2. PERSUASION
INTRO.
The impression one gets at the mention of persuasion is always negative.
It often carries the notion of imposition, demands or maybe forcing
another person to act in one’s favour at all cost. However, in the field of
Public Relations, Persuasion is a perfect instrument. A Public Relation
personnel serves as a bridge between an organization and its publics and
the art of Persuasion becomes necessary.
It is therefore in this presentation that we will further open before you
what persuasion is all about, its function and code of ethics. More so, we
will point out some factors or principles that guide its implementation as
a concept and finally some ways of using persuasion in order to earn the
desired benefits.
3. WHAT IS PERSUASION?
• Pfau and Wan(2006) define persuasion as the use of communication in an attempt
to shape, change and/or reinforce perception, affect (feelings), cognition (thinking)
and /or behaviour.
• Persuasion is typically defined as “human communication that is designed to
influence others by modifying their beliefs, values or attitudes (Simons,1976, P21)
• Persuasion is defined as methods used to influence attitudes, raise awareness,
educate or influence behaviours (Messina, 2007).
It is often associated with rhetoric advocacy, propaganda, coercion and advertising.
PR practitioners often use persuasion in their communication tools.
4. The following terms can be used to talk about persuasion.
• Awareness: accepting information for the first time
• Attitude: predisposition to like or dislike things
• Beliefs: assessment’s that things are true or false
• Behavior: observable actions
5. PERSUASION AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
Persuasion is integral to communication and public relations for, “one cannot
inform without the message receiver at least implicitly being persuaded that the
topic is worthy of attention,” (Messina, 2007, p 30).
Academic scholars have noted that the term “persuasion” is often avoided in
discussions with PR professionals most likely because of the connection it has
with propaganda (Messina, 2007).
Yet some PR professionals have argued that they are serving the public interest by
helping to make various points of view known (Baker & Martinson, 2001).
However, critics maintain that it is difficult for the audience to decipher the
difference between truth, manipulation, coercion and propaganda.
6. USES OF PERSUASION
We note from the definition of persuasion that it is used in an attempt to;
Shape, change and/or reinforce perception
Affect Cognition(thinking) and/or behavior
Persuasion can also be used:
Change / neutralize hostile opinions
Crystalize latent (or already existing positive) opinions and positive
attitudes
Conserve favourable opinions
To gain behaviour
7. FACTORS OR PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION
Persuasion is indeed an art, but it can also become a skill, an ability that is very
important for PR professionals. To develop that know-how, it is prudent that
communicators familiarise themselves with Robert Cialdini's book on Influence: The
Psychology of Persuasion (1984), where he identifies six universal factors or principles
that guide human behaviour and decision-making.
These principles are:
Reciprocity
Liking
Scarcity
Consistency
Social Proof/Consensus
Authority
8. SOCIAL PROOF/CONSENSUS
• “Use peer power whenever it’s available. Social creatures that they are, human beings
rely heavily on the people around them for cues on how to think, feel and act.” – Cialdini
• The Principle of Social Proof is a constant in PR as people try to assess the value and
importance (to them) of your experience, accomplishments, publications and
professional connections. With the growth of social media, people also look for social
proof in markers such as numbers of friends and followers, numbers of retweets,
mentions in online search engines and content shared by people they know and
respect.
• In PR today, we demonstrate social proof by developing and sharing content that has
genuine value to our audiences, and by acknowledging those who communicate with
us directly and share our content with their networks. Content can include all
electronic forms of communication as well as traditional vehicles such as books,
articles, white papers, public speaking, etc.
9. AUTHORITY
• “Expose your expertise; don’t assume it’s self-evident. Surprisingly often, people
mistakenly assume that others recognize and appreciate their experience.” –
Cialdini
• Everyone looks to experts for direction at times, especially in areas where we
feel we know less than we should. In today’s marketplace, people constantly
search for expert advice online. PR professionals demonstrate expertise in
order to win buy-in for strategies and campaigns and to be taken seriously as
part of high-level planning.
• We use both offline and online platforms to showcase and highlight expertise,
and author articles, books and white papers that answer important questions,
or demonstrate in-depth knowledge. We use social media, where our expertise
commands high value and attention and can be used to persuade others to
purchase products, share content and make referrals to their own personal
networks.
10. RECIPROCITY
“Give what you want to receive. Whether it’s a sense of trust, a spirit
of cooperation or a pleasant demeanour (character), leader should
model the behaviour they want to see from others.” - Cialdini
As human beings we’re wired to reciprocate. We tend not to want to
owe anyone. Modelling reciprocity builds good will and trust,
essential in the development of strong business relationships -
online and offline.
Reciprocity in public relations is demonstrated by word of mouth
referrals, favours, coverage, sharing and re-sharing of other people’s
content and by building networks and online and offline
communities of people who know they can count on each other.
11. CONTI.
For instance, journalist often rely on public relation practitioners for
newsworthy information and sources. Public relations practitioners
count on journalists for media coverage and third-party
endorsements.
12. LIKING
(If you want to influence people, win friends. How? Uncover real similarities and offer praise).
• According to Cialdini, two factors stand out as especially compelling
methods of winning friends: finding similarities and offering praise.
Similarities draw people together. Praise disarms them.
• Building relationships starts with identifying similar interests,
experience or objectives. Praise breaks down barriers and shows
interest and concern for the other person. We tend to like the people
we feel like us and we are all susceptible to a genuine compliment or
commendation. Also? Be likable. Be charming, considerate and
engaging.
13. • Use the Principle of Liking in media and blogger relations, in building online
communities or working to organize event participation. Ask your social media
communities open ended questions, and monitor their answers. Highlight the
similarities you note and offer genuine praise, where merited.
• Caution: Be authentic and consistent, however, insincerity can backfire and
cause real damage.
14. SCARCITY
• Cialdini suggests highlighting unique benefits and exclusive information.
“Study after study shows that items and opportunities become more
valuable as they become less available,” he says.
• We use the Principle of Scarcity to generate a sense of urgency to take
action. We create special offers for products or services or admission to
events with availability limited by time or quantity. However, scarcity can
also be experienced as exclusivity, and in PR, people are often strongly
motivated to be included in groups, committees and online communities
they perceive to be exclusive.
15. • Scarcity and exclusivity are effective in persuading people to
purchase, download and participate—for fear of losing out.
• Caution: do not make deceptive offers. If the deception is discovered
it can backfire wildly - especially in social media networks, where
negative situations can go viral in minutes.
16. CONSISTENCY
• Cialdini recommends making commitments active, public and voluntary.
“There’s strong empirical evidence to show that a choice made actively -
one that’s spoken out loud or written down or otherwise made explicit - is
considerably more likely to direct someone’s future conduct than the same
choice left unspoken,” he states.
• We put the Principle of Consistency to use in public relations in several
ways. As integral parts of our communications strategies we remind
readers to sign in to receive newsletters or to be able to comment on blog
posts; we ask them to donate or make public commitments of support to
our cause or client or organization. For ourselves, we demonstrate the
Principle of Consistency by showing up regularly, communicating clearly
and using a wide range of tools to share our message.
17. THE ETHICS OF PERSUASION
Ethics (moral philosophy) is a subject that primarily is not concerned with
increased profits or increased visibility. It is, rather, concerned with what
one ought to do - or ought not to do.” - Baker, S., Martinson, D. L. (2001).
• Socrates (as interpreted by Plato) believed rhetoric to be a way to
cleverly arrange words to manipulate audiences. Aristotle believed that
the best rhetoric was successful because it was truthful. For both, the
ultimate goal of a social debate was learning the truth. Where Socrates
believed only the truthful dialogue could achieve enlightenment,
Aristotle believed that there was a role for rhetoric and the art of
persuasion (Edgett, 2002).
18. • The Deontological philosophy of Immanuel Kant proposed that the basis for morality is
reason (Waluchow, 2003). Kant argued that it is our capacity to deliberate about and act
upon reasons for action, which makes us moral beings. Kant introduced “categorical
imperative,” by which one should only act as though their action were to become a
universal law of nature (Waluchow, 2003). Thus, lying or using misleading persuasion
would be unethical because it would not respect individuals’ autonomy, and not allow
people to use their capacity to reason to make informed choices (Messina, 2007).
• Emotive Theory proposed that moral expressions are different from factual ones because
they express emotions. Therefore, ethical statements, being based on emotions, cannot be
true or false and can only be supported by persuasion, not by evidence. Persuasion,
according to C.L. Stevenson (1937), is a non-rational approach to affecting a redirection of
the hearer’s attitudes. He argued that persuasion is often the only way to resolve ethical
debates, and allows “our personalities to grow, through our contact with others”
(Stevenson, 1937, p. 29-30).
19. • Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory of obligation that argues that
the value of an action always lies in its good consequences (Walchouw,
2003). Utilitarianism brings a “happiness quotient” for society.
• Rule Utilitarianism allows for exceptions at the extreme to utilitarianism,
but still requires adherence to rules such as “don’t lie” (Messina 2007).
Rule utilitarianism would argue that in extreme situations it is preferable
to break certain moral rules such as lying. For example, it would be
acceptable for a person to lie about hiding a Jewish family away from
Hitler’s army.
20. 1. THREE IDENTIFIED METHODS FOR GUIDING ETHICAL PERSUASION
Application of the T.A.R.E.S. test.
Sherry Baker and David Martinson (2001) proposed a five-part ‘TARES’
test to help guide the PR practitioner to define ethical persuasion.
T-ruthfulness of the message
A-uthenticity of the persuader
R-espect for the audience
E-quity of the persuasive appeal
S-ocially respesponsible
21. CONTI.
Baker and Martinson (2001) argue that persuasion must serve a moral
end rather than an immediate and instrumental end, and emphasis
must be made on the audience’s ability to voluntarily change their
attitudes or actions.
22. 2. APPLY ALEX MESSINA’S (2007) GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL PERSUASION
BY ASKING THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
Does the planned communication:
1. Agree with the value of respect for reason – i.e. offer adequate information to allow audiences to
make voluntary, informed, rational and reflective judgments?
2. Meet the standards for truthfulness, respect, authenticity and equity?
3. Withstand the testes of reversibility, principles and criteria and publicity?
If any standard is not met:
1. Is there an ascertainable balance of good accrued or harm averted?
2. Is it justifiable by reasoned argument?
3. Is the reasoning validated by evidence?
4. Do the justifying and validating evidence withstand the tests of reversibility, principles and
criteria and publicity?
5. Can you will the exception to be applied universally based on the justifying reasons and
validating evidence?
23. APPLY FITZPATRICK’S & GAUTHIER’S (2001) QUESTIONS.
1. For what purpose is persuasion being employed?
2. Toward what choices and with what consequences for individual lives is
persuasion being used?
3. Does the persuasion in this case contribute to or interfere with the decision-
making process for its target audience?
24. CONCLUSION
• Throughout history, PR has been used to promote wars, to lobby for
political causes, to promote religion, to sell products, to raise money
and to publicise events and people.
• Because the effort to persuade inspires all PR activity, we can say
that the general endeavour of PR is solid as civilization itself.
Monuments and other forms of the ancient world reflect early efforts
at persuasion.
• Today persuasion is still the driving force of PR and many of the
tactics that PR people use to persuade have been used by those
having power and those seeking power and influence in society for
thousands of years.
