This document provides an overview of schizophrenia, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. It discusses how schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, perception and volition. The causes are believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors. Symptoms are categorized into positive symptoms like hallucinations, negative symptoms like social withdrawal, and psychomotor symptoms involving movements. There are different types of schizophrenia that are diagnosed based on symptom presentation. Treatment involves antipsychotic medication as well as psychotherapy and community-based approaches.
Schizophrenia is a severe, chronic and disabling mental disorder with a varying course. It is characterised by a breakdown of thought processes and by a deficit of typical emotional responses. It is a clinical syndrome
This slide contains information regarding Schizophrenia. This can be helpful for proficiency level and bachelor level nursing students. Your feedback is highly appreciated.
Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally. Schizophrenia may result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and behavior that impairs daily functioning, and can be disabling. this chart is all about medical aspects of schizophrenia .
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Schizophrenia is a severe, chronic and disabling mental disorder with a varying course. It is characterised by a breakdown of thought processes and by a deficit of typical emotional responses. It is a clinical syndrome
This slide contains information regarding Schizophrenia. This can be helpful for proficiency level and bachelor level nursing students. Your feedback is highly appreciated.
Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally. Schizophrenia may result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and behavior that impairs daily functioning, and can be disabling. this chart is all about medical aspects of schizophrenia .
please comment
thank you
It's a types of mental disorder , in which person leave as alone & hallucination & delusion is common factor of the mental health disorder.
for more info visit@ mindtotalk.in
Research Paper on Schizophrenia: Perversion of the Human MindPaul Pasco
This is a research paper I wrote on schizophrenia during my undergraduate public health course at Drew University. The paper contains an overview of the disease, its prevalence, and different subtypes.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
2. “Schizophrenia is defined as functional psychotic condition characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, volition and perception in presence of clear consciousness, which usually leads to social withdrawal.” (Comer, R. J. 2005) Schizophrenia is most common among lower social classes. The psychological disorder of schizophrenia represents at once the misconceptions of the past, the solutions of the present, and the promise of the future. Indeed, Nevid & Rathus (2005) admit that the expression “schizophrenia” is a broad term that can be used to describe a wide variety of human behavior and psychological dysfunctioning. The variety of symptoms that represent this disorder range from hallucinations to paranoia. There are also several different types of diagnosed schizophrenia, including the catch-all category of undifferentiated schizophrenia. Furthermore, the biological, psychological, and sociocultural approaches to psychology aid in the understanding of the underlying causes associated with the disorder. Lastly, the treatment, or in some cases attempted treatment, of schizophrenia encompasses a wide range of solutions including antipsychotic drugs and in the past the use of asylums. As it is, schizophrenia is a complex disorder caused by a yet unknown combination of factors that underlie an obvious set of symptoms which can usually be treated successfully through the combination of drug therapy and psychotherapy/community treatment.
4. No one knows the exact causes of Schizophrenia, but multiple possible factors have been discovered. But, as is the case for many other illnesses, it is believed to result from a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Scientists have long known that schizophrenia runs in families. It occurs in 1 percent of the general population, but is seen in 10 percent of people with a first-degree relative (a parent, brother, or sister) with schizophrenia. People who have second-degree relatives (aunts, uncles, grandparents, or cousins) with the disease also develop schizophrenia more often than the general population. The identical twin of a person with schizophrenia is most at risk, having a 40 to 65 percent chance of developing the condition. So, although there is a genetic risk for schizophrenia, genes are unlikely to cause the disease on their own. It is believed that interactions between genes and the environment are necessary for schizophrenia to develop. Many environmental factors have been suggested as risk factors for schizophrenia, such as: Exposure to viruses, malnutrition in the womb, problems during birth, psychosocial factors, like stressful environmental conditions. The brains of people with schizophrenia look a little different from the brains of people without it, but the differences are small. Sometimes, the fluid-filled cavities at the center of the brain, called ventricles, are larger in people with schizophrenia. Also, the overall gray matter volume is lower, and some areas of the brain have less or more metabolic activity than normal.
5.
6. Negative Symptoms
7. Psychomotor SymptomsHallucinations a Positive Symptom of Schizophrenia
8. The symptoms of schizophrenia can be categorized into three wide-ranging groups. The first group comprises the positive symptoms which are usually characterized as pathological excess (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). This group is characterized as a pathological excess because the symptoms in this group add to a person’s behavior rather than subtract from a person’s behavior. Positive symptoms include delusions; specifically delusions of persecutions, delusions of reference, delusions of grandeur, and delusions of control. The first category of symptoms also include disorganized thinking and speech expressed as loose associations (derailment), neologisms or made-up words, preservation, and clang (rhyming). Furthermore, positive symptoms can be expressed through heightened perceptions, hallucinations, and memory loss. Lastly, some that suffer from schizophrenia exhibit a behavior called inappropriate affect which is characterized by emotions that are inappropriate for a given situation. The second division of the symptoms of schizophrenia include the negative symptoms or pathological deficits. These symptoms inhibit a person’s behavior significantly and include poverty of speech (alogia), blunt and flat affect characterized by blunted emotional responses or no emotional response, loss of volition (avolition), and social withdrawal. Lastly, the category of psychomotor symptoms entail awkward movements, repeated gestures, and even catatonia. The symptoms for schizophrenia seem to be pretty straightforward; however, the diagnosis of this disorders is not always so cut-and-dry. “Hallucinations and delusional ideas often occur together.A man with delusions of persecution may hallucinate the smell of poison in his bedroom or the taste of poison in his coffee. Might one symptom cause the other? Whichever comes first, the hallucination and delusion eventually feed into each other.” (Comer, R. J. 2005)
9.
10. Catatonic
11. Paranoid
12. Undifferentiated
13. ResidualUndifferentiated Schizophrenia
14. The DSM-IV allows the diagnosis of schizophrenia only after six or more months of continued symptoms (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). A decay in work, social relations, and the ability to take care of oneself must also be observed in order to issue a diagnosis of schizophrenia. There are five distinct types of schizophrenia which can be diagnosed and include disorganized schizophrenia, catatonic schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia, undifferentiated schizophrenia, and residual schizophrenia. The first category of disorganized schizophrenia entails the symptoms of incoherence, confusion, and inappropriate affect. On the other hand, catatonic schizophrenia is characterized mainly by either catatonic stupors or catatonic excitement. Maybe the most well known form of schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia includes, “an organized system of delusions and auditory hallucinations that may guide [the patient’s life]” (Nevid & Rathus, 2005, p. 360). Next, the diagnosis of undifferentiated schizophrenia is used for a person whose symptoms do not fall neatly into one of the aforementioned categories. The category of undifferentiated schizophrenia is however sometimes vaguely defined and as a result can be overused. Lastly, residual schizophrenia refers to a person whose symptoms have lessened in strength and number. (i.e. residual symptoms) Furthermore, separate from these categories someone suffering from schizophrenia can be classified with either Type I schizophrenia or Type II schizophrenia. Type I schizophrenia is reserved for those that are subject to mostly positive symptoms, and Type II schizophrenia is set aside for those that are subject to more negative symptoms. Now that the foundation of symptoms and diagnosis has been satisfied a more inclusive look at the different psychological perspectives can be appreciated…
16. “[When schizophrenia investigators began to identify genetic and biological factors during the 1950s and 1960s, many clinicians abandoned the psychological and sociocultural theories of the disorder.]” As with most psychological disorders, the first person to offer an intact theoretical framework from which to understand schizophrenia was Freud (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). His psychodynamic theory suggests that schizophrenia is caused by a cycle of regression to primary narcissism and the restoration of ego control/connection with reality. However, as is the case with most psychodynamic theories Freud does a superb job of explaining the situation but has only limited success in the treatment of the disorder. On the other hand, the biological view has had great success in explaining schizophrenia through genetic factors, biochemical abnormalities, abnormal brain structure, and viral problems. Furthermore, the cognitive approach hypothesizes that most of the characteristics of schizophrenia are produced when a person tries to compute or understand the unusually sensations that usually accompany the onset of the disorder. Lastly, the sociocultural view takes into account the factors of social labeling and family dysfunctioning when considering the disorder. Of particular interest is the social labeling aspect of the sociocultural view of schizophrenia. Social labeling explains that some of the symptoms of schizophrenia might be a result of the diagnosis itself, thereby affecting how a diagnosed person views themselves and how other people treat that person. Collectively, the diathesis-stress view suggests that schizophrenia is caused by a biological predisposition coupled with certain types of stress. With an understanding of the symptoms, the possible diagnosis, and the viewpoint of different psychological perspectives in hand all that is left are the possible treatments…
22. A person who has been diagnosed with Catatonic Schizophrenia can be clumsy and uncoordinated. They may also show involuntary movements, grimacing, or unusual mannerisms. They may repeat certain motions over and over or, in extreme cases, may become catatonic. People with Disorganized Schizophrenia often have unusual thought processes. One dramatic form is disorganized thinking, where the person may have difficulty organizing thoughts or connecting them logically. Speech may be garbled or hard to understand. Another form is "thought blocking," where the person stops abruptly in the middle of a thought. When asked, the person may say it felt as if the thought had been taken out of his or her head. Finally, the individual might make up unintelligible words, or "neologisms.“Paranoid schizophrenia is the most common form. With this type of schizophrenia, the primary symptoms are delusions or auditory hallucinations. People with paranoid schizophrenia usually do not have thought disorder, disorganized behavior, or affective flattening. People with this condition have grandiose delusions. For example, they may believe that others are deliberately: Cheating them, harassing them, poisoning them, spying upon them, plotting against them or the people they care about. Auditory hallucinations can include hearing "voices" that may: Comment on the person's behavior, order him or her to do things, warn of impending danger, talk to each other (usually about the affected person).Residual schizophrenia can occur in people with long-term schizophrenia. With this schizophrenia type, a person no longer shows positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior), but still shows negative symptoms, which can include: Flat affect (for example, immobile facial expression and monotonous voice), lack of pleasure in everyday life, diminished ability to initiate and sustain planned activity, speaking infrequently, even when forced to interact. People with residual schizophrenia often neglect basic hygiene and need help with everyday living activities. When a person is diagnosed with the Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia, a person meets the criteria to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, but his or her symptoms are not consistent with any of the other forms of the disease.
23. Conclusion: “If you talk to God, you are praying; if God talks to you, you have schizophrenia” (Szasz, n.d., p. 1).
24. It is clear now, through the use of genetic linkage studies and microbiology, that schizophrenia does indeed have a biological explanation (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). However, the biological explanation is only part of the story. A yet unknown combination of intense stress, sociocultural situations, and cognitive processes may lead to the actual onset of schizophrenia aided by natural precursors. The most compelling explanation seems to be that a genetically inherited biological abnormality gives rise to hallucinations/delusions as a result of intense stress and eventually leads to other negative symptoms in reaction to the hallucinations/ delusions. At any rate, the current understanding of schizophrenia explains that the symptoms, however easily identifiable, are the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture that can be treated adequately through the use of atypical antipsychotic drugs and psychotherapy/community treatment.
25. Reference Page: Comer, R. J. (2005). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (4th ed.). New York: Worth. Nevid, J.S., & Rathus, S.A. (2005). Psychology and the challenges of life: Adjustment in the new millennium (9th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Szasz, T. (n.d.). Retrieved September 5, 2008, from The Quotations Page Web site: http://www.quotationspage.com/search.php3?homesearch=schizophrenia&startsearch=Search
26. Reference Page Continued… The pictures are brought by: http://schizophrenia.emedtv.com/schizophrenia/types-of-schizophrenia-p2.html http://www.schizophrenia.com/presentations/stanford.05/stanpres/ http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://data.whicdn.com/images/2967028/chickenparanoia2_thumb.jpg%3F1278900077&imgrefurl=http://weheartit.com/schastye&usg=__m2xoex6_oCoaoTPeA5XxxwtFnho=&h=200&w=240&sz=23&hl=en&start=21&sig2=XB9bLx6FOlxr4hCd5aVa5Q&zoom=1&tbnid=yIvs9aWVONK4OM:&tbnh=130&tbnw=156&ei=pending&prev=/search%3Fq%3Ddoug%2Bsavage%2Bcomic%2Bpictures%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26biw%3D1362%26bih%3D587%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=0&oei=FzqeTe-iK8Obtwf568ScAw&page=2&ndsp=22&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:21&tx=111&ty=51
Editor's Notes
“Schizophrenia is defined as functional psychotic condition characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotion, volition and perception in presence of clear consciousness, which usually leads to social withdrawal.” (Comer, R. J. 2005) Schizophrenia is most common among lower social classes. The psychological disorder of schizophrenia represents at once the misconceptions of the past, the solutions of the present, and the promise of the future. Indeed, Nevid & Rathus (2005) admit that the expression “schizophrenia” is a broad term that can be used to describe a wide variety of human behavior and psychological dysfunctioning. The variety of symptoms that represent this disorder range from hallucinations to paranoia. There are also several different types of diagnosed schizophrenia, including the catch-all category of undifferentiated schizophrenia. Furthermore, the biological, psychological, and sociocultural approaches to psychology aid in the understanding of the underlying causes associated with the disorder. Lastly, the treatment, or in some cases attempted treatment, of schizophrenia encompasses a wide range of solutions including antipsychotic drugs and in the past the use of asylums. As it is, schizophrenia is a complex disorder caused by a yet unknown combination of factors that underlie an obvious set of symptoms which can usually be treated successfully through the combination of drug therapy and psychotherapy/community treatment.
No one knows the exact causes of Schizophrenia, but multiple possible factors have been discovered. But, as is the case for many other illnesses, it is believed to result from a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Scientists have long known that schizophrenia runs in families. It occurs in 1 percent of the general population, but is seen in 10 percent of people with a first-degree relative (a parent, brother, or sister) with schizophrenia. People who have second-degree relatives (aunts, uncles, grandparents, or cousins) with the disease also develop schizophrenia more often than the general population. The identical twin of a person with schizophrenia is most at risk, having a 40 to 65 percent chance of developing the condition. So, although there is a genetic risk for schizophrenia, genes are unlikely to cause the disease on their own. It is believed that interactions between genes and the environment are necessary for schizophrenia to develop. Many environmental factors have been suggested as risk factors for schizophrenia, such as: Exposure to viruses, malnutrition in the womb, problems during birth, psychosocial factors, like stressful environmental conditions. The brains of people with schizophrenia look a little different from the brains of people without it, but the differences are small. Sometimes, the fluid-filled cavities at the center of the brain, called ventricles, are larger in people with schizophrenia. Also, the overall gray matter volume is lower, and some areas of the brain have less or more metabolic activity than normal.
The symptoms of schizophrenia can be categorized into three wide-ranging groups. The first group comprises the positive symptoms which are usually characterized as pathological excess (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). This group is characterized as a pathological excess because the symptoms in this group add to a person’s behavior rather than subtract from a person’s behavior. Positive symptoms include delusions; specifically delusions of persecutions, delusions of reference, delusions of grandeur, and delusions of control. The first category of symptoms also include disorganized thinking and speech expressed as loose associations (derailment), neologisms or made-up words, preservation, and clang (rhyming). Furthermore, positive symptoms can be expressed through heightened perceptions, hallucinations, and memory loss. Lastly, some that suffer from schizophrenia exhibit a behavior called inappropriate affect which is characterized by emotions that are inappropriate for a given situation. The second division of the symptoms of schizophrenia include the negative symptoms or pathological deficits. These symptoms inhibit a person’s behavior significantly and include poverty of speech (alogia), blunt and flat affect characterized by blunted emotional responses or no emotional response, loss of volition (avolition), and social withdrawal. Lastly, the category of psychomotor symptoms entail awkward movements, repeated gestures, and even catatonia. The symptoms for schizophrenia seem to be pretty straightforward; however, the diagnosis of this disorders is not always so cut-and-dry. “Hallucinations and delusional ideas often occur together.A man with delusions of persecution may hallucinate the smell of poison in his bedroom or the taste of poison in his coffee. Might one symptom cause the other? Whichever comes first, the hallucination and delusion eventually feed into each other.” (Comer, R. J. 2005)
The DSM-IV allows the diagnosis of schizophrenia only after six or more months of continued symptoms (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). A decay in work, social relations, and the ability to take care of oneself must also be observed in order to issue a diagnosis of schizophrenia. There are five distinct types of schizophrenia which can be diagnosed and include disorganized schizophrenia, catatonic schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia, undifferentiated schizophrenia, and residual schizophrenia. The first category of disorganized schizophrenia entails the symptoms of incoherence, confusion, and inappropriate affect. On the other hand, catatonic schizophrenia is characterized mainly by either catatonic stupors or catatonic excitement. Maybe the most well known form of schizophrenia, paranoid schizophrenia includes, “an organized system of delusions and auditory hallucinations that may guide [the patient’s life]” (Nevid & Rathus, 2005, p. 360). Next, the diagnosis of undifferentiated schizophrenia is used for a person whose symptoms do not fall neatly into one of the aforementioned categories. The category of undifferentiated schizophrenia is however sometimes vaguely defined and as a result can be overused. Lastly, residual schizophrenia refers to a person whose symptoms have lessened in strength and number. (i.e. residual symptoms) Furthermore, separate from these categories someone suffering from schizophrenia can be classified with either Type I schizophrenia or Type II schizophrenia. Type I schizophrenia is reserved for those that are subject to mostly positive symptoms, and Type II schizophrenia is set aside for those that are subject to more negative symptoms. Now that the foundation of symptoms and diagnosis has been satisfied a more inclusive look at the different psychological perspectives can be appreciated…
“[When schizophrenia investigators began to identify genetic and biological factorsduring the 1950s and 1960s, many clinicians abandoned the psychological andsociocultural theories of the disorder.]” As with most psychological disorders, the first person to offer an intact theoretical framework from which to understand schizophrenia was Freud (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). His psychodynamic theory suggests that schizophrenia is caused by a cycle of regression to primary narcissism and the restoration of ego control/connection with reality. However, as is the case with most psychodynamic theories Freud does a superb job of explaining the situation but has only limited success in the treatment of the disorder. On the other hand, the biological view has had great success in explaining schizophrenia through genetic factors, biochemical abnormalities, abnormal brain structure, and viral problems. Furthermore, the cognitive approach hypothesizes that most of the characteristics of schizophrenia are produced when a person tries to compute or understand the unusually sensations that usually accompany the onset of the disorder. Lastly, the sociocultural view takes into account the factors of social labeling and family dysfunctioning when considering the disorder. Of particular interest is the social labeling aspect of the sociocultural view of schizophrenia. Social labeling explains that some of the symptoms of schizophrenia might be a result of the diagnosis itself, thereby affecting how a diagnosed person views themselves and how other people treat that person. Collectively, the diathesis-stress view suggests that schizophrenia is caused by a biological predisposition coupled with certain types of stress. With an understanding of the symptoms, the possible diagnosis, and the viewpoint of different psychological perspectives in hand all that is left are the possible treatments…
Schizophrenia treatment has advanced considerably in recent years. However, since the causes of schizophrenia are still unknown, current treatment focuses on: Eliminating the symptoms of the disease, improving quality of life, and restoring productive lives. Treatment and other service interventions are often linked to the clinical phases of schizophrenia: Acute phase, stabilizing phase, stable (or maintenance) phase and the recovery phase. Achieving optimal treatment for schizophrenia across all phases of the disorder generally requires some form of medical therapy with antipsychotic medication, usually combined with a variety of psychosocial interventions (e.g., therapy, rehabilitation). Antipsychotic medications for schizophrenia have been available since the mid-1950s. These drugs alleviate the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. While antipsychotic medications have greatly improved the lives of many patients, they do not cure schizophrenia. Everyone responds differently to antipsychotic medications. In some cases, several different drugs must be tried before the right one is found. People with schizophrenia should work in partnership with their doctor to find the medications that best control their symptoms with the fewest side effects. Like diabetes or high blood pressure, schizophrenia is a chronic disorder that needs constant management. At this time, schizophrenia cannot be cured, but the number of psychotic episodes a person experiences can be decreased significantly by staying on the prescribed medications. Although responses vary from person to person, most people receiving schizophrenia treatment need to take some type of medication for the rest of their lives and use other approaches, such as supportive therapy or rehabilitation, as well. Antipsychotic medications can produce unpleasant or dangerous side effects when taken with certain other drugs. For this reason, the doctor who prescribes the antipsychotics should be told about all medications (over-the-counter and prescription) and all vitamins, minerals, and herbal supplements the patient takes. The use of alcohol or other drugs should also be discussed. Patients who receive regular psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia also adhere better to their medication schedule and have fewer relapses and hospitalizations. A positive relationship with a therapist or a case manager gives the patient a reliable source of information, sympathy, encouragement, and hope -- all of which are essential for recovery. By explaining the nature and causes of schizophrenia and the need for medication, the therapist can also help patients acknowledge the reality of their disorder and adjust to the limitations it imposes.
A person who has been diagnosed with Catatonic Schizophrenia can be clumsy and uncoordinated. They may also show involuntary movements, grimacing, or unusual mannerisms. They may repeat certain motions over and over or, in extreme cases, may become catatonic. People with Disorganized Schizophrenia often have unusual thought processes. One dramatic form is disorganized thinking, where the person may have difficulty organizing thoughts or connecting them logically. Speech may be garbled or hard to understand. Another form is "thought blocking," where the person stops abruptly in the middle of a thought. When asked, the person may say it felt as if the thought had been taken out of his or her head. Finally, the individual might make up unintelligible words, or "neologisms.“Paranoid schizophrenia is the most common form. With this type of schizophrenia, the primary symptoms are delusions or auditory hallucinations. People with paranoid schizophrenia usually do not have thought disorder, disorganized behavior, or affective flattening. People with this condition have grandiose delusions. For example, they may believe that others are deliberately: Cheating them, harassing them, poisoning them, spying upon them, plotting against them or the people they care about. Auditory hallucinations can include hearing "voices" that may: Comment on the person's behavior, order him or her to do things, warn of impending danger, talk to each other (usually about the affected person).Residual schizophrenia can occur in people with long-term schizophrenia. With this schizophrenia type, a person no longer shows positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior), but still shows negative symptoms, which can include: Flat affect (for example, immobile facial expression and monotonous voice), lack of pleasure in everyday life, diminished ability to initiate and sustain planned activity, speaking infrequently, even when forced to interact. People with residual schizophrenia often neglect basic hygiene and need help with everyday living activities. When a person is diagnosed with the Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia, a person meets the criteria to be diagnosed with schizophrenia, but his or her symptoms are not consistent with any of the other forms of the disease.
It is clear now, through the use of genetic linkage studies and microbiology, that schizophrenia does indeed have a biological explanation (Nevid & Rathus, 2005). However, the biological explanation is only part of the story. A yet unknown combination of intense stress, sociocultural situations, and cognitive processes may lead to the actual onset of schizophrenia aided by natural precursors. The most compelling explanation seems to be that a genetically inherited biological abnormality gives rise to hallucinations/delusions as a result of intense stress and eventually leads to other negative symptoms in reaction to the hallucinations/ delusions. At any rate, the current understanding of schizophrenia explains that the symptoms, however easily identifiable, are the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture that can be treated adequately through the use of atypical antipsychotic drugs and psychotherapy/community treatment.