1) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is highly prevalent, affecting approximately 2% of the population annually, yet it often goes undiagnosed.
2) GAD frequently presents with medically unexplained symptoms like insomnia or pain rather than anxiety itself, making it challenging to diagnose. It also commonly co-occurs with other psychiatric or medical conditions.
3) While GAD has a substantial personal and economic burden, primary care physicians correctly diagnose it in only about one-third of cases. Better physician education is needed to improve recognition and management of GAD.
This document reviews bipolar disorder and other mood disorders in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). It finds that while depression is the most common psychiatric disorder in MS, occurring in about 50% of patients, literature on other disorders like bipolar disorder is more scarce. Rates of bipolar disorder in MS range from 0.3-32% in different studies. The purpose is to provide a critical review of recent findings on the relationship between MS and mood disorders beyond depression, including bipolar disorder, euphoria, and pseudobulbar affect. Key areas explored are epidemiology, comorbidity, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of these disorders in MS patients.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a complex disorder resulting from severe childhood trauma. Recent neurobiological research has provided insights into the brain mechanisms underlying DID and has informed the development of new treatment approaches. Phase-oriented treatment aims to help patients overcome fears of dissociated personality parts and traumatic memories through gradual exposure, with the goal of full personality integration. Promising treatments incorporate elements shown to affect relevant brain regions, such as hypnotherapy, and have been shown to potentially reverse brain changes caused by early trauma. Further research integrating biological and clinical understanding holds hope for more successful treatment outcomes.
Al Power - Dementia beyond disease: Enhancing well beingRunwaySale
This document discusses moving beyond a biomedical model of dementia to focus on enhancing well-being. It notes that antipsychotic drug use is widespread but provides little benefit, and instead risks increasing mortality. A new model defines dementia as a shift in experiencing the world, prioritizing domains like identity, connectedness and meaning over symptom reduction. Culture change is needed to operationalize this philosophy through physical environments, decision-making processes, and personal perspectives that support well-being.
A critical discussion of the focus on the biomedical perspective in the preve...GERATEC
The biomedical focus on dementia brought the phenomena of what was considered a normal part of ageing into the medical and scientific field of interest (Bartlett, R and O’Connor, D. 2010). This perspective comes with a strong focus on neurodegenerative decline and deficits. Even though Alzheimer’s disease was around for more than 70 years since noted by Alois Alzheimer, it was only in the 1980’s that the “disease emerged as an illness category and policy issue” (Lyman, A. 1989). The Nun Study of David A. Snowdon, PhD, which started in 1991, brought a new perspective to the research into dementia. It was discovered during autopsies that people who have lived their lives without any signs of dementia, actually had amyloid plaques and tangles in their brains congruent to people living with dementia (Snowdon, D.A. 2003). Biomedical research is at this stage the primary focus of research into dementia, receiving most of the funding budget. According to an article in Therapy Today (July 2012) in the UK alone, £66 million will be allocated to dementia research by 2015, of which only £13 million is earmarked for social science research. In the WHO report on Dementia, Daviglus M.L. et al of the US National Institutes of Health state that “firm conclusions cannot be drawn about the association of any modifiable risk factor with cognitive decline of Alzheimer disease”.
The importance of the research findings of the biomedical model cannot be underestimated. However, considering the facts that t this point there seems to be nothing that can prevent nor cure Dementia, I am of the opinion that more research and funding should focused on creating a life worth living for people who live with dementia.
This document discusses schizophrenia using a biopsychosocial model. It addresses evidence for brain localization in schizophrenia, genetic factors, and environmental factors. Schizophrenia is a disabling brain disorder affecting self and social functioning. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech. Causes likely involve genetic and environmental factors. Treatment focuses on symptom management using medication and psychosocial support. Studies show common biological mechanisms between schizophrenia and depression. Research also provides preliminary evidence of brain localization and genetic risk factors for schizophrenia.
Dimensional versus categorical classification of mental disorders in the fift...Chloe Taracatac
This document discusses the limitations of categorical classification of mental disorders in the DSM and argues for incorporating dimensional elements. It suggests introducing dimensional severity ratings to existing diagnostic categories as an initial step. This would help address issues like failing to capture individual differences in severity and clinically significant subthreshold features. The document also discusses determining the optimal level for incorporating dimensions, such as at the disorder construct level or for higher order dimensions, and developing an assessment system that can be reliably implemented.
Health Psychology Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Lossijtsrd
This article discusses the psychological adjustment of adults to severe or incurable diseases or other loss. The stress that results from a diagnosis of illness or loss depends on many factors, such as the beliefs of each individual and the social context. Considering the diversity of human perceptions, feelings and behaviors, it was considered important for the present study to include a theory of stress and treatment related to physical illness. At the center of attention are end stage individuals, not their organic problems but mainly their psychological state and that of their families. Reference is then made to the loss of loved one and the period of mourning. As regards the disease response, there is a difference between the immediate reaction to loss, what we call mourning, and the adaptation to a new way of life without the loved one. Finally, the role of therapeutic communication between patients and their families and mental health professionals, as well as the need to maintain psychological balance, is also described. Agathi Argyriadi | Alexandros Argyriadis ""Health Psychology: Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Loss"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23200.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/23200/health-psychology-psychological-adjustment-to-the-disease-disability-and-loss/agathi-argyriadi
1) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is highly prevalent, affecting approximately 2% of the population annually, yet it often goes undiagnosed.
2) GAD frequently presents with medically unexplained symptoms like insomnia or pain rather than anxiety itself, making it challenging to diagnose. It also commonly co-occurs with other psychiatric or medical conditions.
3) While GAD has a substantial personal and economic burden, primary care physicians correctly diagnose it in only about one-third of cases. Better physician education is needed to improve recognition and management of GAD.
This document reviews bipolar disorder and other mood disorders in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). It finds that while depression is the most common psychiatric disorder in MS, occurring in about 50% of patients, literature on other disorders like bipolar disorder is more scarce. Rates of bipolar disorder in MS range from 0.3-32% in different studies. The purpose is to provide a critical review of recent findings on the relationship between MS and mood disorders beyond depression, including bipolar disorder, euphoria, and pseudobulbar affect. Key areas explored are epidemiology, comorbidity, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of these disorders in MS patients.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a complex disorder resulting from severe childhood trauma. Recent neurobiological research has provided insights into the brain mechanisms underlying DID and has informed the development of new treatment approaches. Phase-oriented treatment aims to help patients overcome fears of dissociated personality parts and traumatic memories through gradual exposure, with the goal of full personality integration. Promising treatments incorporate elements shown to affect relevant brain regions, such as hypnotherapy, and have been shown to potentially reverse brain changes caused by early trauma. Further research integrating biological and clinical understanding holds hope for more successful treatment outcomes.
Al Power - Dementia beyond disease: Enhancing well beingRunwaySale
This document discusses moving beyond a biomedical model of dementia to focus on enhancing well-being. It notes that antipsychotic drug use is widespread but provides little benefit, and instead risks increasing mortality. A new model defines dementia as a shift in experiencing the world, prioritizing domains like identity, connectedness and meaning over symptom reduction. Culture change is needed to operationalize this philosophy through physical environments, decision-making processes, and personal perspectives that support well-being.
A critical discussion of the focus on the biomedical perspective in the preve...GERATEC
The biomedical focus on dementia brought the phenomena of what was considered a normal part of ageing into the medical and scientific field of interest (Bartlett, R and O’Connor, D. 2010). This perspective comes with a strong focus on neurodegenerative decline and deficits. Even though Alzheimer’s disease was around for more than 70 years since noted by Alois Alzheimer, it was only in the 1980’s that the “disease emerged as an illness category and policy issue” (Lyman, A. 1989). The Nun Study of David A. Snowdon, PhD, which started in 1991, brought a new perspective to the research into dementia. It was discovered during autopsies that people who have lived their lives without any signs of dementia, actually had amyloid plaques and tangles in their brains congruent to people living with dementia (Snowdon, D.A. 2003). Biomedical research is at this stage the primary focus of research into dementia, receiving most of the funding budget. According to an article in Therapy Today (July 2012) in the UK alone, £66 million will be allocated to dementia research by 2015, of which only £13 million is earmarked for social science research. In the WHO report on Dementia, Daviglus M.L. et al of the US National Institutes of Health state that “firm conclusions cannot be drawn about the association of any modifiable risk factor with cognitive decline of Alzheimer disease”.
The importance of the research findings of the biomedical model cannot be underestimated. However, considering the facts that t this point there seems to be nothing that can prevent nor cure Dementia, I am of the opinion that more research and funding should focused on creating a life worth living for people who live with dementia.
This document discusses schizophrenia using a biopsychosocial model. It addresses evidence for brain localization in schizophrenia, genetic factors, and environmental factors. Schizophrenia is a disabling brain disorder affecting self and social functioning. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech. Causes likely involve genetic and environmental factors. Treatment focuses on symptom management using medication and psychosocial support. Studies show common biological mechanisms between schizophrenia and depression. Research also provides preliminary evidence of brain localization and genetic risk factors for schizophrenia.
Dimensional versus categorical classification of mental disorders in the fift...Chloe Taracatac
This document discusses the limitations of categorical classification of mental disorders in the DSM and argues for incorporating dimensional elements. It suggests introducing dimensional severity ratings to existing diagnostic categories as an initial step. This would help address issues like failing to capture individual differences in severity and clinically significant subthreshold features. The document also discusses determining the optimal level for incorporating dimensions, such as at the disorder construct level or for higher order dimensions, and developing an assessment system that can be reliably implemented.
Health Psychology Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Lossijtsrd
This article discusses the psychological adjustment of adults to severe or incurable diseases or other loss. The stress that results from a diagnosis of illness or loss depends on many factors, such as the beliefs of each individual and the social context. Considering the diversity of human perceptions, feelings and behaviors, it was considered important for the present study to include a theory of stress and treatment related to physical illness. At the center of attention are end stage individuals, not their organic problems but mainly their psychological state and that of their families. Reference is then made to the loss of loved one and the period of mourning. As regards the disease response, there is a difference between the immediate reaction to loss, what we call mourning, and the adaptation to a new way of life without the loved one. Finally, the role of therapeutic communication between patients and their families and mental health professionals, as well as the need to maintain psychological balance, is also described. Agathi Argyriadi | Alexandros Argyriadis ""Health Psychology: Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Loss"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23200.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/23200/health-psychology-psychological-adjustment-to-the-disease-disability-and-loss/agathi-argyriadi
How treating psychological and social needs can improve the daily lives of the chronically ill, creating a new model for outpatient care, quality of life and aging, humanization of care, streamlining responsibilities of hospital staff and news around the world.
This document discusses ICU psychosis and delirium. It begins by explaining that while the behaviors described as ICU psychosis are real, the term is misleading and inaccurate, as the signs and symptoms are actually diagnostic of delirium. Delirium is defined as having disordered attention/arousal, cognitive dysfunction, and acute onset due to medical causes rather than psychiatric disorders. There are two main subtypes of delirium - hypoactive and hyperactive - which have different pathophysiological mechanisms and presentations. Delirium is common, especially in critical care and elderly patients, and has several risk factors. Early detection through comprehensive nursing assessment is important for management.
This document discusses a study that explores whether convenience may cause practitioners to more readily diagnose ADHD. The study primed 150 college students with different levels of convenience and had them respond to vignettes describing ADHD. The study found no statistically significant relationship between the type of priming and the likelihood of diagnosis. The document provides background on the debate around rising ADHD diagnoses and whether overdiagnosis is a problem. It notes concerns about potential misdiagnosis, medication side effects, and diversion of stimulant drugs.
Adjustment disorder develops as a reaction to a stressful life event or major life change. It is a short-term disorder where symptoms occur because coping with the stressor is difficult. Common symptoms include mild depression, anxiety, and traumatic stress reactions. The symptoms are a result of an inability to cope with an identifiable stressor and generally resolve once the individual adapts to the situation. Treatment focuses on problem solving, clarifying the meaning of the stressor, improving coping skills, and managing symptoms. With treatment, most people recover completely within 6 months unless the original stressor remains present.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by two or more distinct personality states and episodes of amnesia. It is believed to often develop from severe childhood abuse or trauma combined with poor family support. The hallmark is multiple personality states that may differ in things like gender, memories, and perceptions. Treatment involves long-term therapy to help integrate alters and address trauma, though there remains skepticism around the diagnosis due to a lack of controlled studies and training on dissociative disorders for many clinicians. Experts recommend embracing all alters, using exposure techniques cautiously, and focusing on emotional regulation and future relationships in later stages of treatment.
Trauma informed addiction utilizing car modelMichael Barnes
The document discusses traumatic events, PTSD, and substance abuse disorders. It notes that around two-thirds of the global population experiences a traumatic event that could meet criteria for PTSD. Around 8% of those who experience trauma receive a PTSD diagnosis. The document then discusses what can cause trauma, prevalence of PTSD and substance use disorders occurring together, and poorer treatment outcomes when PTSD and SUDs co-occur. It also discusses the proposed DSM-V criteria for PTSD and explores concepts like containment and autonomic regulation therapy, memory systems, and how trauma impacts the autonomic nervous system.
This study aims to investigate whether cognitive remediation can improve cognitive and psychosocial function in patients at ultra-high risk (UHR) for psychosis. The FOCUS trial will enroll 126 UHR patients and randomly assign them to either cognitive remediation plus standard treatment, or standard treatment alone. The cognitive remediation involves 24 weekly group sessions and 12 individual sessions targeting neurocognition and social cognition. Outcomes will be assessed at 6 and 12 months and include cognition, functioning, symptoms, and rates of transition to psychosis. This is the first trial to evaluate the effects of comprehensive cognitive rehabilitation for UHR patients.
This study investigated the relationships between childhood trauma, psychological symptoms, and barriers to seeking mental health care among college students. It was hypothesized that childhood trauma would be correlated with both psychological symptoms and barriers to care, and that psychological symptoms would mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and barriers. Participants completed questionnaires measuring these constructs. Results found childhood trauma was correlated with both psychological symptoms and barriers to care. Psychological symptoms also mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and barriers, such that the relationship was weaker when accounting for psychological symptoms. This suggests childhood trauma influences barriers indirectly through its effect on increasing psychological symptoms.
How GPs and mental health practitioners should work togetherKris Van den Broeck
In this slideshow, we first present a literature study, showing that guidelines on the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) only provide little information about how to organise collaborative care. An additional Pubmed search, however, may be inspirational for who would like to improve collaboration amongst caregivers regarding the care for severely depressed patients. A second (qualitative) study presented in this presentation outlines how collaborative care amongst general practitioners (GPs) and mental health care practitioners is organised today in Belgium and what can be improved according to practitioners in favour of severely depressed patients.
Sample 3 bipolar on female adult populationNicole Valerio
Hello Sir
We are a premier academic writing agency with industry partners in UK, Australia and Middle East and over 15 years of experience. We are looking to establish long-term relationships with industry partners and would love to discuss this opportunity further with you.
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visit our website.
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This document discusses classification and diagnostic issues related to intellectual developmental disorders (IDDs) and mental health. It provides definitions of IDD and discusses debates around using IQ as a criterion. It notes the high rates of psychiatric disorders, autism, and other developmental conditions in individuals with IDD. The document also summarizes research on genetic overlaps between various neurodevelopmental disorders like autism, IDD, and schizophrenia. It discusses specific genes and proteins that have been implicated in cognition and synaptic function, and the role of these genes across multiple mental health conditions.
Integrated Care Model: Interventions and Strategies for Addressing Co-Morbidities in Early Recovery by Dr. Alkesh Patel, M.D., M.R.O. Addiction Psychiatrist and Assistant Clinical Professor Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NYC.
The document discusses mental health services in the UK for depression. It provides statistics on depression prevalence and details primary and secondary care systems for mental health. Primary care focuses on diagnosis, management and prevention, while secondary care handles more severe cases, like those involving psychosis or hospitalization. The document critiques gaps in primary care for mental health and outlines guidelines and pathways to improve treatment, such as increasing accessibility and using evidence-based therapies like CBT.
Systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people wi...Premier Publishers
Researchers have shown that individuals with mental retardation or with developmental disabilities are at a greater risk of developing health problems and among others dementia than the general population. As the literature points out, dementia is characterized by progressive loss of cognitive functions, until the individual has lost all independency and ability in daily life. It is therefore necessary to carry out a systematic assessment throughout the developmental phases at the beginning of these signs. The purpose of this paper is to present the importance of systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people with developmental disabilities. The methodology is based on the pre-dementia analysis of two study cases followed by a 2-year period. In conclusion, it can be argued that the diagnosis of dementia in people with developmental disabilities, in the early stages, has become difficult because of the lack of reliable and standardized criteria and diagnostic procedures and difficulties to investigate cognitive decline versus an already vulnerable developmental disability base. Therefore, in people with developmental disabilities, a diagnosis of dementia needs to be done based on changes in mental status from basic functioning. This helps a clinician to determine an accurate diagnosis in later years as hypothetically results from two case studies with later subcortical dementia. However, this endeavour remains to be discussed widely by mental health specialists, public health and cognitive neuroscience in order to determine whether this contribution provided actually has the power of explanation understandable or is understandable by the part of interest.
This document discusses social cognition in individuals with bipolar disorder. It begins by defining social cognition and outlining its key dimensions. It then reviews studies comparing social cognition abilities in individuals with bipolar disorder versus healthy controls. The studies show impairments in areas like theory of mind, emotion processing, and attributional biases. Differences are also seen between bipolar type I and II. While some social cognition abilities are preserved, deficits tend to be more pronounced than in individuals with schizophrenia. Overall, the document analyzes research on social cognition challenges in bipolar disorder.
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
Neurotocism and maladaptive coping in patients with functional somatic syndro...Paul Coelho, MD
1) The study investigated neuroticism and maladaptive coping in patients with functional somatic syndromes (FSS) using data from a previous randomized controlled trial.
2) It found that patients with FSS showed higher levels of neuroticism than healthy groups. Neuroticism was linked to poorer physical health indirectly through symptom catastrophizing.
3) Treatment with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) reduced symptom catastrophizing, and this partially mediated the long-term improvement in outcomes from CBT. The results support a cognitive-behavioral model of FSS.
This document discusses dementia care and provides information on:
- Definitions of dementia and the most common types, Alzheimer's and vascular dementia.
- Causes of dementia including brain cell damage and different types associated with particular brain regions. Memory loss is often an early symptom of Alzheimer's due to hippocampal damage.
- Stages of dementia according to the Global Deterioration Scale, ranging from no cognitive decline to severe cognitive decline with extensive assistance needs.
- The importance of person-centered care that affirms individual personhood, identity, comfort, attachment, inclusion and occupation. Caregivers should understand the individual and maintain their identity and story.
Examining the history, classification, causes and treatment of psychological ...Pubrica
What do we think? What do we feel? How do we react to a particular situation?
How do we define it?
How To Examine Whether Someone Is A Patient Of Mental Illness Or Not?
How To Do A Patient’s History Examined Systematically?
The main classes of mental illness :
Cause and Treatment of psychological disorder:
Detailed Information: https://bit.ly/2VGGP1Q
Reference: https://pubrica.com/services/physician-writing-services/
Why pubrica?
When you order our services, we promise you the following – Plagiarism free, always on Time, outstanding customer support, written to Standard, Unlimited Revisions support and High-quality Subject Matter Experts.
Contact us :
Web: https://pubrica.com/
Blog: https://pubrica.com/academy/
Email: sales@pubrica.com
WhatsApp : +91 9884350006
United Kingdom: +44-74248 10299
Related Topics:
Literature gap and future research
Meta-Analysis in evidence-based research
Biostatistics in clinical research
Scientific Communication in healthcare
Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder characterized by positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, and negative symptoms like social withdrawal. The causes are unknown but likely involve a complex interplay of genetic, biological, and environmental factors. Symptoms typically emerge in late adolescence/early adulthood and include a prodromal phase with mild negative symptoms, an active phase with more severe positive and negative symptoms, and a residual phase where symptoms are similar to the prodromal phase. Living with schizophrenia can impact relationships, education, employment, and finances, though with proper treatment many people are able to function well.
How treating psychological and social needs can improve the daily lives of the chronically ill, creating a new model for outpatient care, quality of life and aging, humanization of care, streamlining responsibilities of hospital staff and news around the world.
This document discusses ICU psychosis and delirium. It begins by explaining that while the behaviors described as ICU psychosis are real, the term is misleading and inaccurate, as the signs and symptoms are actually diagnostic of delirium. Delirium is defined as having disordered attention/arousal, cognitive dysfunction, and acute onset due to medical causes rather than psychiatric disorders. There are two main subtypes of delirium - hypoactive and hyperactive - which have different pathophysiological mechanisms and presentations. Delirium is common, especially in critical care and elderly patients, and has several risk factors. Early detection through comprehensive nursing assessment is important for management.
This document discusses a study that explores whether convenience may cause practitioners to more readily diagnose ADHD. The study primed 150 college students with different levels of convenience and had them respond to vignettes describing ADHD. The study found no statistically significant relationship between the type of priming and the likelihood of diagnosis. The document provides background on the debate around rising ADHD diagnoses and whether overdiagnosis is a problem. It notes concerns about potential misdiagnosis, medication side effects, and diversion of stimulant drugs.
Adjustment disorder develops as a reaction to a stressful life event or major life change. It is a short-term disorder where symptoms occur because coping with the stressor is difficult. Common symptoms include mild depression, anxiety, and traumatic stress reactions. The symptoms are a result of an inability to cope with an identifiable stressor and generally resolve once the individual adapts to the situation. Treatment focuses on problem solving, clarifying the meaning of the stressor, improving coping skills, and managing symptoms. With treatment, most people recover completely within 6 months unless the original stressor remains present.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is characterized by two or more distinct personality states and episodes of amnesia. It is believed to often develop from severe childhood abuse or trauma combined with poor family support. The hallmark is multiple personality states that may differ in things like gender, memories, and perceptions. Treatment involves long-term therapy to help integrate alters and address trauma, though there remains skepticism around the diagnosis due to a lack of controlled studies and training on dissociative disorders for many clinicians. Experts recommend embracing all alters, using exposure techniques cautiously, and focusing on emotional regulation and future relationships in later stages of treatment.
Trauma informed addiction utilizing car modelMichael Barnes
The document discusses traumatic events, PTSD, and substance abuse disorders. It notes that around two-thirds of the global population experiences a traumatic event that could meet criteria for PTSD. Around 8% of those who experience trauma receive a PTSD diagnosis. The document then discusses what can cause trauma, prevalence of PTSD and substance use disorders occurring together, and poorer treatment outcomes when PTSD and SUDs co-occur. It also discusses the proposed DSM-V criteria for PTSD and explores concepts like containment and autonomic regulation therapy, memory systems, and how trauma impacts the autonomic nervous system.
This study aims to investigate whether cognitive remediation can improve cognitive and psychosocial function in patients at ultra-high risk (UHR) for psychosis. The FOCUS trial will enroll 126 UHR patients and randomly assign them to either cognitive remediation plus standard treatment, or standard treatment alone. The cognitive remediation involves 24 weekly group sessions and 12 individual sessions targeting neurocognition and social cognition. Outcomes will be assessed at 6 and 12 months and include cognition, functioning, symptoms, and rates of transition to psychosis. This is the first trial to evaluate the effects of comprehensive cognitive rehabilitation for UHR patients.
This study investigated the relationships between childhood trauma, psychological symptoms, and barriers to seeking mental health care among college students. It was hypothesized that childhood trauma would be correlated with both psychological symptoms and barriers to care, and that psychological symptoms would mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and barriers. Participants completed questionnaires measuring these constructs. Results found childhood trauma was correlated with both psychological symptoms and barriers to care. Psychological symptoms also mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and barriers, such that the relationship was weaker when accounting for psychological symptoms. This suggests childhood trauma influences barriers indirectly through its effect on increasing psychological symptoms.
How GPs and mental health practitioners should work togetherKris Van den Broeck
In this slideshow, we first present a literature study, showing that guidelines on the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) only provide little information about how to organise collaborative care. An additional Pubmed search, however, may be inspirational for who would like to improve collaboration amongst caregivers regarding the care for severely depressed patients. A second (qualitative) study presented in this presentation outlines how collaborative care amongst general practitioners (GPs) and mental health care practitioners is organised today in Belgium and what can be improved according to practitioners in favour of severely depressed patients.
Sample 3 bipolar on female adult populationNicole Valerio
Hello Sir
We are a premier academic writing agency with industry partners in UK, Australia and Middle East and over 15 years of experience. We are looking to establish long-term relationships with industry partners and would love to discuss this opportunity further with you.
Thanks & Regards
visit our website.
www.onlineassignmenthelp.com.au
www.freeassignmenthelp.com
www.btechndassignment.cheapassignmenthelp.co.uk
www.cheapassignmenthelp.com
www.cheapassignmenthelp.co.uk/
http://www.cheapassignmenthelp.net/
This document discusses classification and diagnostic issues related to intellectual developmental disorders (IDDs) and mental health. It provides definitions of IDD and discusses debates around using IQ as a criterion. It notes the high rates of psychiatric disorders, autism, and other developmental conditions in individuals with IDD. The document also summarizes research on genetic overlaps between various neurodevelopmental disorders like autism, IDD, and schizophrenia. It discusses specific genes and proteins that have been implicated in cognition and synaptic function, and the role of these genes across multiple mental health conditions.
Integrated Care Model: Interventions and Strategies for Addressing Co-Morbidities in Early Recovery by Dr. Alkesh Patel, M.D., M.R.O. Addiction Psychiatrist and Assistant Clinical Professor Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NYC.
The document discusses mental health services in the UK for depression. It provides statistics on depression prevalence and details primary and secondary care systems for mental health. Primary care focuses on diagnosis, management and prevention, while secondary care handles more severe cases, like those involving psychosis or hospitalization. The document critiques gaps in primary care for mental health and outlines guidelines and pathways to improve treatment, such as increasing accessibility and using evidence-based therapies like CBT.
Systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people wi...Premier Publishers
Researchers have shown that individuals with mental retardation or with developmental disabilities are at a greater risk of developing health problems and among others dementia than the general population. As the literature points out, dementia is characterized by progressive loss of cognitive functions, until the individual has lost all independency and ability in daily life. It is therefore necessary to carry out a systematic assessment throughout the developmental phases at the beginning of these signs. The purpose of this paper is to present the importance of systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people with developmental disabilities. The methodology is based on the pre-dementia analysis of two study cases followed by a 2-year period. In conclusion, it can be argued that the diagnosis of dementia in people with developmental disabilities, in the early stages, has become difficult because of the lack of reliable and standardized criteria and diagnostic procedures and difficulties to investigate cognitive decline versus an already vulnerable developmental disability base. Therefore, in people with developmental disabilities, a diagnosis of dementia needs to be done based on changes in mental status from basic functioning. This helps a clinician to determine an accurate diagnosis in later years as hypothetically results from two case studies with later subcortical dementia. However, this endeavour remains to be discussed widely by mental health specialists, public health and cognitive neuroscience in order to determine whether this contribution provided actually has the power of explanation understandable or is understandable by the part of interest.
This document discusses social cognition in individuals with bipolar disorder. It begins by defining social cognition and outlining its key dimensions. It then reviews studies comparing social cognition abilities in individuals with bipolar disorder versus healthy controls. The studies show impairments in areas like theory of mind, emotion processing, and attributional biases. Differences are also seen between bipolar type I and II. While some social cognition abilities are preserved, deficits tend to be more pronounced than in individuals with schizophrenia. Overall, the document analyzes research on social cognition challenges in bipolar disorder.
Chronic Emotional Detachment, Disorders, and Treatment-Team BSarah M
This document discusses chronic emotional detachment and how it may lead to increased rates of mental health disorders like anxiety, depression, and PTSD. It hypothesizes that suppressing natural emotions to conform to societal pressures causes stress and depersonalization over time. When a distressing trigger occurs, this imbalance can lead to mental disorders. The document reviews literature linking emotional suppression to increased disorders in populations like veterans and refugees. It proposes studying the relationship between evolutionary survival mechanisms and societal norms. The methodology section describes a mixed-methods study using surveys, interviews, and archival data from a random sample to understand subjective emotional experiences and medication effectiveness.
Neurotocism and maladaptive coping in patients with functional somatic syndro...Paul Coelho, MD
1) The study investigated neuroticism and maladaptive coping in patients with functional somatic syndromes (FSS) using data from a previous randomized controlled trial.
2) It found that patients with FSS showed higher levels of neuroticism than healthy groups. Neuroticism was linked to poorer physical health indirectly through symptom catastrophizing.
3) Treatment with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) reduced symptom catastrophizing, and this partially mediated the long-term improvement in outcomes from CBT. The results support a cognitive-behavioral model of FSS.
This document discusses dementia care and provides information on:
- Definitions of dementia and the most common types, Alzheimer's and vascular dementia.
- Causes of dementia including brain cell damage and different types associated with particular brain regions. Memory loss is often an early symptom of Alzheimer's due to hippocampal damage.
- Stages of dementia according to the Global Deterioration Scale, ranging from no cognitive decline to severe cognitive decline with extensive assistance needs.
- The importance of person-centered care that affirms individual personhood, identity, comfort, attachment, inclusion and occupation. Caregivers should understand the individual and maintain their identity and story.
Examining the history, classification, causes and treatment of psychological ...Pubrica
What do we think? What do we feel? How do we react to a particular situation?
How do we define it?
How To Examine Whether Someone Is A Patient Of Mental Illness Or Not?
How To Do A Patient’s History Examined Systematically?
The main classes of mental illness :
Cause and Treatment of psychological disorder:
Detailed Information: https://bit.ly/2VGGP1Q
Reference: https://pubrica.com/services/physician-writing-services/
Why pubrica?
When you order our services, we promise you the following – Plagiarism free, always on Time, outstanding customer support, written to Standard, Unlimited Revisions support and High-quality Subject Matter Experts.
Contact us :
Web: https://pubrica.com/
Blog: https://pubrica.com/academy/
Email: sales@pubrica.com
WhatsApp : +91 9884350006
United Kingdom: +44-74248 10299
Related Topics:
Literature gap and future research
Meta-Analysis in evidence-based research
Biostatistics in clinical research
Scientific Communication in healthcare
Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder characterized by positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, and negative symptoms like social withdrawal. The causes are unknown but likely involve a complex interplay of genetic, biological, and environmental factors. Symptoms typically emerge in late adolescence/early adulthood and include a prodromal phase with mild negative symptoms, an active phase with more severe positive and negative symptoms, and a residual phase where symptoms are similar to the prodromal phase. Living with schizophrenia can impact relationships, education, employment, and finances, though with proper treatment many people are able to function well.
Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder with a variety of symptoms including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and behavior. It affects approximately 1% of the population worldwide. The causes are largely unknown but involve genetic and environmental factors. Treatments have advanced from institutionalization to community-based care combined with antipsychotic drugs and psychotherapy.
This paper discusses schizophrenia, including its symptoms, social implications, causes, and treatments. It covers a range of symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. Historically, treatments included exorcisms, lobotomies, and electroconvulsive therapy. Modern treatments include antipsychotic medications and therapy, though suicide rates remain high. The paper questions whether newer antipsychotic drugs may increase suicidal thoughts by removing voices that were a patient's only companions.
This paper summarizes schizophrenia, including common symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. It discusses the social implications such as high costs and increased rates of incarceration rather than treatment. A history of treatments is provided, from exorcisms to lobotomies to modern medications and therapies. The conclusion calls for more facilities to help patients recover and return to productivity.
This document discusses the concept of insight and judgment in mental health. It defines insight as involving introspection, empathy, understanding how one's behavior affects others, and recognizing illness and need for treatment. Judgment requires weighing factors to make decisions. Both insight and judgment rely on intact cognitive functions. The document outlines several models of insight and factors that can impair judgment, such as mental illnesses like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. It also discusses various scales used to measure insight.
This ppt presentation discusses about the various models of mental illness. I found it useful to download as it gives a fair idea about various models which are generally not found in books.
This document provides an overview of disorganized schizophrenia, including key characteristics such as incoherent thoughts and behaviors. It discusses the complex nature of the disorder and treatment options, which typically involve medication, psychotherapy, and hospitalization. The document also presents a case study of a patient named Juan who experiences disorganized schizophrenia. His treatment plan involves prescription of antipsychotic and antidepressant medications as well as family psychoeducation therapy.
Schizophrenia is a mental illness that affects about 1% of the population. It is characterized by disturbances in perceptions, thoughts, emotions and behavior. Common symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behavior. The causes are believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. Research suggests there may be alterations in brain structure and chemistry, especially involving dopamine. While the exact causes are unknown, early detection and treatment can help manage symptoms and reduce long-term impacts.
Research-Based Interventions for SchizophreniaSchizophrenia is a.docxronak56
Research-Based Interventions for Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a type of psychos that is surrounds several severe psychological illnesses that can cause loss of contact with realism in company with major personality derangements (National Institute of mental health, 2014). Schizophrenia is also a severe brain disorder that is categorized by delusional thoughts and distinctive perceptions (National Institute of mental health, 2014). There are numerous of signs and symptoms that are representative of schizophrenia that we will learn about below. The expressions of these symptoms vary considerably from one person to another (Mental Health Association, 2008). Health professionals typically identify Schizophrenia if during any one-month period the individual has experienced two or more collections of; delusions, hallucinations, disorganization, strange speech patterns, or behavioral disturbances symptoms (Mental Health Association, 2008). According to Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley (2013), signs of schizophrenia are regarded in two ways, "type I schizophrenia is when psychotic behavior of the positive syndrome variety thought to involve chiefly temporolimbic brain structures. Type II schizophrenia is when psychotic behavior of the negative syndrome variety thought to involve chiefly frontal brain structures" ( p. G-21). Positive and negative symptoms are calculable characteristics and could indicate core signs of schizophrenia. Furthermore, there needs to be evidence the disturbances were present for at least six months and other sickness like mood disorders or schizoaffective disorder are ruled out (Elder, Evans & Nizette 2009). During the course of this paper, I will examine three research articles that provide evidence regarding various treatments, learn how the biopsychosocial regarding schizophrenia is used, and examine treating schizophrenia that seems to be the most effective.
Causes of Schizophrenia According to the Diathesis-Stress Model
Several psychologists agree that psychological troubles are because of a blend of biology and environmental reasons (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2013). The diathesis-stress model of abnormality explains how biology and environment work together with a person’s brain (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2013). According to the diathesis-stress model, individuals are born with a certain biological or genetic disposition to a psychological illness. Each individual's diathesis for a specific mental illness is different from another individual and can be swayed by biology or one's genetics (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2013). Genetic factors certainly have a big part in the etiology of schizophrenia; however, genetic predispositions can be fashioned by one's environment like prenatal exposure, disease, and many stressors that take place during important development of brain (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2013). In addition, positive environments may also drop the chance of genetic predisposition will cause schizophrenia (Elder ...
This document provides information on schizophrenia, including its epidemiology, types, symptoms, etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. It describes schizophrenia as a complex psychiatric disorder characterized by disorganized thoughts and behaviors. The lifetime prevalence is reported to be 0.3-0.7%, most commonly onset in late adolescence to early adulthood. Treatment involves both pharmacological approaches using antipsychotics like clozapine and risperidone, and non-pharmacological psychosocial rehabilitation programs.
Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder defined by periods of psychosis and disturbed thoughts and behavior lasting over 6 months. It involves an inability to distinguish between reality and delusions. Diagnosis requires 2 or more symptoms such as hallucinations, disorganized behavior, or negative symptoms. Schizophrenia has no single cause but is thought to involve genetic and environmental factors. It affects over 2 million Americans and has enormous societal costs due to disability and healthcare expenses. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication to control symptoms, though medication may have dangerous side effects.
This document provides an overview of schizophrenia, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It discusses how schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, perception and volition. The causes are believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. Symptoms are categorized into positive symptoms like hallucinations, negative symptoms like social withdrawal, and psychomotor symptoms involving movements. There are different types of schizophrenia that can be diagnosed based on symptom presentation. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication as well as psychotherapy and community-based approaches.
This document provides an overview of schizophrenia, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It discusses how schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, and perception. While the exact causes are unknown, it is believed to result from genetic and environmental factors. The symptoms are categorized into positive symptoms like hallucinations, negative symptoms like social withdrawal, and psychomotor symptoms involving movements. Schizophrenia is diagnosed based on continued symptoms over six months along with social and occupational decline. There are different types of schizophrenia that are diagnosed based on symptom presentation. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication along with psychotherapy and community-based approaches.
This document provides an overview of schizophrenia, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It discusses how schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, perception and volition. The causes are believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. Symptoms are categorized into positive symptoms like hallucinations, negative symptoms like social withdrawal, and psychomotor symptoms involving movements. There are different types of schizophrenia that are diagnosed based on symptom presentation. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication as well as psychotherapy and community-based approaches.
This document provides an overview of schizophrenia, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. Schizophrenia is a complex disorder with a variety of symptoms that can include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. It is caused by both genetic and environmental factors. There are different types of schizophrenia that are diagnosed based on symptom presentation. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication as well as psychotherapy and community support.
This document provides an overview of schizophrenia including its symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, and perspectives. It discusses the major categories of symptoms - positive, negative, and psychomotor. No single cause is known but it is thought to involve genetic and environmental factors. Diagnosis involves meeting criteria for at least 6 months and includes different types. Treatment aims to reduce symptoms and involves medication and psychotherapy. Biological, psychological, and sociocultural models aim to explain schizophrenia.
Therapeutic approach to referential thinking in a case of schizotypal disorderCristina Senín
The present study describes the evaluation procedure and therapeutic approach in a case of schizotypal disorder. The intervention carried out was of the cognitive behavioural type. In parallel, a follow-up of a fundamental measure for this disorder is accomplished: the referential thinking, by means of brief time-series. In this analysis, a clear but progressive decrease of the criteria is obtained. The post-treatment results show a general improvement in every aspects, bringing out: the interpersonal relationships, the absence of hallucinations, the increase of the capacity for enjoyment, the decrease of unusual content of thought, erroneous interpretations of reality, aggressiveness and unusual language. Distractibility, suspicion and conceptual disorganization slightly persist.
Schizophrenia is a multifactorial disorder with biological and environmental causes. It is associated with abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex and enlarged ventricles. Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. Genetic factors play a prominent role in risk for developing schizophrenia. While there is no cure, treatment aims to control symptoms and reduce risk of relapse using antipsychotic medication alongside psychological and social support. An integrated approach is needed to help those with schizophrenia reach maximal social adjustment.
The presentation explores the development of hate from a psychological perspective. It discusses how early life experiences, such as not receiving comfort from caregivers as an infant, can form the basis for hate that develops later in life. These early memories influence how people interpret later disappointments. The paper also examines hate as an emotion that arises from vulnerability and a need for control, while also representing an underlying need for protection and dependency. Through case studies and personal experiences, the presenter aims to create understanding of hate and how to transform it into more positive emotions by addressing early developmental wounds. The conclusion suggests political reforms that could help societies and individuals achieve greater balance, unity, and peace.
The document discusses non-duality and how it relates to human psychology and experience. It argues that true non-duality is impossible for humans to absolutely experience or understand due to how our minds and bodies exist in duality within spacetime. However, it suggests our unconscious minds may exist outside of spacetime in a singular, non-dual state. It proposes that our concept of non-duality comes from projecting an internal representation based on our earliest pre-birth experiences of oneness with our mothers onto the external world. Exploring this relationship between the dual and non-dual can provide insights into reducing human suffering.
The document discusses the negative effects of gender wars and marital failures on young adults and society. When motherhood becomes a chore due to stressors, it chokes off the potential of infants and future generations. Children are becoming partially motherless as mothers need to work for independence, impacting their development. This generation dismembers the goddess within themselves and society due to a lack of stable role models and disrespect for femininity. As a result, young adults do not feel a responsibility towards others, creating social and economic problems as the population ages. The paper argues for policies that restore nurturing feminine aspects to regenerate society.
Abstract psychological storm of creative impulsesMadhu Sameer
This document discusses psychosis and its relationship to creativity. It argues that psychosis represents a state of being in touch with one's unconscious and primordial images that is denied in ordinary experience. While labeled as a disorder, psychosis can also be a diamonic possession that enables artists to mine their unconscious for inspiration. The paper aims to reframe psychosis not as a pejorative label but as a sensibility to inner realities that define dreams, art, and literature.
The Shared World of Religion, Meditation, Alcohol, Drugs and Sex
A paper to be presented at the Annual Conference for Association of Transpersonal Psychology, Atherton, on Feb 14.
Spirituality in Action: Bringing Transpersonal Psychology to the World in Crisis
This document discusses the relationship between creativity, music, and psychotherapy. It explores creativity from philosophical, psychological, and mythological perspectives. Creativity is seen as an encounter that demands courage and risk-taking. Music is said to bypass cognition and access repressed emotions and memories. Listening to music can provide a therapeutic container and induce altered states similar to meditation. The document also examines how creating and listening to music may parallel intimate relationships and invoke psychological processes like projection and introjection. Overall, the document analyzes how creativity and music can impact mental health and the therapeutic process.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Basavarajeeyam - Ayurvedic heritage book of Andhra pradesh
Psychosis
1. 1
Psychosis
INCOMPLETE DRAFT
Functional Psychosis & Schizophrenia
“Can I ever forget that I am schizophrenic? I am isolated and I
am alone. I am never real. I play-act my life, touching and
feeling only shadows. My heart and soul are touched, but the
feeling remains locked away, festering inside me because they
cannot find expression….” (New York Times, March 18, 1986)
For: Dr Benette
Madhu Sameer
Track B2
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
2. 2
Functional Psychosis & Schizophrenia
Introduction
Schizophrenia is one of the most debilitating disorders that affects 1% of US population and
their families, with treatment costs totaling $19 billion and indirect costs totaling in excess of $46
billion. It strikes in late adolscence and early adulthood, derailing lives of its victims.
It can broadly be classified as a syndrome that embodies a heterogenous group, representing
a common pathway for a number of disorders whose aetiology and pathogenesis may be quite
different from one another (Buckley, 1988). However, it is perceived differently by different
psychotherapeutic orientations, there being no consensus on what constitutes real schizophrenia. The
most prevalent and widely accepted description and symptology comes from the medical model.
This paper is a brief exploration into the history of psychosis and how various streams of
psychology define and treat this cluster of symptoms. The paper is divided into five sections that
explore the successive layers of psychosis. The first describes the neurobiological findings, the
medical research and contemporary approach towards schizophrenia. The second outlines the
psychoanalytic approach to psychosis, the third section explores the analytical approach. The
concluding section compares and contrasts the above, and provides countertransferential information
that has guided this presentation. Although there is a significant difference between functional
psychosis and schizophrenia, the term psychosis and schizophrenia have been used interchangeably
in this document. Due to the limits on the size of this paper, the variants of schizophrenia
(Schizoaffective, Schizophreniform & Delusional Disorders) have not been discussed.
Section I : Neurobiological Findings and Contemporary Approach
Clinical Presentations
The symptom list for scizophrenia includes positive and negative symptoms. Positive
symptoms indicate presence of additional indicators. These are further divided into two clusters viz
hallucinations and delusions, and disorganized thinking and speech. These symptoms are more
responsive to psychopharmacology. Defining what constitutes delusions and hallucinations is
subjective, depending on the treating physician/psychologist as spiritual experiences may often be
technically classified as delusions/hallucinations by some, and not by others. Disorganized speech
and thinking is a hallmark of psychosis, as is grossly disorganized behavior like wandering in
disheveled state, randomly accosting strangers, standing at a street corner, staring at the sun, or
catatonic behaviors like mutism, staring, social withdrawl, schizophasia (meaningless repetition of
words), refusal to eat, marked rigidity, purposeless excessive activity, unusual postures etc and may
cause intense distress in life functioning of the individual.
Negative symptoms are characterized by loss or diminishing of normal mental functions –
blunted/flattened affect, social withdrawal, anhedonia (lack of pleasure/interest in activities),
avolition, alogia (decreased fluency of thought and speech) and people appear disconnected, bland,
zombie like.
The subtypes specified in DSM-IV (catatonic, disorganized, paranoid, undifferentiated and
residual) may change over time. And although not a diagnostic criteria, lack of insight, or awareness
of illness is a hallmark of psychosis (Amador & David, 1998). Suicidality presents an associated
risk. Cognitive difficulties unfold across development, and include understanding and interpretation
of emotional responses. The decline is not continuous, linear or progressive.
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
3. 3
Etiology
The medical world is still unclear about the origins of schizophrenia. A chronic, severe and disabling
brain disease1
(Torrey, 2002) it is classified as neurodevelopmental in origin, being contingent on
multiple factors - genetic, biological and environmental. The genetic/biological causes may range
from genetic predisposition involving single, or multiple genes, to a viral infection that affects
interaction between the genes and glial cells, to the presence of a tiny particle in the lumbar fluids of
the people diagnosed with schizophrenia, a particle many label as a new form of life (BBC, 2002).
No particular gene has been specifically implicated (Andreason, 2002, as cited in Woo & Keatinge,
2008) and according to the diathesis-stress model, a biological vulnerability is necessary but not
sufficient condition for onset (Woo & Keatinge, 2008).
Neurodevelopmental impairments include a reduced volume (upto 25%) of gray matter in the
brain, enlarged ventricles (Van Horn et. al., 1992), sulci, basal ganglia, decreased volume of
prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, thalamus, posterior temoral gyrus, and superior temporal gyrus
(Cornblatt, Green & Walker, 1999) and a hemispheric asymmetry. The shrinkage starts in the
parietal, or outer regions but spreads to the rest of the brain “like a jungle fire” over the next five
year period, especially to the temporal and frontal lobes (Berman et. al., 1991), dysregulaion of
dopamine (and/or domanine receptor hyperactivity)(Whitaker, 2002) and GABA, glutemate and
serotonin. MRI studies have revealed a dynamic wave of tissue loss that engulfs the brains of the
schizophrenic patients. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, bizarre and psychotic thoughts,
voices, and depression and impaired awareness of their illness (Amador & David, 1998). Although
cognitive deficits are implicated (Drake & Lweis, 2003; Lysaker & Bell, 1995; Lysaker, Bryson, &
Bell, 2002; McEvoy. 1996) the exact location where the disorder originates in the brain, is not
understood (Sullivan, 1996). NIMH research indicates that the brain loss may be reversible and
pharmaceutical companies are researching drugs that can accomplish such reversals.
Treatment
According to Woo & Keatinge (2008), treatment is long term, multimodal, and involves
several areas of intervention and focus. The contemporary approach assumes medication is a
necessary component of treatment, with psychosocial interventions as an adjunct to provide
education about the “mental illness” and assist with coping strategies. The authors suggest the
assertive community treatment model (ACT) that involves “a comprehensive range of treatment,
rehabilitation, and support service utilizing a multi-disciplinary teams based in community” (p. 520).
Medication
The treatment of choice in the medical model consists of antipsychotics or neuroleptics.
traditional antipsychotics like Haldol etc, or the newer atypical antipsychotics lile Clozapine,
Geodone, Seroquel, Risperdal, Zyprexa, Abilify etc. Woo & Keatinge (2008) hold that although
often effective, the drugs do not promise to cure, nor are they 100% effective for all patients.
Neuroleptics are known to be disruptive for the “neural pathways involved in the control of
voluntary and involuntary movement” (Woo and Keatinge, 2008, p. 523). Research on patients
treated with these drug show gradual decline of functional capacities, including tremors, muscular
rigidity, movement disorders, akinesia, dystonic reactions, akathesia, obesity, diabetes, and elevated
levels of prolactin – a protein the causes milk production in men and women, amenorrhea (absence
of mensural period), gynecomastia (abnormal breast growth in men), bone loss and osteoporosis.
1
E.F. Torrey’s paper published in journal Schizophrenia Research (released September 20) confirms that schizophrenia
is a brain disease, in exactly the same sense that Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis are brain
diseases. (web source)
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
4. 4
Tardive dyskenisia, an irreversible neurological disorder occurs in 20%-30% of long term users of
neuroleptics.
Psychotherapy
Eighty five percent clients preferred brief, less frequent sessions of reality-oriented therapy over
insight oriented therapy (Coursey, Keller & Farrell, 1995 as cited in Woo & Keatinge, 2008). Gary,
Fowler and Kuipers (2000, as cited in Woo & Keatinge, 2008) suggest Cognitive Behavior Therapy
with 6 stages process :
1. engagement and assessment
2. coping strategy work
3. developing an experience of the psychotic experience
4. working on delusions and hallucinations
5. addressing mood and negative self evaluations
6. managing risk of relapse and social disability
PsychoEducation , Social Skills Training, Family Based Interventions, Vocational Rehabilitation :
These are some additional areas of emphasis in contemporary treatment method.
Section II: A Psychoanalytical Approach
Psychoanalytical understanding of psychosis is chiefly influenced by Freud, Melanie Klein,
Otto Von Kernberg whose works we explore in this section.
Symptoms
London (as cited in Buckley 1988) classifies psychoanalytical symptoms of schizophrenia as :
1. Primary process imagery and mechanisms (archaic or primitive) involving introjects,
indentifications and incorporative phenomenon characterized by disturbances in reality
integration and drive integration.
2. Undifferentiated state of self and object representation, called fusion of self and object
(Jacobson, 1954), symbiosis (Mahler, 1952) and projective identification (Segal, 1964)
indicating regression to infancy prior to separation individuation.
3. Impairment in the constancy of self and object representations. Their attempt at recalling a
person or experience evokes grotesque imagery and represents “impaired autonomy of
evocative recall from drives” (London, nd), oftentimes such recall being completely
unavailable.
Onset of acute psychotic episode may be heralded by a state of confusion and acute anxiety
which is replaced by individual’s sudden understanding of the meaning of experience. Bower (n.d)
postulates that psychotic state of consciousness has elements in common with other altered states.
The feeling of being transported beyond the self to a new realm, together with the affect of ecstasy
and a heightened state of awareness is the same in both states. Lewin’s (1950) work on the
psychoanalytic explanation of elation is significant in understanding of the manic episodes of
psychosis2
.
2
Lewin (1950) suggested sleep and mania was a derivative of the intrapsychic fusion with the breast at nursing and he
attributed oral eroticism to manic depressive illness. According to him, an “oral triad” was created as a manifestation of
unconscious orality 1) the wish to devour 2) the wish to be devoured 3) the wish to go to sleep. He posited that all three
had their origins in the nursing situation wherein the physiological need to eat and to sleep became psychological wishes.
He stated that these wishes may “assume fantastic disguises and coloring” (p. 137) in a manic patient. He further sates
that the ideas that have become differentiated as sleep, death, immortality, heaven, and the oceanic feeling all spring
from the matrix of subjective experience found following nursing. The content of the manic ideas includes “later events
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
5. 5
Freud & the Psychoanalytic Cohort
Schizophrenic pathology is believed to occur when unconscious becomes conscious, when
thinking falls back from the logic to prelogical levels and the primary processes and archaic ways of
thinking come to fore again.
Person with schizophrenia is impaired in the use of past experiences (stable representational
system) in its effort at making meaning out of external reality. The environment, limited by time and
space, cannot provide that “consistency, the symbolic condensations or the range of patterns
afforded by a representational system” (London, as cited in Buckley, 1988, p35). This impairment to
organize ongoing experience also creates a faulty repressive function, enabling people with
schizophrenia to express ideas and wishes that others have learnt to repress.
Whereas the neurotic avoids reality by fleeing from it, psychosis is typified by delusions and
hallucinations and the abandonment/rejection and consequential remodeling of reality. Due to
impaired reality testing, and their awareness of it, schizophrenics tend to be hypervigilant, expending
above normal efforts at maintaining orientation in time, space and identity. Their concrete thinking
thus is an adaptive defense against their impaired reality testing, a desperate need to remain
grounded in reality thru accurate assessment of social reality – the defense allows them to perceive
aspects of environment more accurately which others may take time to perceive (London, as cited in
Buckley, 1988).
In terms of Freudian structural definitions, the neurotic ego depends on reality to enable
suppression of id. The ego withdraws from reality in the service of id and psychotic experiences are
suffused by loss of reality whereas neurotic experiences tend to avoid this loss. The superego is
projected and appears as auditory hallucination and delusional ideas (Fenichel, 1945). The distorted
externalization of inner conflicts causes hallucinations, delusions and paranoia. These defenses serve
as “an attempt at recovery, a process of reconstruction” (p. 71), a restitutive, self-reparative
function. This concept has medical legitimacy because the high production of adrenocortical
harmones ( their levels provide a measure of stress during the onset of acute psychosis) drop down
rapidly with the appearance of delusions in patients (Sacher, et al, 1970).
Freud’s Classical Theory leads to two theories of schizophrenia. The Unitary Theory is based
on intrapsychic motives that are primarily the same as those of a neurotic, only larger in the degree
of conflict. Thus schizophrenic behavior, viewed thru the lens of Unitary Theory, is a more severe
form of neurosis, the implication being that anyone can develop schizophrenia given a certain degree
of unmanageable intrapsychic conflict.
Freud’s more acceptable theory, the Specific Theory of schizophrenia, proposes that
schizophrenic behavior is unique and separable from other behaviors. The concept is expressed as
“withdrawl of cathexis [decathexis3
] from the mental representations4
of the objects,” such behavior
being reactive to the “internal catastrophe” or cathectic withdrawl. Schizophrenia appears as an
of childhood which themselves in some ways repeat or revive the nursing situation or may have been falsified by it”
(Buckley, 1988, p. xxix)
3
Schur (1966) held that normal development was driven by pleasure and unpleasure principles. The pleasure principle is
guided by the need to recreate the experience of satisfaction thru elimination of drive tension. The unpleasure principle
regulates the need to withdraw from excessive stimulation impinging on themental apparatus from the outside.
Eventually, thenecessity extends to the withdrawl from the memory traces of such stimulation. Such disturbance in the
capacity to organize memory traces into mental object representations as to sustain mental object representations. .
.rooted in developmental factors which are superordinate to the development of the instinctual drives, is linked
biologically to the withdrawl responses of psychosis, being regulated by the unpleasure principle (as cited in London,
nd).
4
“mental representation refers to the mental organization of memory traces; memory traces deriving from experiences
involving internal and external stimulation and the responses of the stimulated subject” (London, n.d.)
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
6. 6
adaptive response to a psychological deficiency. Freud believed psychosis did not lend itself to
psychoanalytic treatment because such patients were impaired in thinking, free associating, and
hence incapable of sustaining mental representations of external objects, which made transference
impossible.5
Kleinian Perspectives
Melanie Klein believed that the fixation points of psychosis were to be found in the earliest
months of infancy. She believed psychosis to be an outcome of impairment in the process of symbol
formation. She saw that children under the sway of anxiety were constantly trying to split their
feelings and their objects into good and bad, attempting to retain good feelings, internalize good
objects while expelling bad objects and projecting bad feelings. The main anxiety in the paranoid-
schizoid state is that the persecutory object will get inside and overwhelm and annihilate the ideal
object and the self. “in situations of anxiety the split is widened and projection and introjection are
used in order to keep persecutory and ideal objects as far as possible from one another, while
keeping them both in control” (Segal, 1973, p. 26). Rapidly fluctuating situations may cause
persecution to be felt either as an external threat or an internal hypochondriacal fear.
Later work by Kernberg and Jacobson is based on Kleinian concepts of internal good and bad
objects, splitting of objects, self and object fragmentation, the projection of bad object, the massive
anxiety engendered by destructive aggressive fantasies. However, this raw appearance of primitive
infantile elements in the symptoms of psychosis is questioned by psychoanalysts who view the fears,
fantasies, and thoughts as manifest contents whose latent meaning can only be obtained thru
associative material (Buckley, 1988).
Many papers have been written on schizophrenic’s powerful tendencies towards
incorporation or introjection: a tendency that leaves him vulnerable to the therapist’s unconscious
processes (Numberg, 1921; Abraham, 1927; Bychowsky, 1930, Allen, 1930, as cited in Searle, n.d).
Drawing from these vulnerabilities, Searle maintains that schizophrenic acting out may be a response
to, or vicarious expression of the therapist’s unconscious processes.
Section III : Analytical Perspectives
To be normal is a splendid ideal for the unsuccessful, for all those who have not yet
found an adaptation. But for people who have far more ability than the average, for
whom it was never hard to gain success and to accomplish their share of the world’s
work – for them restriction to the normal signifies the bed of Procrustes, unbearable
boredom, infernal sterility and hopelessness. As a consequence there are as many
people who become neurotic because ethey are only normal, as there are people who
are neurotic because they cannot become normal. (Jung)
Analytical psychology considers psyche to be more powerful than the mind or the body,
affording it almost a sacred place in the hierarchy of existence. The following explores the works of
5
Bowers (1974, as cited in Buckley, 1988) suggested a biological predisposition model to an altered state triggered by
psychic conflicts. The model suggests a psychosomatic relationship that integrates biological and psychological
perspectives and three main determinants to psychosis – 1) Altered state of consciousness like heightened state of
awareness, intensification of sensory experiences, alterations in the sense of self, externalization of conflict, invasion of
perceptual and cognitive modalities 2) Idiosyncratic determinants of structure that determine the content of psychosis.
These reflect the psychology, history and intra-psychic conflict. 3) The time of the psychotic episode is contingent on the
life events and developmental challenges faced by the individual.
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7. 7
Jung6
and Stainslav Grof. The simplest explanation of Jung’s (1960a) hypothesis holds that the onset
of psychosis begins with “weakness” and “sensitivity” in the mind, or a predisposition that allows a
strong affect to initiate a certain moodiness followed by a complex. These complexes function as
black holes, sucking all activity – intrapsychic or interpsychic – and the psyche can never rid itself of
them. Associate blockings of psychosis (thought deprivations) are a consequence of thoughts being
sucked into such a complex, and as it affects more and more thoughts, the person deteriorates
linguistically and psychically causing word salad formations and stereotypical obsessions. The split
off complexes may invade personality alternately that causes bipolarity of behaviors. Though
atrophy of the complex reduces the degree of distress, “the complex itself causes extensive
destruction of personality, and the schizophrenic at best escapes with a psychic mutilation” (Jung,
1960b, p.97).
The psychological content of psychosis, according to Jung, is derived from person’s
intraversion, personal conscious, as well as the collective unconscious, “a restless creative fantasy
which is constantly engaged in smoothing away the hard edges of reality” (Jung, 1960a, p. 177). And
his theory of opposites posits that normally the internal compensates for the external, the
unconscious compensating for the conscious – establishing a homeostasis that enables day to day
functioning for all of us. The unconscious holds these compensatory functions internally in specific
formats that are different from their conscious counterparts. These compensatory influences consist
of typical attitudes, modes of actions, thought-processes and impulses that are a treasure-trove of
behaviors available to human species, and exist as archetypes. These are held in thru repression and
are guarded by various forms of resistances. When the external experiences distress and is perceived
to need significant compensation, the unconscious attempts compensatory influence in order to
maintain the homeostasis.When an archetypal energy is needed to compensate an external/conscious
deficit, it breaks thru into conscious mind. While crossing the boundaries of the unconscious it
encounters layers of psychic resistances that separate the unconscious from the conscious.
Distortions in the contents of the archetype are introduced in the process of overcoming these
resistances; the distorted archetype then proceeds to make itself heard/visible in the “language” of
the conscious mind, causing additional “translation errors” that add to the distortions. The process is
analogous to the game of Chinese Whisper with all its inherent distortions of content. The distortions
appear threatening to conscious intelligence and the individual attempts to fight these compensatory
influences, ie he fights his own unconscious strivings. As Jung succinctly puts it “the function of the
unconscious in mental disturbances is essentially a compensation of the conscious content. But
because of the characteristic one-sidedness of the conscious striving. . .the compensating correctives
are rendered useless” (Jung, 1960a, p. 210). The contents are not merely archaic, “but are also
distorted by their chaotic randomness” (Jung 1960a, p. 263).
Jung’s (1960a) suggests that schizophrenia involves splitting of personality into splinters
(like a mirror breaks). Each split off figure (complex) assumes “banal, grotesque, highly exaggerated
name or character” (p. 235) that intrudes uninvited on the conscious ego. These autonomous figures
(complexes) are not under the control of the ego. Whereas neurosis entails partial dissociation, and
partial loss of personality, schizophrenia is absolute, and Jung believed, largely irreversible. He
equates schizophrenia to a “big dream” in that it exhibits “the same numinous quality which in
primitive cultures is attributed to magical ritual. . . he is invaded by autonomous figures and thought
forms” (Jung, 1960a, p. 243). He further states that the primitive chooses not to feel invaded by
unconscious material, but feels strengthened by it.
Schizophrenic complexes, Jung notes, do not draw energy from other mental processes but
seems to devour its own energy, abstracting from its own contents, manifesting as disintegration of
6
Jung’s work on psychosis resulted from his research that culminated in the publication of The Psychology of Dementia
Precox which led to the formulation of his theory of affective complexes.
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
8. 8
means of expression and communication and “inadequate inaffectivity.” Complexes, he asserts,
generally normalize themselves by fitting into the hierarchy of higher psychic structures, or by
producing dissociation consistent with ego personality. In schizophrenia, the complex remains
archaic and “fixed in a chaotically random condition, regardless of its social aspect. . .alien,
incomprehensible, incommunicable,” (p.270) like majority of dreams. Just like the sleep state is
responsible for dream, he believed that a toxin produced in brain may have the noted effect on
localized archetypes in the subcortical region. He believed that discovery of such a toxin would
validate the process of self destruction of the complex that he had emphasized.
Following a constructivist approach towards investigation, Jung (1960a) believes that
psychotic activity follows neurotic activity, except that the psychotic does not have the “same
certainty with regard to his foundations” (p. 258). Hence he believed that “the thoughts of the patient
must be taken seriously and followed out to their logical conclusion; in that way the investigator
himself takes over the standpoint of the psychosis” (p. 191). Jung’s (1960a) treatment for psychosis
involves creative expressions so that “the chaos of his total situation may be visualized and
objectified; it can be observed at a distance by his conscious mind, analyzed and interpreted” (p.
260). He asserts that the psychological conflicts inherent in psychosis cannot be “dealt with. . .by
means of distraction reason and self control,” and that psychosis is a result of panic that arises when
it becomes known that there is no help available to solve the psychological problems. He believes
that if these internal conflicts are resolved prior to the panic stage, outbreak of psychosis can be
avoided for that incident. Hence Jung’s “method” for treating psychosis and schizophrenia is
subjective, varying with the needs of the patient.
Stanislav Grof’s (1989) work in functional psychosis bears special mention in understanding
a derivative of psychosis like states in spiritual environments. He holds that the anatomical,
psysiological or biochemical changes in the human brain lead to organic psychosis but there exist
other forms of functional psychotic states for which no medical explanation has been found, and yet
these get clubbed under medical diseases. Analytic psychology observes the expression of the mental
contents that emerge under nonordinary states of consciousness as “manifestations of the deep
recesses of the human psyche that are not ordinarily accessible” and holds that the surfacing of this
unconscious material can actually be healing and deeply transformative (Grof, 1989). Labeled as
Spiritual Emergency (Grof, 1989), such states are triggered by a powerful emotional experience, like
death or divorce, but can also be triggered by meditative spiritual experiences. These experiences
undergo three different stages:
1. Biological aspects of spiritual emergencies entail reliving and healing of traumatic events from
one’s own life.
2. The perinatal theme centers around remembering experiences of dying and being reborn
3. Transpersonal, spiritual, mystical, occult, magical or paranormal experiences involve
experiencing geographically remote events, melting of personal boundaries, also including
deities, demons, spiritual guides etc.
Grof (1989) suggests that spiritual experiences mislabeled as psychotic breaks under modern
medicine include the shamanic crisis, the awakening of kundalini, episodes of unitive consciousness,
psychological return thru the return to the center, the crisis of psychic opening, past life experiences,
communication with spiritual guides and “channeling”, near death experiences, experiences with
close encounters with UFOs, possession states etc.
Section IV: Conclusions & Countertransferences
Comparison
The three approaches to psychosis represent varying perspectives and understanding of the
problem labeled as psychosis, and at first glance appear as distinct, contradictory methods of treating
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
9. 9
the disorder. Upon closer scrutiny, one can almost conceptualize them as representing and
interacting with various layers of our subjective reality (Mathews, 2008). The outermost layer is
represented by the analytical psychology approach that addresses the collective and mythological
dimensions of the psyche, the psychic DNA and embedded inherent existential human suffering. The
second addresses layer represented by the personal unconscious created by the environment. It
concerns itself with issues where “mind’s capacities are stretched to deal with such challenges as
conflict, anxiety, overwhelming affect, trauma, unusual family patterns and biological differences”
(PDM, 2006). The medical model with neurological research and Cognitive Behavior Approach
represents the material, or physical layer. Whereas the first addresses the long term desire of the soul
to heal, the second heals the impairments of personal unconscious, the personal psyche and the third
heals the body, and enables day to day functioning. As such, these seem complementary rather than
competitive approaches to healing.
However, the side effects introduced by neuroleptics, in my humble opinion, do more harm
than they do good in many cases. They cause psychological arrest of the person in his healing
process, More than 60% of the patients seem to deteriorate despite (or because) of neuroleptics, and
suffer their secondary effects. Medication free treatment is available all over the world, but very
little is being publicized in the US because of the political hegemony of pharmaceutical companies,
which promote drugs that may have a crippling effect on certain population.
Countertransferences
I am a member of ICSPP, and a follower of Dr Peter Breggin, the author of Toxic Psychiatry.
For my PhD practicum, I trained in Dr Kevin McCready’s clinic that specializes in providing
medication free treatment thru analytical psychotherapy based on creative endeavors like art, play,
music and dream analysis. The client-base included, among others, people diagnosed with psychosis
and schizophrenia. In my current private practice, I facilitate a medication free environment and
have helped patients reduce their dependence on prescription medication. I believe that medication is
antithetic, even toxic to psychological healing. These countertransferential biases makes me partial
to Jungian approach to treatment of psychosis, and may have affected the quality and quantity of
information provided in this paper.
Psychosis & Schizophrenia (by: Madhu Sameer)
10. 10
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