1. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental
functions and behaviors.[1][2]Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both
establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit
society.[5][6] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as
a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual
and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biologicalprocesses that underlie cognitive functions and
behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain
functioning,personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and
other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind.[7] Psychologists employ empirical
methods to infer causaland correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to
employing empirical and deductivemethods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely
upon symbolic interpretation and other inductivetechniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[8] with
psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and
the humanities, such as philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also
directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority of
psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do
scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university
psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed
in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[9] such ashuman development and aging, sports, health, and the
media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.
Etymology
The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (ψυχή psukhē , "breath, spirit, soul" and -λογία -logia, "study of" or
"research").[10] The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his
book, Psichiologia d e ration e anima e humana e in the late 15th century or early 16th century.[11] The earliest known
reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to
"Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[12]
History
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind. Wundt is credited with setting up
psychology as a field of scientific inquiry independent of the disciplines philosophy and biology.
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India,
and Persia. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De
Anima treatise),[13] covered the workings of the mind in their writings.[14] As early as the 4th century BC, Greek
physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders were of a physical, rather than divine, nature.[15]
Structuralism
Main article: Structuralism (psychology)
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the
"father ofexperimental psychology",[16] he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.
[16] Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to
recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material. Although Wundt,

2. himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in early American psychology, was a
structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.
Functionalism
Main article: Functional psychology
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the
work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should have
practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles
of Psychology,[17] published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for
years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.
Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the
experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,
[18] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed
"classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[19]
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as
experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually,
constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[20] In its early years, this development was seen as a"revolution,"[20] as
cognitive science both responded to and reacted against then-popular theories,
including psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories.
Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, which comprised a
method of investigating the mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a
form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict.[21]Freud's psychoanalytic
theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It became very well known, largely
because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological
development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly
discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest
in dream interpretation.[22][23]
row:Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.
Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form
of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts,
psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W.
Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th
century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.[24]
Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers
including Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific
discipline,[25] whereas Eysenck said that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of
20th century, psychology departments in American universities had become scientifically oriented, marginalizing Freudian
theory and dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[26] Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging
field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,[27] while scholars of
the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[26]

3. Behaviorism
Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction
In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that
was established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L.
Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be
predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.
Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate
associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns,
then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were
held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure.
Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew
more sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[28] He
believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize
the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private)
behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[29] Behaviorists usually rejected or
deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that
underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly
manifest.[28]
Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied classical
conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference between classical conditioning
and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[30][31] Skinner's version of
behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their
consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the
decline of behaviorism's prominence.[32] Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to
outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[33][34] But Skinner's behaviorism did not
die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications.[32] The fall of behaviorism as an overarching
model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[35]
Humanistic
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic
needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[36]
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[37] By
using phenomenology,intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole
person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[38] Humanism focused on fundamentally
and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-
identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective
meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders
of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of
human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later,positive psychology opened up
humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

4. Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based
upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and
Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking
down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is
important, and the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt
psychology.
Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish
philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch
of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict
within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human
nature and in their relatively positive assessment ofanxiety.[39] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes
of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[40] and that it can
be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other
future prospects.
Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from
reflections garnered from his own internment,[41] and he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy,
a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler'sNietzschean doctrine
of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[42]
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be
said to belong to the existential school.[43]
Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology), Cognitive psychology and Cognitive science
Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including problem
solving, perception, memory, andlearning. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related
to other disciplines includingneuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of
"stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal
experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a
superficial and vague manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring
language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and
reinforcement.[44] Social learning theorists, such asAlbert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make

5. contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.[45]
The Müller–Lyer illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical
illusions.
Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e.,
the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian
psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of
the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of
information by humans andinformation processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War
II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[46] By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become
the dominant paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive
psychologists set such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unc onscious mindor the
behavioristic c onting ency-shap e d b ehaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the
basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American
psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other
disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.
Subfields
Further information:Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Main article: Subfields of psychology
.
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and
behavior
Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology and Cognitive neuroscience
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes.
There are different specialties within behavioral neuroscience. For example, physiological psychologists use animal models,
typically rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and
memory and fear responses.[47] Cognitive neuroscientistsinvestigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in
humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance,
specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease.
Clinical
Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families, couples, or small groups.
Main articles:Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding,preventing, and

6. relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.
Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in
research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[48] Some clinical
psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical
neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a
formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various
therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures
intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking,
feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic,
and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches,
especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the
advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are
about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[49][50]Because of this,
more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[51][52][53][54][55]
The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient
Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the
1870s, when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders on
various other fields including physiology,neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy
and other components of the humanities.
Today, psychology is defined as "the study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the mind and
behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. For a condensed overview of the
subject see the Timeline of Psychology article.
Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory
dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as a
psychologist and wrote the first textbook on psychology: Principles of Physiological Psychology. Other important early
contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father
of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning).
Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G. Stanley
Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of
the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to
industry, law, and other fields.Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen

7. Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program of mental testing in the 1890s. In
Vienna, meanwhile, Sigmund Freuddeveloped an independent approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis,
which has been widely influential.
The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This contributed to the formulation
ofbehaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed emphasizing the study of
overt behavior, because that could be quantified and easily measured. Early behaviorists considered study of the "mind" too
vague for productive scientific study. However, Skinner and his colleagues did study thinking as a form of covert behavior to
which they could apply the same principles as overt (publicly observable) behavior. The final decades of the 20th century
saw the rise of cognitive science, an interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again
considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer
science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of
the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial
intelligence.
Types of Behaviors in Psychology
Psychology is actually study with regards to the mind, taking place partly through the study of behavior. In scientific
approach, psychology has got the immediate goal of knowing individuals and groups by each researching specific cases and
forming general principles and for most it eventually aims to help society.
In this field, an expert researcher or practitioner is known as psychologist and could be classified like a behavioral scientist,
cognitive scientist or social scientist. Psychologists try to understand the part of mental functions within social behavior and
individual, while additionally exploring the neurobiological and physiological processes which underlie certain cognitive
behaviors and functions.
Types of Communication Behaviors
Communication is actually a constant flow of nonverbal and verbal details. Relationships could be built on or broken through
the use of negative and positive communication behaviors. Knowing how other people communicate their feelings, assists
strengthen interactions. However, communication behaviors which are misunderstood can make misinformation and
distance. The right choice of communication behavior can make the difference between negative and a positive situation.
Listening can be a communication behavior with a number of different techniques. Comprehension listening, evaluation
listening and critical listening tend to be communication behaviors together with positive effects. Comprehension listening
entails knowing the meaning of exactly what is said. Critical listening needs judging what has been said to make an opinion.
This kind of behavior entails effort in order to analyze the given information.
Passive Aggressive Behavior
Passive aggressive behavior comes in many forms however can usually manifest as a non-verbal aggression which evolved
in negative behavior. It is where one is angry with somebody but do not let them know. Rather than interacting honestly you
feel annoyed, upset, disappointed or irritated, you may as an alternative bottle up the feelings, shut down verbally, make

8. obvious modifications in behavior, give angry looks, sulky, be obstructive, or put up a stone wall.
A passive aggressive may well not always show that a person is resentful or angry. He or she can be found in friendly,
agreement, polite, down-to-earth, well-meaning and kind. But, underneath there might be manipulations happening -
therefore the term is Passive Aggressive Behavior.
A type of behavior is way to group behaviors. Any specific behavior might have characteristics fitting in numerous
categories.
The way in which human beings or animals react to various stimuli or situations can be categorized as types of behavior.
Types which are of unique interest and frequently studied, includes emotional behavior, in which an individual or animal
responds emotionally to a scenario; bad behavior, in which people break interpersonal rules, for example being rude or
otherwise not minding; out of control behavior, where a person cannot control his / her behavior; and also group behavior or
how several people act in several situations.
Appropriate Behavior
Description: Accomplishes desired and desired goals without trespassing on the needs and rights of others. This also
includes suitable emotional responses.
Example: Keeps hale and hearty eating habits; Acquires satisfaction for a work done or problems solved without
depreciating others.
Deficit Behavior
Description: Nonexistence of knowledge and skills needed for carrying out the behavior.
Example: Active studying, note taking; passive responding in social circumstances
Excess Behavior
Description: Too much of a Behavior
Example: Consuming alcohol until passed out. Eats too much and Smoking.
Inappropriate Behavior
Description: The behavior takes place at a place or time which is inappropriate. If it happened under other situations then
the inappropriate behavior would be adequate.
Example: Exhibitionism or Bed-wetting
Maladaptive or Emotional Behavior
Description: Skilled with performance however has a stronger than distinctive autonomic system response, frequently it is
anxieties and fears.
Example: Test Anxiety; shyness
What is Contemporary Psychology?

9. Answer
Contemporary psychology is also referred to as modern psychology because it contains more recent information that is the
result of more recent research studies. It often disputes previous findings on the causes and effects of certain behavioral
conditions and can cause some doctors to change their course of treatment.
Branches of Psychology
Psychology is a remarkably diverse subject, which is why a number of different branches have emerged to
explore different topics and perspectives. Explore some of the many branches of psychology and learn more
about what each one has to offer, including forensic psychology, cognitive psychology, human factors and
many more.
Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The
term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and
many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors. Conditioning,
reinforcement and punishment are key concepts used by behaviorists. Learn more about classical
conditioning and operant conditioning as well as some of the major behaviorist thinkers.
Neuroscience and Biological Psychology
While our minds plays a role in our physical well-being, our biological processes also influence our mental
health. Learn more about how the brain and nervous system impact our behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of mental disorders. Learn more about topics and issues in clinical psychology.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is an area that looks at "interior" states including thought, motivation, attention,
problem-solving and decision-making. Explore some of the different topics of interest within the field of
cognitive psychology.
Comparative Psychology
Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study
of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human
behavior

10. Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology focuses on human growth throughout the lifespan. Childhood is obviously a time
of tremendous change, but people also continue to grow and develop during the early adult, middle age, and
senior years. In this section, learn more about topics including child development, intellectual development,
cognitive development, and the aging process.
Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational
issues, and student concerns. Find more information about educational psychology.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the intersection of psychology and the law.
Learn more about the applications of forensic psychology and various issues in this growing specialty area.
Health Psychology - All About Health Psychology
Health psychology focuses on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and
illness. Learn more about health psychology and the type of work that health psychologists do.
Human Factors Psychology
Human factors is the branch of psychology concerned with applying psychological principles to product
design, usability issues, human-computer interaction and ergonomics.
Industrial Organizational Psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology is concerned with the study of workplace behavior. Learn more about
this branch of psychology.
Personality Psychology
Learn more about personality, how it develops, and how it influences our behavior. Read about the major
theories of personality development.
Positive Psychology
Positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on understanding human well-being and happiness.
Learn more about this area of psychology as well as some of the major thinkers in positive psychology.
Social Psychology
Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior. Learn more about group behavior, how we
interact with others, and social influences on decision making.
Sports Psychology
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and
physical activity. Learn more about this branch of psychology, its history and careers within this field.

11. Principles Of Growth And Development
You are getting ready to do your laundry. What do you do first? Then what? What's the last thing that occurs? You
probably answered these questions the same way that most others would: First you sort your laundry into loads of
lights and darks, next are the steps to wash and dry, and last you put the laundry away. Most people would
answer these questions in the same way because there is a sequential process that has to take place to get your
clothes clean and put away.
Biological development takes place in a similar, organized manner. Biological development occurs in a sequential
order. Typical biological development also takes place as a predictable and orderly process. Most children will
develop at the same rate and at about the same time as other children. These patterns of growth and
development allow us to predict how and when most children will develop certain characteristics.
There are also certain universal principles of growth and development that describe how the process of growth
takes place. These are the cephalocaudal principle, the proximodistal principle, and the orthogenetic principle.
Cephalocaudal Principle
The cephalocaudal principle states that development proceeds from top to bottom. According to this principle, a
child will gain physical control of their head first. After this, physical control will move downward to the arms and
lastly to the legs.
Imagine that you are holding a newborn. You have to carefully support the baby's head because the baby is not
strong enough to support its head by itself. By the time the child is two months old, it develops enough strength to
hold its head up on its own and to control its facial movements. Over the next few months, the baby gains control
over the use of its arms. The baby can lift itself, and it can reach for objects. Finally, the child learns to control leg
movements and to crawl, stand, and walk.
Proximodistal Principle
The proximodistal principle also describes the direction of development. This principle states that development
proceeds from the center of the body outward.
Think of a fertilized egg. This one tiny cell divides and expands outward to become an embryo. The spinal cord
forms first, and development progresses outward to become a fetus. The limbs of the body form before hands and
feet, and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
Orthogenetic Principle
The orthogenetic principle does not involve the direction of development. Instead, the orthogenetic principle
states that development proceeds from the simple to the complex. This means that development of more difficult
tasks begins with the mastery of simple tasks first. In other words, one stage of development lays the foundation
for the next stage of development.
Think of a child who is using crayons to draw a picture. The child did not simply sit down one day, grab a crayon,
and draw. The child had to first learn the more simplistic task of grasping the crayon before learning to make
purposeful movements with it that would form a picture. The same is true for the development of speech. In order
to use words, a child must first learn to produce basic sounds.
While these universal principles exist and we can predict that certain growth and development will take place

12. during certain periods, it is also important to recognize that individual differences in rates of development are
normal. This is why most stages of development are described as occurring within an age range rather than at a
specific time.
Biological development occurs in an organized, sequential order. This is similar to the steps you would take to
complete any task, such as doing your laundry.
There are three principles of growth and development: the cephalocaudal principle, the proximodistal principle,
and the orthogenetic principle. These predictable patterns of growth and development allow us to predict how and
when most children will develop certain characteristics. Growth and development typically occurs within certain
time periods with allowance for individual difference in the rate of development.
The cephalocaudal principle says that development progresses from top to bottom. Theproximodistal
principle says that development progresses from the center of the body outward. Theorthogenetic
principle says that development proceeds from the simple to the complex.
Nervous System:
Nervous system is the chief controlling and coordinating system of the body. It controls and
regulates all activities of the body, whether voluntary or involuntary, and adjusts the individual
(organism) to the given surroundings. This is based on the special properties of sensitivity,
conductivity and responsiveness of the nervous system.
The protoplasmic extensions of the nerve cells form the neural pathways called nerves. The nerves
resemble the electricity wires. Like the electric current flowing through the wires, the impulses
(sensory and motor) are conducted through the nerves.
The sensory impulses are transmitted by the sensory (afferent) nerves from the periphery (skin,
mucous membranes, muscles, tendons, joints, and special sense organs) to the central nervous
system (CNS). The motor impulses are transmitted by the motor (efferent) nerves from the central
nervous system to the periphery (muscles and glands).
Thus the CNS is kept continuously informed about the surroundings (environment) through various
sensory impulses, both general and special. The CNS in turn brings about necessary adjustment of
the body by issuing appropriate orders which arc passed on as motor impulses to the muscles,
vessels, viscera and glands. The adjustment of the organism to the given surroundings is the most
important function of the nervous system, without which it will not be possible for the organism ta
survive.
Parts of Nervous System:
The nervous system is broadly divided into central and peripheral parts which are
continuous with each other. Further subdivisions of each part are given below.

13. 1. Brain or encephalon, which occupies cranial cavity, and contains the higher governing centers.
2. Spinal cord or spinal medulla, which occupies upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal, and
contains many reflex centers.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes:
1. Cerebrospinal nervous system is the somatic component of the peripheral nervous system,
which includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31pairs of spinal nerves. It innervates the somatic
structures of the head and neck, limbs and body wall, and mediates somatic sensory and motor
functions.
2. Peripheral autonomic nervous system is the visceral component of the peripheral nervous
system, which includes the visceral or splanchnic nerves that are connected to the CNS through
the somatic nerves. It innervates the viscera, glands, blood vessels and non-striated muscles,
and mediates the visceral functions.
Sensation & Perception - When we smell a fragrant flower, are we experiencing a sensation
or a perception? In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and "perception' are often
used interchangeably.
However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet complementary processes. In this
section, we will discuss some concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and
then move on to discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible in the scope of
these notes to discuss all the senses).
I. Sensations and Perceptions
Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the
outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we
do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.Perception can be defined
as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought
to the brain by the senses.
A) HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER:
1) Sensation occurs:
a) sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the
environment.
b) sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send
them to the brain.
2) Perception follows:
a) the brain organizes the information and translates it into something
meaningful.
Definition of Learning
The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics.
Learning occurs continuously throughout a person's lifetime. To define
learning, it is necessary to analyze what happens to the individual. For
example, an individual's way of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and doing may
change as a result of a learning experience. Thus, learning can be defined

14. as a change in behavior as a result of experience. This can be physical and
overt, or it may involve complex intellectual or attitudinal changes which
affect behavior in more subtle ways. In spite of numerous theories and
contrasting views, psychologists generally agree on many common
characteristics of learning.
Characteristics of Learning
Aviation instructors need a
good understanding of the
general characteristics of
learning in order to apply
them in a learning
situation. lf learning is a
change in behavior as a
result of experience, then
instruction must include a
careful and systematic
creation of those
experiences that promote
learning. This process can
be quite complex because,
among other things, an
individual's background
strongly influences the
way that person learns. To
be effective, the learning
situation also should be
purposeful, based on
experience, multifaceted,
and involve an active
process.
Learning is Purposeful
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual
whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved.
For example, an instructor may give two aviation maintenance students the assignment of learning
certain inspection procedures. One student may learn quickly and be able to competently present
the assigned material. The combination of an aviation background and future goals may enable that
student to realize the need and value of learning the procedures. A second student's goal may only
be to comply with the instructor's assignment, and may result in only minimum preparation. The
responses differ because each student ads in accordance with what he or she sees in the situation.
Most people have fairly definate ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Their goals
sometimes are short term, involving a matter of days or weeks. On the other hand, their goals may
be carefully planned for a career or a lifetime. Each student has specific intentions and goals. Some
may be shared by other students. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals.
Their individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instruc- tor
is trying to get them to learn. In the process of learning, the student's goals are of paramount
significance. To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the
student's goals.

15. Learning is a Result of Experience
Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student can
learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from a
person. A person's knowledge is a result of experience, and no two people have had identical
experiences. Even when observing the same event, two people react differently; they learn different
things from it, according to the manner in which the situation affects their individual needs. Previous
experience conditions a person to respond to some things and to ignore others.
All learning is by experience, but learning takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of
richness and depth. For instance, some experiences involve the whole person while others may be
based only on hearing and memory. Aviation instructors are faced with the problem of providing
learning experiences that are meaningful, varied, and appropriate. As an example, students can
learn to say a list of words through repeated drill, or they can learn to recite certain principles of
flight by rote. However, they can make them meaningful only if they understand them well enough
to apply them correctly to real situations. If an experience challenges the students, requires
involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences, and physical activity, it is more
effective than a learning experience in which all the students have to do is commit something to
memory.
It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical skill requires actual experience in performing
that skill. Student pilots learn to fly aircraft only if their experiences include flying them; student
aviation maintenance technicians learn to overhaul powerplants only by actually performing that
task. Mental habits are also learned through practice. If students are to use sound judgment and
develop decision-making skills, they need learning experiences that involve knowledge of general
principles and require the use of judgment in salving realistic problems.
Learning is Multifaceted
If instructors see their objective as being only to train their students' memory and muscles, they are
underestimating the potential of the teaching situation. Students may learn much more than
expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings. The fact that these items were not included
in the instructor's plan does not prevent them from influencing the learning situation.
Psychologists sometimes classify learning by types, such as verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor,
problem solving, and emotional. Other classifications refer to intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
and attitudinal changes, along with descriptive terms like surface or deep learning. However useful
these divisions may be, they are somewhat artificial. For example, a class learning to apply the
scientific method of problem solving may learn the method by trying to solve real problems. But in
doing so, the class also engages in verbal learning and sensory perception at the same time. Each
student approaches the task with preconceived ideas and feelings, and for many students, these
ideas change as a result of experience. Therefore, the learning process may include verbal elements,
conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem solving elements all
taking place at once. This aspect of learning will become more evident later in this handbook when
lesson planning is discussed.
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may be
learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-
depending on what they experience. Under a skillful instructor, they may learn self-reliance. The list
is seemingly endless. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as incidental, but it may have a
great impact on the total development of the student.
Learning is an Active Process
Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that
students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane when the
instructor presented the material. Neither can the instructor assume that the students can apply
what they know because they can quote the correct answer verbatim. For students to learn, they

16. need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
But if learning is a process of changing behavior, clearly that process must be an active one.
Learning Styles
Although characteristics of learning and learning styles are related, there
are distinctions between the two. Learning style is a concept that can play
an important role in improving instruction and student success. It is
concerned with student preferences and orientation at several levels. For
example, a student's information processing technique, personality, social
interaction tendencies and the instructional methods used are all
significant factors which apply to how individual students learn. In
addition, today's culturally diverse society, including international
students, must be considered.
Principles of Learning
Over the years, educational psychologists have identitied several principles which seem generally
applicable to the learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn
most effectively.
Readiness
Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason
for learning. Getting students ready to learn is usually the instructor's responsibility. If students have
a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more
progress than if they lack motivation. Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and
eagerness. When students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this
simplifies the instructor's job.
Under certain circumstances, the instructor can do little, if anything, to inspire in students a
readiness to learn. If outside responsibilities, interests, or worries weigh too heavily on their minds,
if their schedules are overcrowded, or if their personal problems seem insoluble, students may have
little interest in learning.
Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is
the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate,
and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students do not learn to weld during
one shop period or to perform crosswise landings during one instructional flight. They learn by
applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. The
instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice and, at the same time, make sure that
this process is directed toward a goal.
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It
states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling. Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration,
anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to
teach landings during the first flight, the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrated.
Instructors should be cautious. Impressing students with the difficulty of an aircraft maintenance

17. problem, flight maneuver or flight crew duty can make the teaching task difficult. Usually it is better
to tell students that a problem or maneuver, although difficult, is within their capability to
understand or perform. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the
students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the
instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that
learning must be right. Unteaching is more difficult than teaching. If, for example, a maintenance
student learns a faulty riveting technique, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad
habits and reteaching correct ones. Every student should be started right. The first experience
should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow.
Intensity
A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience.
A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by performing them rather
than merely reading about them. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more
from the real thing than from a substitute. In contrast to flight instruction and shop instruction, the
classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that can be brought into teaching. The
aviation instructor should use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible. Today,
classroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids to improve realism,
motivate learning, and challenge students. Chapter 7, Instructional Aids and Training Technologies,
explores the wide range of teaching tools available for classroom use.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely,
the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is
to remember. It is easy, for example, for a student to recall a torque value used a few minutes
earlier, but it is usually impossible to remember an unfamiliar one used a week earlier. Instructors
recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary for a ground school lesson, a
shop period, or a postflight critique. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important
points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency often
determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction.
What are Thinking and Memory?
• Thinking is the process of considering something
• Memory involves learning and recalling information
• Thinking & Memory = Cognition
• Occur in the brain
Personality development
Personality traits are defined as the relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
distinguish individuals from one another.[1] The dominant view in the field of personality psychology
today holds that personality emerges early and continues to change in meaningful ways throughout the
lifespan.[2] Evidence from large-scale, long-term studies has supported this perspective.
Adult personality traits are believed to have a basis in infant temperament, meaning that

18. individual differences in disposition and behavior appear early in life, possibly even before
language or conscious self-representation develop.[3] The Five Factor Model of personality
has been found to map onto dimensions of childhood temperament,[4] suggesting that
individual differences in levels of the “big five” personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion,
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) are present from young
ages.[5]
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors
and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by
the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment.
Description
Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon
after birth. A child's personality has several components: temperament,
environment, and character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined
traits that determine the child's approach to the world and how the child learns
about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some
genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls
behavior.
A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a
child's specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—
temperament and environment—influence the development of a person's
personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is
sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental factors are called
"nurture."
While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in affecting
personality development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a
critical role in the development of a child's personality. When parents understand
how their child responds to certain situations, they can anticipate issues that
might be problematic for their child. They can prepare the child for the situation
or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation altogether.
Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach to the particular
temperament of their child can best provide guidance and ensure the successful
development of their child's personality.
Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional,
cognitive, and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a
person thinks, feels, and behaves. A person's character continues to evolve
throughout life, although much depends on inborn traits and early experiences.
Character is also dependent on a person's moral development.
In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how
personality develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with
children and adolescents from low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds.
According to Erikson, the socialization process of an individual consists of eight
phases, each one accompanied by a "psychosocial crisis" that must be solved if
the person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily. The

19. stages significantly influence personality development, with five of them occurring
during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.
Infancy
During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning
Basic Trust or Mistrust (Hope). Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust
and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure
and learns "basic mistrust."
Toddlerhood
The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two
years and three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame
(Will). Well-parented, the child emerges from this stage with self-confidence,
elated with his or her newly found control. The early part of this stage can also
include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism, depending on the child's
temperament.
Preschool
The third stage occurs during the "play age," or the later preschool years from
about three to entry into formal school. The developing child goes
throughLearning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose). The child learns to use imagination;
to broaden skills through active play and fantasy; to cooperate with others; and
to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes fearful, is unable to
join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on adults
and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.
Frustrations and Conflicts
>> SATURDAY, APRIL 14, 2012
Frustrations and Conflicts
A frustration occurs when a goal achievement is blocked; a conflict is
created when incompatible response tendencies are aroused. When a conflict
comes from competing habits under one and the same drive, it is called habit
conflict or habit competition. When it stems from competing motivation it is called
motivational conflict.
Frustration and conflict are related because each can be the consequences of
the other. For instance, a student fails in a subject that is required in his/her
course, should he/she take it again or give up the course? What at first is a
frustration develops into a conflict. The reverse occurs when a student
entertains the conflicting alternative of whether to study for an examination or go
to the movies. If the student opts to watch a movie, the desire to do well in the
examination will be frustrated. A conflict of this kind can produce frustration
because the student cannot satisfy both motivations simultaneously.

20. When an individual is exposed to a frustrating situation, he develops the
concept of general adaptation syndrome, which refers to the physiological process
that enables an individual to adapt to stressful situation. He assumes that the
body reacts to stress in three successive stages: alarm reaction, the stage of
resistance and finally, stage of exhaustion.
Frustration has a real value despite of its unpleasant nature. It greatly
strengthens an individual’s motivation to overcome obstacles. Under stress, an
individual intensifies the effort to satisfy the thwarted need directly or indirectly.
Sometimes, the best course of actions is to leave the frustrating situation and find
another action where satisfactory adjustment becomes possible.
Sources of Frustrations
There are several obstacles to goal achievement, ranging from simple physical
ones to complex personal inadequacies. Sources of frustration can come from (1)
the physical environment (2) the social environment and (3) the organism itself.
The physical environment presents such obstacles as flood, typhoon, or rugged
mountains. For example, a drought or typhoon can frustrate farmers because this
will adversely affect their harvest. The social environment presents such obstacles
as restrictions imposed by other people and the laws of the community. Children
are thwarted by parental paralysis that may limit their activities. Lastly, we
individuals possess limitations and these weaknesses hinder our satisfaction of
some wishes like for example, no matter how much one may love to play
basketball in the PBA, his height can be a deterring factor when he does not meet
the minimal requirement.
Types of Conflicts
Contrary situation which involve the choice of alternatives can serve as sources of
origins of conflict. There are four types of conflicts:
1. conflicting attraction or approach-approach
2. attraction repulsion or approach-avoidance
3. conflicting avoidance or avoidance-avoidance
4. multiple conflicts
Conflicting attraction or approach-approach conflict occurs when there are
two desirable but mutually exclusive goals that one cannot have both. Shall I take
AB or BSE? Shall I date the charming Michelle or the sexy Maria? Conflicts of this
type are usually resolved by choosing one goal over the other, either excluding
one entirely or deciding which to do first. The response to this conflict is either
alternation or freezing or blocking.
Attraction-repulsion or approach-avoidance conflict – there is an attraction
to an object or state of affairs and at the same time repulsion towards something

21. associated with it. The situation contains two elements, one of which is very
desirable while the other is undesirable and disadvantageous. For example, a girl
likes to eat ice cream but she does not want to get stout; a student enjoys school
but looks forward to vacation; a woman wants to marry but will lose her
inheritance if she does. The closer the individual is to the goal, the repulsion
towards the negative aspects associated with it gets stronger. Attraction-repulsion
conflicts usually produce indecisive and vacillating behavior.
Conflicting avoidance or avoidance-avoidance conflict – when there are two
unpleasant alternatives and one cannot be avoided without encountering the
other. For example, a student does not want to make the requirements in school,
but neither does the student want to fail the course; Lilia must wash the dirty
dishes or face parental ire; Carlos must perform a job he hates doing or go
hungry.
Multiple conflicts –when there are two or more courses of action each has both
pleasant and unpleasant consequences stemming from the role we play in life.
Multiple conflicts take a longer time to resolve. Generally, these conflicts are
common because of the many expectations we bear. For example, a beauty
contest winner is given the opportunity to start a movie career or to travel abroad
but is strongly attached to her boyfriend and family. The goals she has are
exclusive such that she wants both, but she cannot have both at the same time.
What's the difference between normal stress
and an adjustment disorder?
Stress is a normal psychological and physical reaction to
positive or negative situations in your life, such as a new job or the death of a loved one.
Stress itself isn't abnormal or bad. What's important is how you deal with stress.
When you have so much trouble adjusting to a stressful change that you find it difficult to go
about your daily routine, you may have developed an adjustment disorder. An adjustment
disorder is a type of stress-related mental illness that can affect your feelings, thoughts and
behaviors. An adjustment disorder can occur in both adults and children.
Signs and symptoms of an adjustment disorder can include:
•Anxiety
•Poor school or work performance
•Relationship problems

22. •Sadness
•Thoughts of suicide
•Worry
•Trouble sleeping
If you're dealing with a stressful situation in your life, try self-help measures, such as talking
things over with caring family or friends, practicing yoga or meditation, getting regular
exercise, and cutting back on your to-do list. If these techniques don't help and you feel like
you're still having a hard time coping, talk to your doctor.
Treatment
Treatment may refer to:
• Treatment, therapy used to remedy a health problem
• Treatment, a process or intervention in the design of experiments
• Treatment group, a collection of items or individuals given the same treatment in an
experiment
• Water treatment
• Sewage treatment
• Surface treatment or surface finishing, processes used to improve the surface of a
manufactured item
• National treatment, economic term for the principle that foreigners and domestic nationals are
treated equally
• Film treatment, prose telling of a story intended to be turned into a screenplay
• In the card game bridge, a treatment is the meaning associated with a natural bid as distinct
from a conventional bid
• "Treatment" (song), single by Labrinth from the 2012 album Electronic Earth
• Medical treatment or Medical case management, a collaborative process facilitating
appropriate medical care
• Treatment of pain or Pain management, an intervention that is intended to relieve rather than
cure

23. • Social treatment, either positive (e.g., kindness) or negative (e.g., "silent treatment")
Motivation
Ever wonder why some people seem to be very successful, highly motivated individuals? Where does the
energy, the drive, or the direction come from? Motivation is an area of psychology that has gotten a great deal of
attention, especially in the recent years. The reason is because we all want to be successful, we all want
direction and drive, and we all want to be seen as motivated.
There are several distinct theories of motivation we will discuss in this section. Some include basic biological
forces, while others seem to transcend concrete explanation. Let's talk about the five major theories of
motivation.
Instinct Theory
Instinct theory is derived from our biological make-up. We've all seen spider's webs and perhaps even
witnessed a spider in the tedious job of creating its home and trap. We've all seen birds in their nests, feeding
their young or painstakingly placing the twigs in place to form their new home. How do spiders know how to spin
webs? How do birds now how to build nests?
The answer is biology. All creatures are born with specific innate knowledge about how to survive. Animals are
born with the capacity and often times knowledge of how to survive by spinning webs, building nests, avoiding
danger, and reproducing. These innate tendencies are preprogrammed at birth, they are in our genes, and even
if the spider never saw a web before, never witnessed its creation, it would still know how to create one.
Humans have the same types of innate tendencies. Babies are born with a unique ability that allows them to
survive; they are born with the ability to cry. Without this, how would others know when to feed the baby, know
when he needed changing, or when she wanted attention and affection? Crying allows a human infant to
survive. We are also born with particular reflexes which promote survival. The most important of these include
sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking. Newborns can perform physical movements to avoid pain; they will turn
their head if touched on their cheek and search for a nipple (rooting reflex); and they will grasp an object that
touches the palm of their hands.
Drive Reduction Theory
According to Clark Hull (1943, 1952), humans have internal internal biological needs which motivate us to
perform a certain way. These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as internal states of arousal or tension which
must be reduced. A prime example would be the internal feelings of hunger or thirst, which motivates us to eat.
According to this theory, we are driven to reduce these drives so that we may maintain a sense of internal
calmness.
Arousal Theory
Similar to Hull's Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain a certain level of
arousal in order to feel comfortable. Arousal refers to a state of emotional, intellectual, and physical activity. It is
different from the above theory, however, because it doesn't rely on only a reduction of tension, but a balanced

24. amount. It also does better to explain why people climb mountains, go to school, or watch sad movies.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Remember Sigmund Freud and his five part theory of personality. As part of this theory, he believed that
humans have only two basic drives: Eros and Thanatos, or the Life and Death drives. According to
Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do, every thought we have, and every emotion we experience has one of
two goals: to help us survive or to prevent our destruction. This is similar to instinct theory, however, Freud
believed that the vast majority of our knowledge about these drives is buried in the unconscious part of the mind.
Psychoanalytic theory therefore argues that we go to school because it will help assure our survival in terms of
improved finances, more money for healthcare, or even an improved ability to find a spouse. We move to better
school districts to improve our children's ability to survive and continue our family tree. We demand safety in
our cars, toys, and in our homes. We want criminal locked away, and we want to be protected against poisons,
terrorists, and any thing else that could lead to our destruction. According to this theory, everything we do,
everything we are can be traced back to the two basic drives
Humanistic Theory
Although discussed last, humanistic theory is perhaps the most well know theory of motivation. According to this
theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always do so unless obstacles are placed
in their way. These obstacles include hunger, thirst, financial problems, safety issues, or anything else that takes
our focus away from maximum psychological growth.
The best way to describe this theory is to utilize the famous pyramid developed by Abraham
Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow believed that humans have specific needs that
must be met and that if lower level needs go unmet, we can not possible strive for higher level needs. The
Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower level, we must focus on basic issues such as food, sleep, and
safety. Without food, without sleep, how could we possible focus on the higher level needs such as respect,
education, and recognition?Throughout our lives, we work toward achieving the top of the pyramid, self
actualization, or the realization of all of our potential. As we move up the pyramid, however, things get in the way
which slow us down and often knock us backward. Imagine working toward the respect and recognition of your
colleagues and suddenly finding yourself out of work and homeless. Suddenly, you are forced backward and
can no longer focus your attention on your work due to the need for finding food and shelter for you and your
family.
According to Maslow, nobody has ever reached the peak of his pyramid. We all may strive for it and some may
even get close, but no one has achieved full self-actualization. Self-actualization means a complete
understanding of who you are, a sense of completeness, of being the best person you could possibly be. To
have achieved this goal is to stop living, for what is there to strive for if you have learned everything about
yourself, if you have experienced all that you can, and if there is no way left for you to grow emotionally,
intellectually, or spiritually.
Sensation & Perception - When we smell a fragrant flower, are we

25. experiencing a sensation or a perception? In everyday language, the terms "sensation" and
"perception' are often used interchangeably.
However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet complementary processes. In this
section, we will discuss some concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and
then move on to discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible in the scope of
these notes to discuss all the senses).
I. Sensations and Perceptions
Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the
outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we
do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.Perception can be defined
as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought
to the brain by the senses.
A) HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER:
1) Sensation occurs:
a) sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the
environment.
b) sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send
them to the brain.
2) Perception follows:
a) the brain organizes the information and translates it into something
meaningful.
B) But what does "meaningful" mean? How do we know what information is important and
should be focused on?
1) Selective Attention - process of discriminating between what is important & is
irrelevant (Seems redundant: selective-attention?), and is influenced by
motivation.
For example - students in class should focus on what the teachers are
saying and the overheads being presented. Students walking by the
classroom may focus on people in the room, who is the teacher, etc.,
and not the same thing the students in the class.
2) Perceptual Expectancy - how we perceive the world is a function of our past
experiences, culture, and biological makeup.For example, as an American, when I
look at a highway, I expect to see cars, trucks, etc, NOT airplanes. But someone
from a different country with different experiences and history may not have any
idea what to expect and thus be surprised when they see cars go driving by.
Another example - you may look at a painting and not really understand the
message the artist is trying to convey. But, if someone tells you about it, you
might begin to see things in the painting that you were unable to see before.
ALL OF THIS IS CALLED Psychophysics
C) Psychophysics can be defined as, the study of how physical stimuli are translated
into psychological experience.
In order to measure these events, psychologists use THRESHOLDS.
1) Threshold - a dividing line between what has detectable energy and what does
not.
For example - many classrooms have automatic light sensors. When

26. people have not been in a room for a while, the lights go out. However,
once someone walks into the room, the lights go back on. For this to
happen, the sensor has a threshold for motion that must be crossed
before it turns the lights back on. So, dust floating in the room should
not make the lights go on, but a person walking in should.
2) Difference Threshold - the minimum amount of stimulus intensity change
needed to produce a noticeable change.
the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a stimulus, the greater the
change needed to produce a noticeable change.
For example, when you pick up a 5 lb weight, and then a 10 pound
weight, you can feel a big difference between the two. However, when
you pick up 100 lbs, and then 105 lbs, it is much more difficult to feel
the difference.
3) Signal-Detection Theory - detection of a stimulus involves some decision making process
as well as a sensory process. Additionally, both sensory and decision making processes are
influenced by many more factors than just intensity.
a) Noise - how much outside interference exists.
b) Criterion - the level of assurance that you decide must be met before
you take action. Involves higher mental processes. You set criterion
based on expectations and consequences of inaccuracy.
For example - at a party, you order a pizza...you need to pay
attention so that you will be able to detect the appropriate
signal (doorbell), especially since there is a lot of noise at the
party. But when you first order the pizza, you know it won't
be there in 2 minutes, so you don't really pay attention for
the doorbell. As the time for the pizza to arrive approaches,
however, your criterion changes...you become more focused
on the doorbell and less on extraneous noise.

27. II. SIGHT/VISION
A) the visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their
length and amplitude:
a) wave length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less
often/quickly it occurs) - affects color perception (ex., red=approx 700, yellow
approx 600)
b) wave amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave) - affects brightness
perception.
B) Structure of The EYE:
1) Cornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to pass into the eye.
2) Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.
3) Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives information about light using
rods and cones. The functioning of the retina is similar to the spinal cord - both
act as a highway for information to travel on.
4) Pupil - opening at the center of the iris which controls the amount of light
entering the eye. Dilates and Constricts.
5) Rods & Cones - many more rods (approximately 120 million) than cones
(approx 6.4 million).
a) cones - visual receptor cells that are important in daylight vision and
color vision.
the cones work well in daylight, but not in dim lighting. This
is why it is more difficult to see colors in low light.
most are located in the center of the retina...called the
FOVEA, which is a tiny spot in the center of the retina that
contains ONLY cones...visual acuity is best here.
SO...when you need to focus on something you attempt to
bring the image into the fovea.
b) rods - visual receptor cells that are important for night vision and
peripheral vision.
the rods are better for night vision because they are much
more sensitive than cones.

28. in addition, the rods are better for peripheral vision because
there are many more on the periphery of the retina. The
cones are mostly in and around the fovea but decrease as
you go out.
to see best at night, look just above or below the object...this
keeps the image on the rods.
C) Seeing In Color - we can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive
information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue.
Color Vision Theories:
1) Trichromatic Theory - this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors
(red, green, and blue) and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (Like a
projection T.V.). The ratio of each each color to the other then determines the
exact color that we see.
2) Opponent-Process Theory - color perception depends on the reception of pairs
of antagonist colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the
opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs = red-green, blue-yellow, black-
white (light-dark).
Note: Most every Introductory Psychology book has a demonstration on the
Opponent-Process theory. Please look for the one in your book and give it a try.
DOES COLOR EXIST? People just assume that because we see colors, that they actually
exist in the world. In other words, that when they see the color red, that red is a real,
physical, tangible, "thing". But is it, or is color just a matter of our perception? If we had
different types of nervous systems, we would see things differently (literally) and so wouldn't
we think those other things we saw were the real "things"? Let's examine this question of
perception a bit further.
II) PERCEPTION
Much of our understanding of how and why we perceive things comes from Gestalt
Psychology
For example - one of the most well known Gestalt principles is the Phi Phenomenon, which
is the illusion of movement from presenting stimuli in rapid succession. When you see a
cartoon or running Christmas lights, you see movement (although none actually exists)
because of this principle.
A) Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
1) figure-ground - this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions.
When we look at an object, we see that object (figure) and the background
(ground) on which it sits. For example, when I see a picture of a friend, I see my
friends face (figure) and the beautiful Sears brand backdrop behind my friend
(ground).
2) simplicity/pragnanz (good form) - we group elements that make a good form.
However, the idea of "good form" is a little vague and subjective. Most
psychologists think good form is what ever is easiest or most simple. For
example, what do you see here: : > )
do you see a smiling face? There are simply 3 elements from my keyboard next to
each other, but it is "easy" to organize the elements into a shape that we are
familiar with.
3) proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are close to each other in
physical space are often perceived as belonging together.

29. 4) similarity - do I really need to explain this one? As you probably guessed, this
one states that objects that are similar are perceived as going together. For
example, if I ask you to group the following objects: (* * # * # # #) into groups, you
would probably place the asterisks and the pound signs into distinct groups.
5) continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led. Dots in a smooth curve
appear to go together more than jagged angles. This principle really gets at just
how lazy humans are when it comes to perception.
6) common fate - elements that move together tend to be grouped together. For
example, when you see geese flying south for the winter, they often appear to be
in a "V" shape.
7) closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.
. Psychology Uses Scientific Methods
One of the most common myths about psychology is that it is just "common sense." Unlike
common sense, psychology relies on scientific methods to investigate questions and arrive at
conclusions. It is through using empirical methods that researchers are able to discover
relationships between different variables. Psychologists use a range of techniques to study the
human mind and behavior, including naturalistic observation, experiments, case studies, and
questionnaires.
• Introduction to Psychology Research Methods
• The Scientific Method
• The Simple Experiment
Psychology Is the Study of the Mind and Behavior
Psychology is the study of the mental processes and behavior. The term psychology comes from
the Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul" and the logia meaning "study of." Psychology
emerged from biology and philosophy and is closely linked to other disciplines includingsociology,
medicine, linguistics, and anthropology.
Psychologists Take Many Different Perspectives
Topics and questions in psychology can be looked at in a number of different ways. Let's take the
topic of violence as an example. Some psychologists may look at how biological influences
contribute to violence, while other psychologists might look at factors like culture, family
relationships, social pressure, and situational variables influence violence. Some of the major
perspectives in psychology include the:
• Biological perspective
• Cognitive perspective
• Behavioral perspective
Rich Legg/iStockPhoto
Emiliano Hernandez

30. • Evolutionary perspective
• Humanistic perspective
Psychology Has a Many Subfields
There are many different branches of psychology. Introductory students often explore the basics of these various specialty
areas, but further exploration of each individual field may depend on what course of study you select. Some of the biggest
subfields within psychology are clinical psychology, personality psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental
psychology, and social psychology.
• Branches of Psychology
• Subfields of Psychology
•
5. Psychology Is Not Just About Therapy
When you think of psychology, do you envision a therapist with a notepad jotting down ideas as a
client recounts childhood experiences? While therapy is certainly a big part of psychology, it is not
the only thing that psychologists do. In fact, many psychologists don't work in the field of mental
health at all. Psychology encompasses other areas including teaching, research and consulting.
Psychologists work in a wide variety of settings, including:
• Colleges and universities
• Private corporations
• K-12 Schools
• Hospitals
• Government offices
• The Nature of Psychology Work
• Specialty Areas in Psychology
•
6. Psychology Is All Around You
Psychology is not just an academic subject that exists only in classrooms, research labs, and mental health offices. The
principles of psychology can be seen all around you in everyday situations. The television commercials and print ads you see
everyday rely on psychology to develop marketing messages that influence and persuade people to purchase the advertised
products. The websites you visit on a regular basis utilize psychology to understand how people read, use and interpret
online information.
• 10 Ways to Use Psychology in Everyday Life
•
7. Psychology Explores Both Real-World and Theoretical Issues
As you begin your study of psychology, it might seem like some of the theories and research you learn about do not really
apply to real-life problems. It is important to remember, however, that psychology is both an applied and theoretical subject.
Some researchers focus on adding information to our overall body of knowledge about the human mind and behavior (known
as basic research), while other concentrate directly on solving problems and applying psychological problems to real-world
situations (known as applied research).
8. Psychology Offers a Wide Range of Career Options
If you are thinking about majoring in psychology, then you should be pleased to discover that there
are many different career paths to choose from. Different career options depend largely on your
educational level and work experience, so it is important to research the required training and
Konstantin Binder
YinYang/iStockPhoto

31. licensing requirements of your chosen specialty area. Just a few of the possible career options
include clinical psychology, forensic psychology, health psychology, and industrial-organizational
psychology.
• 10 Hot Psychology Careers
• Career Options With a Bachelor's Degree
• Career Options With a Graduate Degree
Psychology Studies Both Normal and Abnormal Behavior
When many people think about psychology, they immediately think about the diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior.
However, it is important to remember that psychology studies normal behavior as well.
10. Psychology Seeks to Describe, Explain, Predict, Modify and Improve Behaviors
There are four major goals of psychology:
• To describe human thought and behavior
• To explain why these behaviors occur
• To predict how, why and when these behaviors will occur again in the future
• To modify and improve behaviors to better the lives of individuals and society as a whole
As you can see, psychology is a rich and fascinating subject that has practical applications in many different areas of life. If
you have ever wanted to learn more about why people think and act the way they do, then studying psychology is a great
way to gain greater insight into the human experience.
Individual differences psychology focuses on this second level of study. It is
also sometimes called Differential Psychology because researchers in this area study the ways in
which individual people differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects
of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern
psychologists often study groups or biological underpinnings of cognition.
For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one group might
be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo (or a well-known therapy) in a second, control group. In this
context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually
treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This is because psychological research depends upon
statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people. Individual difference psychologists usually express their
interest in individuals while studying groups by seeking dimensions shared by all individuals but upon which individuals
differ.
Importance of individual differences
The study of individual differences is essential because important variation between
individuals can be masked by averaging. For example, a researcher is interested in

32. resting metabolic rate in humans. The researcher gathers a sample of men, women,
and children, measures their metabolic rate and gets a single average. The researcher
then tells the whole population that they should be eating 1,900 calories a day.
What's wrong with this study? The researcher has neglected individual differences
in activity level, body size, sex, age, and other factors that influence metabolic rate.
The average reported based on the results is masking multiple dimensions that
should be used to determine daily caloric intake. Therefore, his or her conclusions
are misleading if not outright false. This is an extreme example to make a point, but
it illustrates the problems that can arise by averaging across groups.