ans. A typical region of a human chromosome will have few genes (most of which will contain introns), several repeated sequences, and a large amount of nonrepetitive, nongenic DNA. Yeast chromosomes have higher gene densities, with very few genes containing introns, and have few repeated sequences and much less nongenic DNA.
3. The human genome contains about 50,000 fewer genes than was predicted by many researchers. Why were these initial predictions so high?
Ans. These early estimates were high because they were based on the supposition that, in most cases, a single gene specifies a single mRNA and a single protein. According to this model, the number of genes in the human genome should be similar to the number of proteins in human cells, leading to the estimates of 80,000–100,000. The discovery that the number of genes is much lower than this indicates that alternative splicing, the process by which exons from a pre-mRNA are assembled in different combinations so that more than one protein can be coded by a single gene is more prevalent than was originally appreciated.
4. What are the different methods used to catalog genes? What are the advantages or disadvantages of these methods?
Ans. Gene catalogs can be based on the known functions of genes, but such catalogs are incomplete because in most genomes many genes have unknown functions. Gene catalogs that are based on the identities of protein domains coded by genes are more comprehensive as these include many genes whose specific functions are unknown.
5. What is the function of the different genes in the human globin gene families?
Ans. The globins are the blood proteins that combine to make hemoglobin, each molecule of hemoglobin being made up of two a-type and two b-type globins.The a-globin cluster is located on chromosome 16 and the b-cluster on chromosome 11. Both clusters contain genes that are expressed at different developmental stages and each includes at least one pseudogene. Note that expression of the a-type gene x2 begins in the embryo and continues during the fetal stage; there is no fetal-specific a-type globin. The q pseudogene is expressed but its protein product is inactive. None of the other p
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Mitochondrial DNA is circular DNA located in the mitochondria of cells. It is 16kb in size and encodes 37 genes. Mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother and differs from nuclear DNA in several key ways, such as being maternally inherited only. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can cause diseases often involving the central nervous system or musculoskeletal system. The high mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA is due to lack of protective histones and DNA repair mechanisms.
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- Genetics is the study of genes, how they carry information and are expressed. A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes a functional product like a protein.
- DNA is a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides that is replicated semi-conservatively. It is copied by DNA polymerase in the 5' to 3' direction on both the leading and lagging strands.
- DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins. Transcription occurs from 5' to 3' using RNA polymerase and starts at a promoter sequence, while translation uses mRNA to join amino
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Epigenetics can be used to explain the phenomena that cannot be explained by genetics/genomics, such as the differences between monozygotic twins, which are considered to be genetically identical.
Assignment on Recombinant DNA Technology and Gene Therapy
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Heredity and evolution
1. Genes are pieces of DNA that contain instructions for traits and are made up of different arrangements of bases including adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
2. DNA carries hereditary information in the form of genes on structures called chromosomes in cell nuclei. It directs the synthesis of proteins through a process involving transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins.
3. Mutations, or changes in genes, over time due to errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens can lead to evolution as mutations result in hereditary changes and variations between organisms that natural selection can act upon.
Recombinant of DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology involves extracting DNA from different sources and joining them together, such as combining animal and bacterial DNA. It is used in genetic engineering to artificially recombine DNA from different organisms. Key applications include producing the enzymes chymosin for cheese making and insulin for diabetes treatment, as well as blood clotting factor VIII and vaccines. Recombinant DNA technology is important for basic research and has led to safer, more effective and abundant medical products.
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-- What is a chromosome?
-- How many chromosomes do people have?
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- DNA carries the genetic instructions that are passed from parents to offspring. It controls protein synthesis and regulates gene expression, which allows cells to perform specialized functions. Mutations in DNA can lead to genetic diversity and influence evolution.
How DNA Works Notes
DNA contains genetic instructions that are unique to each organism. DNA is found coiled and bundled in chromosomes inside the nucleus of cells. DNA code is made up of sequences of nucleotide bases that provide instructions for making proteins, which determine traits. Mutations can occur randomly when DNA is copied or due to damage, sometimes resulting in new traits but often causing harm. Genetic engineering and DNA fingerprinting are important applications of our understanding of genetics.
Dna technology
DNA sequencing involves extracting DNA from cells, cutting it into fragments using restriction enzymes, separating the fragments by size via electrophoresis, and determining the order of nucleotide bases by detecting labeled fragments. The human genome project aimed to sequence all human DNA across our 46 chromosomes to map gene locations and better understand genetic diseases and traits. Benefits include medical advances through improved disease prevention, gene therapies, and protein production for medicine and industry.
Biotechnology and its fundamental final (1).ppt
DNA carries genetic information and consists of two strands linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. DNA can be cloned by inserting a foreign gene into a bacterial plasmid, which is then taken up by bacteria and replicated along with the plasmid. This results in multiple copies of the gene of interest that can be harvested and used for research or applications such as producing therapeutic proteins.
biotech.ppt
DNA carries genetic information and consists of two strands linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. DNA can be cloned by inserting a foreign gene into a bacterial plasmid, which is then inserted into bacteria to produce multiple copies of the gene. Gene cloning is useful for basic research and applications such as producing proteins, altering organisms, and treating diseases.
Biochemppt
Chromosomes differ between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes within a nucleus. Eukaryotic chromosomes also contain proteins like histones that package the DNA. Gene expression is regulated at transcription and post-transcription levels. In prokaryotes, operons and regulatory proteins control transcription initiation in response to the environment. Eukaryotes use general and specific transcription factors to regulate gene expression and development.
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Recombinant dna
- 2. What is DNA? DNA= Deoxyribu-Nucelic Acid • DNA is a very large molecule, made up of smaller units called nucleotides • Each nucleotide has three parts: a sugar (ribose), a phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base. • The nitrogenous base is the part of the nucleotide that carries genetic information • The bases found in DNA are four: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine ( ATP, CTP, GTP, and TTP)
- 3. What is gene? • A gene is a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein that has a function in the organism. • It is a unit of heredity in a living organism.. All living things depend on genes • Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.
- 4. What are gene components? • Genes contain: EXONS: a set of coding regions… INTRONS: Non-coding regions removed sequence and are therefore labeled split genes (splicing).
- 5. What is the genome? • The genetic complement of an organism, including all of its GENES, as represented in its DNA
- 6. What is the gene expression? • Is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product ( proteins) • The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes , prokaryotes , and viruses - to generate the macromolecular machinery for life.
- 7. Steps of gene expression • (1) Transcription (mRNA synthesis), • (2) Post-transcriptional process (RNA splicing), • (3) Translation (protein synthesis) • (4)post-translational modification of a protein.
- 8. What are the genetic changes? • An alteration in a segment of DNA, which can disturb a gene's behavior and sometimes leads to disease. • It may be: • (1) Small genetic change, genetic drift (mutation) • (2) large genetic change, genetic shift (recombination)
- 9. What is mutation? • Are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals,
- 10. What is recombination? • The exchange of corresponding DNA segments between adjacent chromosomes during the special type of cell division that results in the production of new genetic make up...
- 11. Recombinant DNA technology In vitro recombination Genetic engineering Genetic surgery
- 12. In genetic engineering, recombination can also refer to artificial and deliberate recombination of pieces of DNA, from different organisms, creating what is called recombinant DNA.
- 13. Application of genetic engineering in Medicine (1) Treatment of genetic diseases (gene therapy) • e.g. SCID girl
- 14. (2) Production of medically useful biologicals (e.g. insulin) Recombinant Human Growth Hormone Recombinant insulin (Humulin)
- 15. (3) Vaccines production • Firstly, the gene in a pathogenic virus that stimulates protective immunity should be identified. • That portion of DNA is then isolated and incorporated into an established harmless virus (e.g. vaccinia virus).
- 16. • This new recombinant virus is used as a vaccine. • These vaccines are much safer since they do not expose the patients to the actual virus and do not risk to infection. • This method may be useful in vaccines against malaria and schistosomiasis and many viruses (e.g. HBV)
- 17. (4) Pharmacogenomics Deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression with a drug's efficacy or toxicity
- 18. Design drugs adapted to an individual's genetic make-up
- 19. • Write in details about the medical applications of recombinant DNA technology
- 20. Recombinant DNA technology ppt alhefzi.com/G34/Molecular/Recombinant %20DNA.ppt นายรักษิต สุขโต เลขที่ 38 ม.6/3