principles-of-training-for beginners and

Copyright © 2006 PE Resources
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Training principles,
methods of training and
exercise physiology
knowledge for application
in physical activity.

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Improving performance in
a physical activity
 To improve performance in a physical
activity an effective training program is
required.
 There are many components that must
be considered in the planning of a
program if improvement is to occur.

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What is our focus in this
module
 Training principles
 Methods of training
 Exercise physiology
 Note: there are many more relevant components e.g
biophysical aspects such as skill acquisition, anatomy,
biomechanics, sports psychology as well as socio
cultural such as barriers, enablers etc…However,
these three are the focus of this module.

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Training Principles
 Training is a systematic process in which
athletes improve their fitness to meet the
demands of their sport/activity. Training
is a long-term process that is progressive
and meets the individual at their level of
fitness and conditioning. Training uses
both general and event-specific exercises
to develop individuals for their sport.
Training is a cyclical process: tear down,
recovery, super-compensation and
buildup (adaptation).

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Training Principles
 When we train, we do specific damage to
some cells, and use up cellular resources
(fuel, water, salts). When you finish your
workout, you are weaker, not stronger.
How much weaker depends on the
amount and intensity of the exercise.
After the training session, if the body is
given proper rest and food, the body will
adjust to super-compensate and prepare
for the next stress/session.

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Specificity
 The specific nature of a training produces
its own specific response and
adaptations.
 The training must be specific to both the
individual and the demands of their
sport/activity.
 Training should use specific patterns of
joint and muscle coordination that are
used in the sport/activity.

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Specificity
 Specific components of fitness that are
used in the sport/activity should be
trained.
 The programme should also use the
specific energy system/s that are used in
the sport/activity.

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Health related fitness
components
 Body Composition
 Cardio-respiratory Endurance
 Muscular Strength
 Muscular Endurance
 Flexibility

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Body Composition
 Relative amounts of
muscle, fat, bone,
and other vital
parts of the body.
There are three
general
classifications of
body type.

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Endomorphs:
 Endomorphs: A predominantly
endomorphic individual typically has
short arms and legs, as well as a large
amount of mass on their shorter than
normal frame. This hampers their ability
to compete in sports requiring high levels
of agility or speed. Sports of pure
strength, like power lifting, are perfect for
an endomorph. http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm

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Mesomorphs
 Mesomorphs: A predominantly
mesomorphic individual excels in
strength, agility, and speed sports. Their
medium structure and height, along with
their tendency to gain muscle and
strength easily makes them a strong
candidate for a top athlete in any sport.
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm

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Ectomorphs
 Ectomorphs: A predominantly
endomorphic individual is long, slender
and thin, and therefore power and
strength sports are almost totally out of
the question. Their slight build also
leaves them susceptible to injuries. While
they can easily get lean and hard, their
lack of musculature severely limits their
chances in sports requiring mass.
Typically, Ectomorphs dominate
endurance sports.
 http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm

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Cardio-respiratory
Endurance
 The ability of the
circulatory and
respiratory systems
to supply fuel
during sustained
physical activity
and to eliminate
fatigue products
after supplying fuel.

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Muscular Strength
 Muscular strength
is the ability of a
muscle to exert
force. Strength is
measured by the
maximal amount of
resistance or force
that can be
sustained in one
single effort.

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Muscular Endurance
 Muscular
Endurance is the
amount of external
force that a muscle
can exert over an
extended period of
time.

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Flexibility
 The absolute range
of movement in a
joint or series of
joints that is
attainable in a
momentary effort
with the help of a
partner or a piece of
equipment. Flexibility
is either static
(stationary) or
dynamic (moving).

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Skill related fitness
components
 Power
 Speed
 Agility
 Balance
 Co-ordination
 Reaction Time

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Power
 Power is the amount
of work done or
energy transferred
per unit of time.
Muscular power is
the ability to use
strength quickly to
produce an explosive
effort.

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Speed
 Speed relates to the
ability to perform a
movement within a
short time period.

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Agility
 Agility is the ability
to rapidly change
the position of the
entire body in
space with speed
and accuracy.

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Balance
 Balance is the ability
to maintain
equilibrium while
static (stationary) or
dynamic (moving).

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Co-ordination
 Co-ordination is the
ability for the body’s
senses, the nervous
system and muscles
to work together so
that specific
movements can be
performed smoothly
and accurately.

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Reaction time
 The time it takes for
the body to react to a
stimulus.

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ENERGY SYSTEMS
 During exercise production of ATP depends upon the Energy System
being used. This is in turn dependent on the intensity and duration of
the exercise:
ANAEROBIC / ATP-CP ANAEROBIC / LACTIC ACID AEROBIC
(Anaerobic Glycolysis) (Aerobic Glycolysis)
Very rapid Rapid Slow
Chemical fuel: PC Food fuel: glycogen Food fuels:glycogen,
fats, and protein
Very limited ATP Limited ATP production Unlimited ATP Prod.
Production
Muscular stores limited By-product, lactic acid, No fatiguing by-prod.
causes muscular fatigue Produces H20, CO2, heat
Used with sprint or any Used with activities of Used with endurance or
High-power, short-duration 1 to 3 min duration. Long-duration activities.
Activity up to 10secs Approx 5mins+
Adapted from (VCE Physical Education Book 2-1999)

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ATP

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Anaerobic glycolysis

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Aerobic Glycolysis

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Energy systems
 There is a relationship between the
energy systems and the graph on the
next slide shows the overlap between the
systems. Highly trained athletes have
increased efficiency of each of the
energy systems and this enables a faster
transition between each energy system.

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Oxygen consumption

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Examples of the overlap of
energy systems
ATP- CP ANAEROBIC AEROBIC EXAMPLES
100% 0% 0% Diving, jumps, throws
80% 20% 0% Basketball, baseball, fencing, judo
60% 20% 20% Figure skating, soccer, tennis
0% 20% 80% Slalom skiing, 1500m run, 500m kayak
0% 10% 90% 3000m run, 800m swim, 5000m skate
0% 5% 95% 10,000M skate, 10,000 run
0% 1% 99% Road cycling, biathlon, marathon
0% 0% 10% shooting, bowls, driving

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Specificity
 Therefore when trying to improve
performance it is important to consider
training the relevant components of
fitness and energy systems. This will
differ according to the sport/physical
activity that you are training in your
programme.

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Adaptation
 One important consideration in
planning an exercise program is that
conditioning will occur only with
regular exercise (frequency). This
principal is referred to as the principle
of adaptation which means that only
regular exercise produces physical
gains. Adaptation depends on
challenging the physical capability
beyond a minimum threshold level.

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Overload
 If the appropriate type and amount of
activity is in excess of this threshold
level, a training overload is incurred
and physiological gain usually occurs.
Regular overloading can lead to
increased function and the training
workload needs to be increased to
ensure overload and progress when
the fitness level improves.

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Progressive overload
 The progression rate at the start of an
exercise program needs to be gradual
to best ensure fitness benefits. Fitness
should improve only when the
appropriate amount of overload is
progressively increased. This principle
is referred to as the principle of
progressive overload. Overload can be
an increase in Frequency, Intensity,
Distance or Time (duration). To ensure
efficiency only one variable should be
changed at a time.

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Reversibility (detraining)
 When exercise stops the physical
gains can regress to pre-training
levels (regression/reversibility).
Aerobic endurance losses are quicker
than strength (power) losses.
Basically,
 “If you don’t use it you lose it”.

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Overtraining/Retrogression
 Retrogression refers to an excessive
training overload where improvements
have slowed. Retrogression can occur
with highly intense single exercise
bouts (acute overload) over extended
time periods. Excessive overload over
time is commonly referred to as
chronic overload.

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Periodisation/training year
 The year can be divided into 12 months
of training. Obviously if the season is
shorter, the following principles are
applied but over a shorter time period.
The first month is the month immediately
after the end of the season. Usually the
targeted or peak competition concludes
the sports season. Therefore, month 12
should be the peak competition, the
national championships, the regional
championship or the World
Championships.

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Periodisation/training year
 The coach should decide on the peak
competition for each athlete and count
backwards to establish the number of the
relevant months of training. If the national
or world championships is the peak
competition and it is in September, then
October is month one. This program
divides the year into six main phases.

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Periodisation-example
Phase Aim Month
Recovery period Active recovery Month 1
Early preparation
period
General strength and
endurance
Months 2 and 3
Preparation period Maximum strength and
general endurance
Months 4 and 5
Pre-Competition
period
Maximum strength and
specific endurance
Months 6 and 7
Early competition
period
Specific endurance and
sport technique
Months 8 and 9
Peak competition
period
Race/match prep and
peak performance
Months 10 through 12
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/articles/scni19a2.htm

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F.I.T.T Principle
 Frequency
 Intensity
 Time (duration)
 Type (methods of training)

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Frequency
 Frequency. The minimum number of
workouts for cardio respiratory
improvement is 3 times weekly with no
more than two days between exercise
sessions. You should gradually
progress to 5 days per week as your
fitness level improves. The benefits of
exercising beyond 5 days per week can
be negated by an increased injury risk.
If you should exercise five days per
week, it is important to lower exercise
intensity.

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Frequency
 To improve strength, power and speed
has an ideal frequency of 3-5 days per
week. Therefore it is important in
planning programmes to ensure you
know which components of fitness are
your focus to ensure gains can be made.

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Intensity
 Training intensity refers to how hard each
training session will be. Intensity
measurement is dependant on the type
of training used. It can be measured by
heart rate or by resistance levels. We will
look at both of these separately.

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Time (duration)
 Duration can be used for the length of a
training session or the length of a training
programme. The minimum length of a
training programme for improvement is 6
weeks. However, for real benefits to be
seen aerobic programmes should last for
12 weeks and anaerobic programmes
should last 8-10 weeks.

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Time (duration)
 In terms of the length of sessions this
should be taken into consideration when
using the principle of progressive
overload. Therefore duration of
individuals sessions can increase over a
programme (particularly with aerobic
training).

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Type of training
 This refers to the methods of training
being implemented in a training
programme eg continuous training, circuit
training etc… We will look at these
separately. It can also refer to actual type
of activity eg running, cycling, swimming
etc…

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Intensity by Heart Rate
 Intensity of training can be measured by
a % of MHR (maximum heart rate).
 For training the aerobic systems the
target heart rate is approx 70-85% of
MHR.
 For training the anaerobic systems the
target heart rate is approx 85-100%
MHR.

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Putting it all together-by
heart rate
Training Aspect Endurance (aerobic)
training
Sprint (anaerobic)
training
Frequency 4-7 days/week 3-5 days/week
Intensity Heart Rate: 70-85%
MHR
Heart rate:85-100%
MHR
Sessions per day 1 1
Duration 12-16 weeks or
longer
8-10 weeks
Distance/workout 5-8km 3-4km
(VCE Physical Education Book 2-1999)

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Intensity by resistance.
 Intensity can also be measured by
resistance. It is measured against your
repetition maximum (RM). Eg 1RM is the
maximum you can lift in one rep. 10RM is
the maximum you can lift in 10 reps. This
differs depending on what you are
training eg strength, power etc…

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Putting it all together-by
resistance.
Fitness
Component
Weight
1RM or
RM
Reps Sets Speed Rest
between
Sets
Frequency
per week
Strength Very
Heavy
80-95%
or 2-6 RM
2-6 5-12 Slow 3-5mins 3-4
Hypertrophy
(bulk)
Heavy
70-80%
or 6-12
RM
6-12 3-10 Slow 1-3mins 3-6
Power Medium
60-80%
or 8-20
RM
2-10 3-8 Fast 3-5mins 3-4
Endurance Light 40-
60% or
20-40 RM
15-40 2-5 Fast 1-3mins 3-6
(VCE Physical Education Book 2-1999)

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Variety
 Variety adds spice to your programme,
and helps you to stay motivated. You ca
do this by varying…
 How you train (Methods)
 Where you train
 How hard you train (Intensity)
 Who you train with

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Acute and chronic effects
of exercise.
 These are physiological changes that
occur in response to the demands of
exercise. Acute effects are those
responses that occur while you are
exercising and in the recovery period.
Chronic effects are long term adaptations
that take at least 6 weeks to occur.

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Acute effects of exercise on
the body
(Immediate)

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Increased Heart Rate
 When you exercise
your heart rate
(beats per minute)
increases to increase
the supply of oxygen
to your working
muscles.

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Increased Respiration
Rate
 Respiratory rate is the
number of breaths
taken in one minute.
During exercise
amounts of carbon
dioxide increases as it
is a waste product
and the respiratory
rate increases to
increase oxygen and
decrease carbon
dioxide.

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Increased Stroke Volume
 Stroke volume is the
amount of blood
pumped out of your
left ventricle with
each beat of the
heart. This increases
to increase oxygen
supply to working
muscles.

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Increased Cardiac Output-
Q
 Cardiac output is the
amount of blood
pumped out of the
left ventricle in 1
minute.
 Q=stroke volume x
heart rate.
 Q=SV x HR

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Increased VO2
 Oxygen uptake (VO2)
is the amount of
oxygen that is taken
up and used by the
body to produce
energy.

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Increased Tidal Volume
 Tidal volume is the
size of each breath
and this increases
with exercise as the
body tries to increase
oxygen flow to the
blood.

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Increased Systolic Blood
Pressure
 Systolic blood
pressure is the
pressure as the left
ventricle ejects blood
into the aorta. Diastolic
is the pressure in the
arteries. Only the
systolic pressure
increases during
exercise.

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Increased Arterio-venous
O2 difference
 This is the difference
between the O2
concentration in the
arteries and in the
veins. As more O2 is
used during exercise
this difference
increases.

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Increased Blood to
working muscles
 Due to increased
need for O2 during
exercise blood is
distributed more
where it is required in
working muscles.

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Decreased muscle
Glycogen stores
 Muscle glycogen
stores are decreased
while exercising as
they are being used
by the body for
energy production.

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Decreased blood plasma
volume
 Due to increased
sweating, the blood
plasma volume
usually decreases
during strenuous
exercise and hot
weather.

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Chronic Effects of exercise
on the body
(Long Term)

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More efficient use of O2
because…

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Increased Blood Volume
and haemoglobin levels
 Training stimulates
an increase in
plasma volume as
well as in the number
of red blood cells
(and therefore
haemoglobin that
carries O2.

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Increased O2 carrying
capacity of blood
 This is due to the
increase in plasma,
haemoglobin as well
as increases in blood
vessels etc…and
overall greater
efficiency.

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Lungs can take in and
distribute more O2
 Increased VO2 Max.
This occurs due to
increased tidal
volume as well as
improved ability to
attract O2 from the
alveoli onto the red
blood cells.

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Increased number of blood
vessels
 Efficiency is also
improved as the
number of blood
vessels is increased.
Particularly the
capillaries where
gaseous exchange
takes place.

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Increased blood supply as
increased capillaries

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Cardiac Hypertrophy
 The size of the heart
increases. For
endurance the
chambers get larger
(particularly the left
ventricle) and for non
endurance the
thickness of the
ventricle walls
increases.

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Decreased resting heart
rate
 Your resting heart
rate decreases with
fitness due to greater
efficiency of systems.

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Increased Stroke volume
at rest
 The heart develops
larger chambers
and/or thicker walls
and improved
efficiency. Therefore
the stroke volume
increases and this
relates to the
decrease in resting
heart rate.

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More glycogen stored in
muscle
 Greater amounts of
fuel are stored for
use in endurance
events. (For non-
endurance ATP and
CP stores are
increased.

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Increased size of muscle
 In non-endurance
athletes the size of
the muscle is
increased due to
hypertrophy of fast
twitch fibres, in
endurance twitch
fibres, increased
numbers of
capillaries, increased
strength in connective
tissues eg tendons,
ligaments.

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Increased strength of
muscle
 In non-endurance
athletes the size of
the muscle is
increased due to
hypertrophy of fast
twitch fibres,
increased numbers
of capillaries,
increased strength in
connective tissues
eg tendons,
ligaments.

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Effects of exercise
 When completing a training programme
both acute and chronic effects of
exercise should be monitored this is part
of ensuring that improvements are
measurable. This can occur through goal
setting. Goal setting for programmes
should follow the S.M.A.R.T principle.

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S.M.A.R.T GOALS

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S.M.A.R.T Goals
 These may relate to acute and chronic
effects of exercise and what you are
trying to improve or it may relate to what
fitness components you are trying to
improve. They could also involve long
term achievement. However, these goals
should be measurable. These goals will
only be achievable if the training
principles and methods of training are
carefully considered.

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Training Methods.
 There are various types of training that
can be used in a training programme.
These again will relate back to what
components of fitness you have chosen/or
been given to develop. They will also
depend on what energy systems you are
trying to develop. The following examples
are brief and research will need to occur
into developing relevant exercises within
these methods.

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Continuous Training
 Continuous exercise
for minimum of
20mins. Particularly
for cardio-respiratory
endurance and
muscular endurance.
Energy system
predominantly
aerobic glycolysis.

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Fartlek training
 This is a type of
continuous training
that includes bursts of
speed so that relevant
energy systems are
worked. Therefore
cardio-respiratory
endurance, muscular
endurance and speed
are all developed.
This increases the
use of the anaerobic
glycolysis system as
well as aerobic
glycolysis.

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Circuit training
 A combination of
continuous and resistance
training. It can train a
variety of fitness
components such as
cardio-respiratory
endurance, muscular
endurance, speed agility
etc… Therefore depending
on how the circuit is set it
can work the aerobic
glycolysis and anaerobic
glycolysis systems. It can
be set up specifically to
include sports skills and
use of relevant muscle
groups etc…

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Plyometric training
 Involves exercises such
as bounding, hopping,
jumping and medicine
ball passing.
Plyometrics helps
improve power and
explosiveness for
sports especially sports
that involve jumping,
throwing and speed. It
can train the ATP/CP
system and the
anaerobic glycolysis
sytems.

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Swiss ball training
 Was used at one stage
for rehabilitation.
However benefits such
as improved core
stability, prime mover
strength, balance,
dynamic flexibility and
co-ordination have
increased use in
training programmes.
Depending on how
these exercises are
used all three energy
systems can be
trained.

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Resistance training
 Depending on use in
a programme this
type of training can
develop, muscular
strength, power and
endurance. See recap
on following slide.
Muscular endurance
works the aerobic
glycolysis sytem while
the other two work the
ATP/CP and
anaerobic glycolysis
systems.

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Flexibility training
 Used to improve your joint
and muscle flexibility. There
are 2 major types of flexibility
training.
 PNF (proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation)
where you take a muscle to
its maximum range, then
contract the muscle against
an immovable resistance eg a
partner.
 Static (passive) stretching which
involves taking a muscle to its
greatest range and holding it for at
least 30 secs. Both types improve
flexibilty and work the aerobic
glycolysis system.

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Interval-sprint training
 In this type of training
work intervals are
followed by rest
intervals. I t is
designed to improve
speed, power and
agility. Short interval
training works the
ATP/CP system and
long interval training
works the anaerobic
glycolysis system.

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Aerobic floor classes
 Aerobic floor classes
are a type of
continuous training,
but also include
callisthenic exercises
usually found in circuit
training it works
cardio –respiratory
endurance, strength,
muscular endurance,
flexibility and agility
and predominantly
uses the aerobic
glycolysis system.

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Training principles, methods
of training and exercise
physiology.
 All of these topics interrelate and should
be considered carefully when planning or
evaluating a programme. This is relevant
whether you are designing or have been
supplied with a programme. Look
carefully at the focus and intended
outcomes of the programme in relation to
the specific activity sport or components
that are being trained for.

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Application
 In using the knowledge from this module
the application is just as important as the
knowledge. Examples of use of training
principles, methods of training and
exercise physiology knowledge is how
these are all applied to your specific
situation/sport/activity or component.
There is a separate power point on
application to physical activity.

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Critical thinking on
programmes.
We must consider the
limitations of the
knowledge in this
module. This
includes ideologies
such as “healthism”.

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Healthism
 Healthism is a set of
assumptions based
on the belief that
health is solely an
individual
responsibility. It
includes the concept
of the body as a
machine that is
influenced only by
physical factors.
 (Health and Physical
Education. The curriculum in
action. Making meaning:
Making a difference. (2004)

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Biophysical focus.
 This module has focused on the
biophysical aspects of training for
performance improvement.
 It should be considered that all of this
does consider the body as a machine
and has not focused on the
environmental and social effects that
have influence on an individual.

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Limitations
 Contained within what has come to be
called the ideology of “healthism” is a
system of beliefs that defines health-
promoting activities, such as involvement
in some form of physical fitness program,
as a moral obligation (Crawford, 1980).
http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf

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Limitations
 Perceptions of health and the body are a
social construction. In contemporary
Western culture, physical and health
ideals are congruent and emphasize both
slimness and muscularity, but do so
differently for men and women.

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Limitations
 For women, slimness is believed to be an
unmistakable sign of self-restraint, and
discipline. The thin person is an exemplar
of mastery of mind over body and
virtuous self-denial (Crawford, 1984). For
men, muscular bulk carries significant
social value, so long as it is not
accompanied by visible fat. Fat signified
the loss of control, a moral failure, a sign
of impulsiveness, self-indulgence and
sloth. http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf

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Limitations
 The real champions of the ideology of
healthism have been the educated
middle-class. Fitness and fitness
education are geared towards the
middle-class who are predisposed to
regarding the body as a project to be
managed and improved through self-
improvement as an integral means to
structure identity and social mobility
(Bourdieu, 1984; Crawford, 1984).

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Limitations
 Programs have become
an exercise in human
engineering aimed at
transforming the human
body into an efficient,
inexhaustible machine.
Like any finely tuned
machine, it must be
managed, maintained,
conditioned, and fueled.

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How can we use the
limitations in our application.
 In writing our programmes we can use
different dimensions of hauora to develop
our goals and outcomes. If we take into
consideration Taha whanau
(social/family), Taha hinengaro
(mental/emotional), Taha wairua
(spiritual), as well as Taha tinana
(physical) and what these mean to us
individually then we are looking beyond
the body as a machine.

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How can we use the
limitations in our application.
 We can also
consider the barriers
and enablers that
may effect our
programme. These
will also be beyond
just the physical and
will consider social,
environmental, and
cultural influences.

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Bibliography
 Websites
 http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm
 Books
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/articles/scni19a2.htm
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/health/curriculum/statement/page8_e.php
VCE Physical Education Book 2 (1999)

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