Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions to generate ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase where glucose is phosphorylated and the payoff phase where energy is generated. Glycolysis is regulated by hormones and key enzymes. The fate of pyruvate includes conversion to lactate or acetyl-CoA to feed into the TCA cycle. Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway are important glucose production and antioxidant pathways respectively.
description about RBC membrane and its structural peculiarities,how it differs from other cells of our body. How this specialized cell manage homeostasis and function in a well defined manner. This presentation will also help in understanding various RBC storage lesions ,an important aspect of blood banking.
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate or lactate with ATP production. Glycolysis can occur aerobically or anaerobically. It then covers gluconeogenesis, the TCA cycle, and glycogen metabolism. It discusses the regulation and clinical significance of these pathways, along with diseases associated with defects in carbohydrate metabolism such as glycogen storage diseases and G6PD deficiency. The pentose phosphate, glucuronic acid, and alcohol metabolism pathways are also summarized.
age of blood products in tranfusion medicine.pptxvadivelaru
This document discusses the storage lesion that occurs in red blood cells during storage. As red blood cells are stored, their metabolism continues which causes a build up of lactic acid and drop in pH. This impairs glycolysis and causes levels of ATP, 2,3-DPG, and NADH to decrease over time. Loss of 2,3-DPG affects the oxygen carrying capacity while decreased NADH increases oxidative stress. Additional changes include damage to the cell membrane from oxidation, loss of deformability, and formation of microvesicles that can reduce nitric oxide levels after transfusion. The storage lesion ultimately reduces red blood cell viability and function.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and the regulation of blood glucose. It covers topics such as the hexose monophosphate shunt pathway, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, the Cori cycle, and factors that regulate blood glucose levels including hormones like insulin, glucagon, cortisol and adrenaline. The liver plays a central role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose concentrations to maintain homeostasis.
Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down to pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions to generate ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase where glucose is phosphorylated and the payoff phase where energy is generated. Glycolysis is regulated by hormones and key enzymes. The fate of pyruvate includes conversion to lactate or acetyl-CoA to feed into the TCA cycle. Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway are important glucose production and antioxidant pathways respectively.
description about RBC membrane and its structural peculiarities,how it differs from other cells of our body. How this specialized cell manage homeostasis and function in a well defined manner. This presentation will also help in understanding various RBC storage lesions ,an important aspect of blood banking.
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate or lactate with ATP production. Glycolysis can occur aerobically or anaerobically. It then covers gluconeogenesis, the TCA cycle, and glycogen metabolism. It discusses the regulation and clinical significance of these pathways, along with diseases associated with defects in carbohydrate metabolism such as glycogen storage diseases and G6PD deficiency. The pentose phosphate, glucuronic acid, and alcohol metabolism pathways are also summarized.
age of blood products in tranfusion medicine.pptxvadivelaru
This document discusses the storage lesion that occurs in red blood cells during storage. As red blood cells are stored, their metabolism continues which causes a build up of lactic acid and drop in pH. This impairs glycolysis and causes levels of ATP, 2,3-DPG, and NADH to decrease over time. Loss of 2,3-DPG affects the oxygen carrying capacity while decreased NADH increases oxidative stress. Additional changes include damage to the cell membrane from oxidation, loss of deformability, and formation of microvesicles that can reduce nitric oxide levels after transfusion. The storage lesion ultimately reduces red blood cell viability and function.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and the regulation of blood glucose. It covers topics such as the hexose monophosphate shunt pathway, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, the Cori cycle, and factors that regulate blood glucose levels including hormones like insulin, glucagon, cortisol and adrenaline. The liver plays a central role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose concentrations to maintain homeostasis.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It covers topics like glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis and breakdown, the pentose phosphate pathway, and digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. For glycolysis, it describes the pathway, regulation in liver and muscle, energetics, and disorders. For gluconeogenesis, it outlines the pathway and significance of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol and amino acids. It also discusses glycogen synthesis and breakdown in liver and muscle, including regulation and storage diseases.
This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
The document summarizes the hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP pathway), also known as the pentose phosphate pathway. It has three main functions: 1) supply NADPH, 2) convert hexoses to pentoses, and 3) enable complete oxidation of pentoses. NADPH functions as an electron donor in biosynthetic reactions, unlike NADH which generates ATP. The pathway occurs in the cytosol and is important in tissues that synthesize fatty acids and steroids, as it provides the required NADPH. Glucose utilization via this pathway varies between tissues and is higher in liver, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause
Glycogen is a branched polysaccharide made of glucose units that is stored in the liver and muscles. It serves as a readily available source of glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are regulated by hormones and enzymes to maintain blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Glycolysis is the pathway for oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. It occurs in the cytosol and consists of three phases: priming, splitting, and oxidative. In the priming phase, glucose is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate using two ATP molecules. The splitting phase produces two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Oxidation of these yields two pyruvate, two NADH, and generates a net of two ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions or 38 ATP under aerobic respiration. Key regulatory enzymes are phosphofructokinase-1 and pyruvate kinase.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
This document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism pathways including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, glycogen metabolism, gluconeogenesis, the hexose monophosphate shunt, galactose metabolism, fructose metabolism, and the uronic acid pathway. It also discusses regulation and energy production in these pathways. Inherited disorders involving glycogen storage diseases are summarized at the end.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for glucose oxidation. It is more anabolic in nature and concerned with biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses. Approximately 10% of glucose enters this pathway daily, with the liver and RBCs metabolizing around 30% of glucose through this pathway. The HMP shunt occurs in the cytosol and generates NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate, which are important for lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid synthesis. No ATP is directly utilized or produced in the HMP shunt.
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with definitions of nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis. For each pathway, it outlines the key reactions and clinical aspects. It also discusses the roles of hormones in regulating carbohydrate metabolism and diseases related to defects in glycogen storage and metabolism. In summary, the document comprehensively reviews carbohydrate nutrition and the major catabolic and anabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism in the human body.
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the main pathways involved including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycogen metabolism, gluconeogenesis, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and others. Details are given on the steps, regulation, and biological importance of these pathways. The document also covers topics such as glycogen storage diseases, fructose and galactose metabolism, and inherited disorders of carbohydrate metabolism.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and uronic acid pathway. For each pathway, it describes the key reactions, regulation, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical significance. The document is a comprehensive review of carbohydrate metabolism from a biochemical perspective.
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the digestion, absorption, and utilization of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate digestion occurs via salivary and pancreatic amylases in the mouth and small intestine, breaking down starches and glycogen into disaccharides and trisaccharides that are then further broken down by intestinal enzymes. Absorption occurs mainly in the jejunum via both active and facilitated transport. Glucose is then distributed to tissues via the bloodstream and undergoes glycolysis and other pathways to produce energy or be used for biosynthesis. Glycolysis is discussed in detail, including its regulation by key enzymes and hormones.
RBCs are biconcave disks that are 62.5% water, 35% hemoglobin, and 2.5% other substances. Their membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer and integral proteins like band-3 and glycophorins. The membrane skeleton, made of spectrin and ankyrin, maintains the biconcave shape and anchors the lipid bilayer. RBCs primarily use glucose through the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway to generate ATP for metabolism. Erythropoiesis occurs in three stages - the mesoblastic, hepatic, and medullary stages - and is influenced by hormones, nutrients, and other environmental factors.
RBCs are biconcave disks that are 62.5% water, 35% hemoglobin, and 2.5% other substances. Their membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer and integral proteins like band-3 and glycophorins. The membrane skeleton, made of spectrin and ankyrin, maintains the biconcave shape and anchors the lipid bilayer. RBCs primarily use glucose through the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway to generate ATP for metabolism. Erythropoiesis occurs in three stages - the mesoblastic, hepatic, and medullary stages - and is regulated by factors like erythropoietin and nutrients.
This document summarizes key aspects of biochemistry and biophysics related to the human lens. It discusses how the lens generates ATP through anaerobic glycolysis of glucose since it exists in a hypoxic environment. It also describes sugar metabolism pathways including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the sorbitol pathway. Protein metabolism and the role of glutathione in maintaining lens clarity are summarized. Additionally, the document outlines antioxidant defenses in the lens and mechanisms of light transmission, transparency, and the lens's optical properties which allow it to focus light.
Carbohydrate metabolism & Interconnection of Metabolism with Respiratory chainDr.Subir Kumar
This document provides an overview of various topics related to metabolism including anabolism, catabolism, the purpose of metabolism, energy metabolism, the paradigm of metabolism, bioenergetics, energy phosphate compounds, ATP-ADP cycle, the role of ATP in bioenergetics, carbohydrate metabolism, intermediary metabolism of glucose, the glucose pool, glucose homeostasis, the glucostatic functions of the liver, the metabolic fates of glucose, types of metabolic reactions, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain, gluconeogenesis, the Cory cycle, the glucose-alanine cycle, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and their importance.
Glycogen storage diseases are caused by defects in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism, leading to abnormal glycogen deposition. Von Gierke's disease is caused by glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency, resulting in fasting hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, hyperlipidemia, and hyperuricemia. The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and pentoses, which are important for lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid synthesis. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency can cause hemolytic anemia when exposed to oxidative drugs due to the inability to maintain glutathione levels without NADPH production.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major metabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, and others. For each pathway, it provides details on the reactions, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical aspects. It also discusses the role of hormones in carbohydrate metabolism and dental aspects. The document concludes with a summary and references section.
The document provides information on metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It begins with an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and location in the cytoplasm. Key details are provided on the regulation of three glycolytic enzymes: hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase. The document then discusses the fates of pyruvate, including its conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle or fermentation pathways. An overview of the citric acid cycle follows, along with its regulation and role in ATP production. The electron transport chain is then introduced, along with the structures and functions of its four complexes. In summary
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism. It covers topics like glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis and breakdown, the pentose phosphate pathway, and digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. For glycolysis, it describes the pathway, regulation in liver and muscle, energetics, and disorders. For gluconeogenesis, it outlines the pathway and significance of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol and amino acids. It also discusses glycogen synthesis and breakdown in liver and muscle, including regulation and storage diseases.
This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
The document summarizes the hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP pathway), also known as the pentose phosphate pathway. It has three main functions: 1) supply NADPH, 2) convert hexoses to pentoses, and 3) enable complete oxidation of pentoses. NADPH functions as an electron donor in biosynthetic reactions, unlike NADH which generates ATP. The pathway occurs in the cytosol and is important in tissues that synthesize fatty acids and steroids, as it provides the required NADPH. Glucose utilization via this pathway varies between tissues and is higher in liver, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause
Glycogen is a branched polysaccharide made of glucose units that is stored in the liver and muscles. It serves as a readily available source of glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are regulated by hormones and enzymes to maintain blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Glycolysis is the pathway for oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. It occurs in the cytosol and consists of three phases: priming, splitting, and oxidative. In the priming phase, glucose is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate using two ATP molecules. The splitting phase produces two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Oxidation of these yields two pyruvate, two NADH, and generates a net of two ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions or 38 ATP under aerobic respiration. Key regulatory enzymes are phosphofructokinase-1 and pyruvate kinase.
Metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that take place in living cells. It performs four main functions: obtaining energy, converting nutrients into macromolecules, assembling macromolecules, and degrading macromolecules. Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, anabolic, or amphibolic. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA, the entry point into the citric acid cycle. Diseases can impair glycolysis through deficiencies in enzymes like pyruvate kinase or disorders that cause lactic acidosis.
This document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism pathways including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, glycogen metabolism, gluconeogenesis, the hexose monophosphate shunt, galactose metabolism, fructose metabolism, and the uronic acid pathway. It also discusses regulation and energy production in these pathways. Inherited disorders involving glycogen storage diseases are summarized at the end.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for glucose oxidation. It is more anabolic in nature and concerned with biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses. Approximately 10% of glucose enters this pathway daily, with the liver and RBCs metabolizing around 30% of glucose through this pathway. The HMP shunt occurs in the cytosol and generates NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate, which are important for lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid synthesis. No ATP is directly utilized or produced in the HMP shunt.
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with definitions of nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis. For each pathway, it outlines the key reactions and clinical aspects. It also discusses the roles of hormones in regulating carbohydrate metabolism and diseases related to defects in glycogen storage and metabolism. In summary, the document comprehensively reviews carbohydrate nutrition and the major catabolic and anabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism in the human body.
This document provides information on various aspects of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the main pathways involved including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycogen metabolism, gluconeogenesis, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and others. Details are given on the steps, regulation, and biological importance of these pathways. The document also covers topics such as glycogen storage diseases, fructose and galactose metabolism, and inherited disorders of carbohydrate metabolism.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen metabolism, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and uronic acid pathway. For each pathway, it describes the key reactions, regulation, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical significance. The document is a comprehensive review of carbohydrate metabolism from a biochemical perspective.
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the digestion, absorption, and utilization of carbohydrates. Carbohydrate digestion occurs via salivary and pancreatic amylases in the mouth and small intestine, breaking down starches and glycogen into disaccharides and trisaccharides that are then further broken down by intestinal enzymes. Absorption occurs mainly in the jejunum via both active and facilitated transport. Glucose is then distributed to tissues via the bloodstream and undergoes glycolysis and other pathways to produce energy or be used for biosynthesis. Glycolysis is discussed in detail, including its regulation by key enzymes and hormones.
RBCs are biconcave disks that are 62.5% water, 35% hemoglobin, and 2.5% other substances. Their membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer and integral proteins like band-3 and glycophorins. The membrane skeleton, made of spectrin and ankyrin, maintains the biconcave shape and anchors the lipid bilayer. RBCs primarily use glucose through the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway to generate ATP for metabolism. Erythropoiesis occurs in three stages - the mesoblastic, hepatic, and medullary stages - and is influenced by hormones, nutrients, and other environmental factors.
RBCs are biconcave disks that are 62.5% water, 35% hemoglobin, and 2.5% other substances. Their membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer and integral proteins like band-3 and glycophorins. The membrane skeleton, made of spectrin and ankyrin, maintains the biconcave shape and anchors the lipid bilayer. RBCs primarily use glucose through the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway to generate ATP for metabolism. Erythropoiesis occurs in three stages - the mesoblastic, hepatic, and medullary stages - and is regulated by factors like erythropoietin and nutrients.
This document summarizes key aspects of biochemistry and biophysics related to the human lens. It discusses how the lens generates ATP through anaerobic glycolysis of glucose since it exists in a hypoxic environment. It also describes sugar metabolism pathways including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the sorbitol pathway. Protein metabolism and the role of glutathione in maintaining lens clarity are summarized. Additionally, the document outlines antioxidant defenses in the lens and mechanisms of light transmission, transparency, and the lens's optical properties which allow it to focus light.
Carbohydrate metabolism & Interconnection of Metabolism with Respiratory chainDr.Subir Kumar
This document provides an overview of various topics related to metabolism including anabolism, catabolism, the purpose of metabolism, energy metabolism, the paradigm of metabolism, bioenergetics, energy phosphate compounds, ATP-ADP cycle, the role of ATP in bioenergetics, carbohydrate metabolism, intermediary metabolism of glucose, the glucose pool, glucose homeostasis, the glucostatic functions of the liver, the metabolic fates of glucose, types of metabolic reactions, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain, gluconeogenesis, the Cory cycle, the glucose-alanine cycle, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and their importance.
Glycogen storage diseases are caused by defects in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism, leading to abnormal glycogen deposition. Von Gierke's disease is caused by glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency, resulting in fasting hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, hyperlipidemia, and hyperuricemia. The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and pentoses, which are important for lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid synthesis. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency can cause hemolytic anemia when exposed to oxidative drugs due to the inability to maintain glutathione levels without NADPH production.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major metabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, and others. For each pathway, it provides details on the reactions, enzymes involved, energy production, and some clinical aspects. It also discusses the role of hormones in carbohydrate metabolism and dental aspects. The document concludes with a summary and references section.
The document provides information on metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It begins with an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and location in the cytoplasm. Key details are provided on the regulation of three glycolytic enzymes: hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase. The document then discusses the fates of pyruvate, including its conversion to acetyl-CoA and entry into the citric acid cycle or fermentation pathways. An overview of the citric acid cycle follows, along with its regulation and role in ATP production. The electron transport chain is then introduced, along with the structures and functions of its four complexes. In summary
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Basics of Electrocardiogram
CONTENTS
●Conduction System of the Heart
●What is ECG or EKG?
●ECG Leads
●Normal waves of ECG.
●Dimensions of ECG.
● Abnormalities of ECG
CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART
ECG:
●ECG is a graphic record of the electrical activity of the heart.
●Electrical activity precedes the mechanical activity of the heart.
●Electrical activity has two phases:
Depolarization- contraction of muscle
Repolarization- relaxation of muscle
ECG Leads:
●6 Chest leads
●6 Limb leads
1. Bipolar Limb Leads:
Lead 1- Between right arm(-ve) and left arm(+ve)
Lead 2- Between right arm(-ve) and left leg(+ve)
Lead 3- Between left arm(-ve)
and left leg(+ve)
2. Augmented unipolar Limb Leads:
AvR- Right arm
AvL- Left arm
AvF- Left leg
3.Chest Leads:
V1 : Over 4th intercostal
space near right sternal margin
V2: Over 4th intercostal space near left sternal margin
V3:In between V2 and V4
V4:Over left 5th intercostal space on the mid
clavicular line
V5:Over left 5th intercostal space on the anterior
axillary line
V6:Over left 5th intercostal space on the mid
axillary line.
Normal ECG:
Waves of ECG:
P Wave
•P Wave is a positive wave and the first wave in ECG.
•It is also called as atrial complex.
Cause: Atrial depolarisation
Duration: 0.1 sec
QRS Complex:
•QRS’ complex is also called the initial ventricular complex.
•‘Q’ wave is a small negative wave. It is continued as the tall ‘R’ wave, which is a positive wave.
‘R’ wave is followed by a small negative wave, the ‘S’ wave.
Cause:Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization
Duration: 0.08- 0.10 sec
T Wave:
•‘T’ wave is the final ventricular complex and is a positive wave.
Cause:Ventricular repolarization Duration: 0.2 sec
Intervals and Segments of ECG:
P-R Interval:
•‘P-R’ interval is the interval
between the onset of ‘P’wave and onset of ‘Q’ wave.
•‘P-R’ interval cause atrial depolarization and conduction of impulses through AV node.
Duration:0.18 (0.12 to 0.2) sec
Q-T Interval:
•‘Q-T’ interval is the interval between the onset of ‘Q’
wave and the end of ‘T’ wave.
•‘Q-T’ interval indicates the ventricular depolarization
and ventricular repolarization,
i.e. it signifies the
electrical activity in ventricles.
Duration:0.4-0.42sec
S-T Segment:
•‘S-T’ segment is the time interval between the end of ‘S’ wave and the onset of ‘T’ wave.
Duration: 0.08 sec
R-R Interval:
•‘R-R’ interval is the time interval between two consecutive ‘R’ waves.
•It signifies the duration of one cardiac cycle.
Duration: 0.8 sec
Dimension of ECG:
How to find heart rhytm of the heart?
Regular rhytm:
Irregular rhytm:
More than or less than 4
How to find heart rate using ECG?
If heart Rhytm is Regular :
Heart rate =
300/No.of large b/w 2 QRS complex
= 300/4
=75 beats/mins
How to find heart rate using ECG?
If heart Rhytm is irregular:
Heart rate = 10×No.of QRS complex in 6 sec 5large box = 1sec
5×6=30
10×7 = 70 Beats/min
Abnormalities of ECG:
Cardiac Arrythmias:
1.Tachycardia
Heart Rate more than 100 beats/min
1. RBC metabolism and G6PD
deficiency anaemia and
polycythaemia
Dr. Khushbu Bhalodiya
2. RBC metabolism
● RBCs are complex metabolically active cells using to make ATP and reducing
equivalents to ensure flexibility and O2 delivery.
● Lifespan of RBC is 120 days.
● Neither use Oxygen for Extraction of energy nor synthesizes protein
● Mainly anaerobic, RBC have to deliver not consume O2
● No nucleus /no mitochondria
● Divided into anaerobic glycolysis and Three ancillary pathways
3. ● RBCs contain no mitochondria, so there is no respiratory chain, no citric acid
cycle, no oxidation of fatty acids or ketone bodies.
● The RBC is highly dependent upon glucose is its energy source.
● Energy in form of ATP is Obtained only from the glycolytic breakdown of
glucose with the production of Lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis).
4. Glucose transport to RBC Membrane
Glucose is transported through RBC membrane by facilitated diffusion through
glucose transporters (GLUT1).
5. Glycolysis
Importance of Glycolysis in red cells
● Energy production : it’s the only pathway that supplies the red cell with ATP.
● Reduction of meeting methemoglobin : Glycolyses provides NADH for
reduction of methemoglobin by NADH Cytob5 reductase
● In red cells 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate binds to Hb, decreasing its affinity for
oxygen and helps its availability to tissues.
6.
7. Utilisation of ATP
● Phosphorylation of sugars in proteins
● ATPase driven ion pumps
● Maintenance of membrane asymmetry
● Maintenance of red cell shape and deformability using ATP dependent
cytoskeleton
8. Meth haemoglobin reductase pathway
● Maintains iron in Reduced rate for effective transport of oxygen.
● Protect SH group of haemoglobin and membrane proteins from oxidation.
10. Leubering rapoport shunt
● Binding of 2,3DPG to deoxyhaemoglobin stabilise the tense state of
haemoglobin and favours release of oxygen
● Free 2,3 DPG also binds with band 3 and causes partial detachment of
membrane from cytoskeleton allowing lateral movement of membrane
structure.
11. Pentose phosphate pathway
● Production of NADPH which is reducing power
● Glutathione is needed in reduced from for :
○ Elimination of peroxidase
○ Protection of proteins SH group
● This shunt also provide ribose 5 phosphate needed for PRPP (substrate for
adenine nucleotides required for continuing ATP synthesis)