The 1920s were a reaction against the progressive era in several ways. Politically, the 1920s saw a turn toward conservatism as the government took a more hands-off approach to regulating business. Socially, there was a push for isolationism in foreign policy and restrictions on immigration. Economically, the period was defined by prosperity as businesses flourished amid low regulation, rising tariffs protected American industries, and mass consumption became possible through installment plans and the growing use of credit. However, this period of prosperity contained signs of trouble as income inequality grew and American farmers and some industries struggled with debt.
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An astonishing, first-of-its-kind, report by the NYT assessing damage in Ukraine. Even if the war ends tomorrow, in many places there will be nothing to go back to.
In a May 9, 2024 paper, Juri Opitz from the University of Zurich, along with Shira Wein and Nathan Schneider form Georgetown University, discussed the importance of linguistic expertise in natural language processing (NLP) in an era dominated by large language models (LLMs).
The authors explained that while machine translation (MT) previously relied heavily on linguists, the landscape has shifted. “Linguistics is no longer front and center in the way we build NLP systems,” they said. With the emergence of LLMs, which can generate fluent text without the need for specialized modules to handle grammar or semantic coherence, the need for linguistic expertise in NLP is being questioned.
‘वोटर्स विल मस्ट प्रीवेल’ (मतदाताओं को जीतना होगा) अभियान द्वारा जारी हेल्पलाइन नंबर, 4 जून को सुबह 7 बजे से दोपहर 12 बजे तक मतगणना प्रक्रिया में कहीं भी किसी भी तरह के उल्लंघन की रिपोर्ट करने के लिए खुला रहेगा।
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हम आग्रह करते हैं कि जो भी सत्ता में आए, वह संविधान का पालन करे, उसकी रक्षा करे और उसे बनाए रखे।" प्रस्ताव में कुल तीन प्रमुख हस्तक्षेप और उनके तंत्र भी प्रस्तुत किए गए। पहला हस्तक्षेप स्वतंत्र मीडिया को प्रोत्साहित करके, वास्तविकता पर आधारित काउंटर नैरेटिव का निर्माण करके और सत्तारूढ़ सरकार द्वारा नियोजित मनोवैज्ञानिक हेरफेर की रणनीति का मुकाबला करके लोगों द्वारा निर्धारित कथा को बनाए रखना और उस पर कार्यकरना था।
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1. In what ways were the 1920s a
reaction against the
progressive era?
2. Look at the electoral map from the 1920
election. Draw 2 conclusions about
America in 1920, based on your
interpretation of the map.
3. Objectives
• Analyze the domestic political conservatism
and economic prosperity of the 1920s.
• Explain the Republican administrations’ policies
of isolationism, disarmament, and high-tariff
protectionism.
• Compare the easygoing corruption of the
Harding administration with the straight-
laced uprightness of his successor Coolidge.
• Describe the international economic tangle of
loans, war debts, and reparations, and indicate
how the United States dealt with it.
4.
5. The world needs to be reminded that all human ills are not curable by
legislation, and that quantity of statutory enactments and excess of
government offer no substitute for quality of citizenship. The problems
of maintained civilization are not to be solved by a transfer of
responsibility from citizenship to government and no eminent page in
history was ever drafted to the standards of mediocrity. Nor, no
government worthy of the name which is directed by influence on the
one hand or moved by intimidation on the other. My best judgment of
America's need is to steady down, to get squarely on our feet, to make
sure of the right path. Let's get out of the fevered delirium of war with
the hallucination that all the money in the world is to be made in the
madness of war and the wildness of its aftermath. Let us stop to
consider that tranquility at home is more precious than peace abroad
and that both our good fortune and our eminence are dependent on
the normal forward stride of all the American people.
Senator Warren G Harding – Return to Normalcy Speech
May 14, 1920
8. America yearns for the “good old days”…
Before Progressivism & WWI
-Anger over the high cost of living,
widespread unemployment
-disillusionment after war
-Labor unrest
-Immigration
9. GOP in the ’20s
• Political Conservatism
• Isolationism/Disarmament
• High-tariff protectionism
10. Political Conservatism
• Improve laissez-faire – govt guide business
to profits
– anti-trust laws ignored
• Immigration Quotas – Red Scare
• Conservative Court
– Killed progressive legislation
– Restricted govt. role in economy
– Labor set-backs
• Adkins v. Children’s Hosp – reversed Muller
• women equal to men bc of the ballot – SO NO
SPECIAL PROTECTION
11. Aftermath of the War
• WIB dismantled
• RR returned to private
ownership
• Veteran’s Bureau -
hospitals, vocational
rehab
– Adjusted Compensation
Act insurance policy in
20 years
12. Disarmament
Washington Naval Conference
• Stop naval arms race in Pacific
• Russia was not invited…
• Sec. of State, Charles Evans Hughes
– 5 Power Treaty (5:5:3)
– 4 Power Treaty – preserve status-quo in Pacific
– 9 Power Treaty – Open Door in China
• Significance:
– Weakened US position in the Pacific
– For the first time in history, powerful nations
agreed to disarm…
15. Why did Americans want high
tariffs?
Tariffs stop imports!
• Wartime boom of Amer business
• American wages high, Euro wages low
• Isolationism – self-sufficiency
• Farm Bloc - Overproduction was causing a
depression in farming; wanted to keep
prices up
17. The “Ohio Gang”
causes scandal…
• “Ohio Gang” - Harding’s
cronies
• Teapot Dome
– Fall took bribes to lease
Navy Oil Reserves in WY
– Loss of faith in govt,
courts
– Scandalous relationship
between $ and political
influence
20. A reputation forever tarnished…
• Illegitimate child in 1919 by
mistress Nan Britton
• 2 friends who committed
suicide after they were
convicted of bribery (Jesse
Smith-Assistant Attorney
General & Charles Cramer-
Legal Advisor)
• Controversy over his sudden
death in 1923…natural causes,
negligent homicide, suicide
or murder?
Nan Britton
Pres. and Florence
Harding
24. • Morally clean
• Ousted
Harding’s
corrupt cabinet
members
• Limited role of
govt in
economics
25.
26. Restricting
Immigration
• Red Scare – fear of
radicals,
anarchists
• Nativism, KKK
• Emergency Quota
Act (21) – 3%
• Immigration
Quota Act – 2%
(24)
“Make Mine Freedom” Video (1948)
27. …
As soon as they step off the decks
of their ships our problem has
begun - bolshevism, red anarchy,
black-handers and kidnappers,
challenging the authority and
integrity of our flag…
Thousands come here who never
take the oath to support our
constitution and to become citizens
of the United Sates. They pay
allegiance to some other country
while they live upon the substance
of our own. They fill places that
belong to the loyal wage-earning
citizens of America… They are of
no service whatever to our
people. They constitute a menace
and a danger to us every day..
Speech by Senator Heflin of Alabhama,
1921
31. • Ruhr Valley – part
of demilitarized
Rhineland, as
dictated by Treaty
of Versailles.
France occupied bc
Germany defaulted
on reparations
payments
1923 French Soldiers in the Ruhr area
32. • Hyper-inflation in Europe
• Dawes Plan
– US private loans to G, who paid GB and F,
who repaid US
Unraveling the Debt Knot
37. “Clouds in the blue skies of prosperity”
• Growing income gap
• No true prosperity in railroad industries
• Losses suffered by farmers and mining
companies
• Installment buying was out of
hand/”artificial prosperity”
38. Discussion Questions
• Was the American isolationism of the 1920s linked to the
rise of movements like the Ku Klux Klan? In what ways did
the movements like fundamentalism reflect similar
“antimodern” outlooks, and in what ways did they reflect
more basic religious disagreements?
• To what extent did the policies of the booming 1920s
contribute to the depression? Was the depression
inevitable, or could it have been avoided? Why or why not?
• How did the depression challenge the traditional belief of
Hoover and other Americans in “rugged
individualism”?
39. • You will create TWO political cartoons
depicting some aspect of Warren G.
Harding’s Presidency (think about the
major events we studied)
– One cartoon must be PRO Harding (think as
though you are an isolationist or someone who
supports American business)
– One cartoon must be ANTI Harding
• Your cartoon must have
– Symbols
– A caption
– A message
Editor's Notes
Elected on his birthday, Extroverted, Politically savvy – invited brains to his cabinet
Outgoing – unlike Wilson
“less government in business and more business in government.”
The president took such pleasure in Laddie Boy that he had 1,000 bronze miniatures made in the dog's image shortly after taking office. Like a proud father handing out cigars to celebrate the birth of a child, Harding had the dog statuettes sent to his political supporters in Washington, D.C., and to those back in Ohio.Read more: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/The-White-Houses-First-Celebrity-Canine.html#ixzz14k3IZ3H7
Harding enjoyed his pet's fame; in fact, he cultivated it by writing letters to the press pretending to be Laddie Boy. But the president drew the line at commercializing his dog. "During the Harding administration, numerous toy manufacturers sent letters to the White House asking permission to have exclusive rights to produce a stuffed toy in the likeness of Laddie Boy," says Melinda Gilpin, historic site manager of the Harding Home State Memorial in Marion. "Harding refused to endorse any such endeavor." At least one company did go ahead and manufacture a stuffed animal Laddie Boy, an example of which is on display at the Harding Home.On April 20, 1921, the Times published a story reporting that the terrier had been invited to lead an animal parade that would benefit the Humane Education Society in Washington, D.C. The unidentified reporter wrote: "Announcement that Laddie Boy had accepted the invitation was made today at the White House." As if Laddie Boy had his own press secretary!While making arrangements to leave the White House, Florence gave Laddie Boy to Harry Barker, the Secret Service agent who had been assigned to protect her. Barker had been like a son to Florence, and when his White House assignment ended, he was transferred to the agency's Boston office. Laddie Boy settled into a new life at the home of Barker and his wife in Newtonville, Massachusetts.
To honor Harding's background as a newspaperman, more than 19,000 newsboys around the country each donated a penny for a memorial to the fallen president. The pennies were melted down and cast into a life-size sculpture of Laddie Boy by Boston-based sculptor, Bashka Paeff. While Paeff worked on the sculpture, Laddie Boy was required to complete 15 sittings.
Read more: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/The-White-Houses-First-Celebrity-Canine.html?c=y&page=3#ixzz14k4UGgA6
At the same time measures were taken to 'Americanize' immigrants:
● The Federal Bureau of Naturalization organised naturalization proceedings, and patriotic 'Americanization Day' rallies and Fourth of July celebrations.
● The Federal Bureau of Education organised courses on politics and democracy to prepare immigrants for the 'citizenship exam'.
● The courts clamped down harshly on political crimes by immigrants
(The case you MUST know about is the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti - two immigrants from Italy who were anarchists - who in 1920 were found guilty of armed robbery and murder (and executed in 1927), even though the defence produced 107 witnesses that they were elsewhere at the time, and in 1925 the actual murderer came forward and gave himself up ... the jury did not believe the defence witnesses because they were all Italian immigrants).
Not all this was racism and prejudice - many social workers saw it a a way to help immigrants out of the terrible poverty many of them lived in.
Why Americans wanted high tariffs [WAIF]
Tariffs stop imports!
a. Wartime boom: American business had boomed during the war - possibly because the countries involved in the war hadn't been able to sell goods to America - and American businessmen wanted this to continue.
c. American wages: American wages were rising, and American businessmen feared that low wages in Europe would allow European firms to undercut them. Thus Joseph Fordney claimed that tariffs would protect American workers' jobs.
b. Isolationism: American isolationists wanted America to be self-sufficient .
d. Farm Bloc: Overproduction was causing a depression in farming. Farmers hoped that protection would help keep prices up.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff. This had two principles:
a. 'Scientific tariff': this linked tariffs to the wages in the country of export. If wages in, say Italy, were very low, then Italian goods were given a proportionately higher tariff. This negated the effect of lower wages in competitor countries.
b. 'American Selling Price': this linked tariffs to the price of American goods, not to the cost of production. A German company might be able to produce, say, a certain chemical for $60, but if the selling price in America was $80, and the US tariff was 50%, the tariff would be $40. This meant that foreign imports were ALWAYS more expensive than American-produced goods, however cheaply they had been made.
The Fordney-McCumber Act established the highest tariffs in history, with some duties up to 400% and an average of 40%.
Coolidge and race - http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/121385.html
Cooolidge and Depression after son’s death - http://hnn.us/articles/9815.html
Practical jokes – pressing elevator buttons and running down the steps, pressing buttons on desk to see aids run in
"Well, Baruch, many times I say only 'yes' or 'no' to people. Even that is too much. It winds them up for twenty minutes more.“
Both his dry Yankee wit and his frugality with words became legendary. His wife, Grace Goodhue Coolidge, recounted that a young woman sitting next to Coolidge at a dinner party confided to him she had bet she could get at least three words of conversation from him. Without looking at her he quietly retorted, "You lose." And in 1928, while vacationing in the Black Hills of South Dakota, he issued the most famous of his laconic statements, "I do not choose to run for President in 1928.“
in 1923 Germany defaulted. In response to this, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr River valley inside the borders of Germany. This occupation of the centre of the German coal and steel industries outraged the German people, who, in response, passively resisted the occupation, thus leading to a further strain on Germany's economy, significantly contributing to the hyperinflation that followed
Main points of the Dawes Plan
In an agreement of August 1924, the main points of The Dawes Plan were:
The Ruhr area was to be evacuated by Allied occupation troops.
Reparation payments would begin at “one billion marks the first year, increasing to two and a half billion marks annually after five years" (Merrill 93)
The Reichsbank would be reorganized under Allied supervision.
The sources for the reparation money would include transportation, excise, and custom taxes.
IMPACT: The Dawes Plan provided short term economic benefits to the German economy. It softened the burdens of war reparations, stabilized the currency, and brought increased foreign investments and loans to the German market. However, it made the German economy dependent on foreign markets and economies, and therefore problems with the U.S. economy (e.g. the Great Depression) would later severely hurt Germany as it did the rest of the western world, which was subject to debt repayments for loans of American dollars.
After World War I, this cycle of money from U.S. loans to Germany, which then made reparations to other European nations, which then used the money to pay off their debts to America, locked the western world's economy on that of the U.S.
Consumer economy and mass entertainment - http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=454