The document describes a PLC program for controlling various subsystems in a building, including lighting, HVAC, access/security, communications, and fire safety/water/plumbing. It provides details on how a PLC could be programmed using ladder logic to control a lighting subsystem with 16 lights over 4 rooms. The PLC program includes a master switch input to enable or disable control of the lighting subsystem. It also allows individual manual control of each light and monitoring of their power status. Tables and figures illustrate the PLC I/O mapping and interface. Similar PLC programs are described for other subsystems.
The document discusses cyber-physical systems (CPS) in the context of wind energy and the Internet of Energy (IoE). It describes how CPS can enable wind energy systems to interface with the IoE through embedded intelligence, sensors, and communication networks. This would allow for increased efficiency, cost savings, and reduced energy waste through applications like smart grid integration, distributed control of generation systems, and automated maintenance processes. The document outlines the physical and cyber layers of wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and discusses modeling, safety, security, and sustainability considerations for developing CPS-enabled next-generation WECS.
The Schneider Electric MetConsole® Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) – a module of the company’s MetConsole Aviation Weather Suite – provides the reliable and timely information and alerting to the gust fronts, downbursts or microbursts induced by thunderstorms. It helps minimize disruptions, caused by these wind shear conditions, to aircraft flying below 1,000 feet while approaching and departing airports.
The control center is the central nerve system of the power
system. It senses the pulse of the power system, adjusts its
condition, coordinates its movement, and provides defense
against exogenous events. In this paper, we review the functions
and architectures of control centers: their past, present,
and likely future.
We first give a brief historical account of the evolution
of control centers. A great impetus to the development
of control centers occurred after the northeast blackout
of 1965 when the commission investigating the incident
recommended that “utilities should intensify the pursuit of
all opportunities to expand the effective use of computers
This document discusses the differences between programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and distributed control systems (DCSs) in order to help determine which type of system is best suited for different applications. It outlines seven key questions to consider regarding the manufacturing process, product value, system requirements, operator needs, engineering expectations, and whether the application is hybrid in nature. PLCs are generally better for discrete and simple batch control, while DCSs are more suitable for complex batch processes and facilities that require flexibility and recipe management where system availability is critical. A hybrid system may be needed if an application requires both fast logic control and regulatory analog loop control.
A BMS consultant document discusses inputs and outputs for building management systems. It describes various sensors like temperature, humidity, pressure, and flow sensors that provide inputs. It also discusses output devices like control valves, VFD speed commands, and damper actuators. The document provides details on common sensor types, proper installation of sensors, and BMS protocols.
The document discusses automation and its various components. Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to perform processes automatically with minimal human intervention. It discusses programmable logic controllers (PLCs) as a key tool of automation. PLCs are special computers used to control industrial processes. The document then describes the basic components, programming, and applications of PLCs.
This document is a project report on programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems by Ishank Ranjan, an 8th semester undergraduate student at Hindustan College of Science and Technology in Mathura, India. The report provides an acknowledgment, certificate of training, preface, table of contents, and 15 sections that describe features of PLCs, ladder logic programming, SCADA systems, and potential benefits of using PLCs and SCADA for industrial automation and process control.
The document discusses cyber-physical systems (CPS) in the context of wind energy and the Internet of Energy (IoE). It describes how CPS can enable wind energy systems to interface with the IoE through embedded intelligence, sensors, and communication networks. This would allow for increased efficiency, cost savings, and reduced energy waste through applications like smart grid integration, distributed control of generation systems, and automated maintenance processes. The document outlines the physical and cyber layers of wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and discusses modeling, safety, security, and sustainability considerations for developing CPS-enabled next-generation WECS.
The Schneider Electric MetConsole® Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) – a module of the company’s MetConsole Aviation Weather Suite – provides the reliable and timely information and alerting to the gust fronts, downbursts or microbursts induced by thunderstorms. It helps minimize disruptions, caused by these wind shear conditions, to aircraft flying below 1,000 feet while approaching and departing airports.
The control center is the central nerve system of the power
system. It senses the pulse of the power system, adjusts its
condition, coordinates its movement, and provides defense
against exogenous events. In this paper, we review the functions
and architectures of control centers: their past, present,
and likely future.
We first give a brief historical account of the evolution
of control centers. A great impetus to the development
of control centers occurred after the northeast blackout
of 1965 when the commission investigating the incident
recommended that “utilities should intensify the pursuit of
all opportunities to expand the effective use of computers
This document discusses the differences between programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and distributed control systems (DCSs) in order to help determine which type of system is best suited for different applications. It outlines seven key questions to consider regarding the manufacturing process, product value, system requirements, operator needs, engineering expectations, and whether the application is hybrid in nature. PLCs are generally better for discrete and simple batch control, while DCSs are more suitable for complex batch processes and facilities that require flexibility and recipe management where system availability is critical. A hybrid system may be needed if an application requires both fast logic control and regulatory analog loop control.
A BMS consultant document discusses inputs and outputs for building management systems. It describes various sensors like temperature, humidity, pressure, and flow sensors that provide inputs. It also discusses output devices like control valves, VFD speed commands, and damper actuators. The document provides details on common sensor types, proper installation of sensors, and BMS protocols.
The document discusses automation and its various components. Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to perform processes automatically with minimal human intervention. It discusses programmable logic controllers (PLCs) as a key tool of automation. PLCs are special computers used to control industrial processes. The document then describes the basic components, programming, and applications of PLCs.
This document is a project report on programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems by Ishank Ranjan, an 8th semester undergraduate student at Hindustan College of Science and Technology in Mathura, India. The report provides an acknowledgment, certificate of training, preface, table of contents, and 15 sections that describe features of PLCs, ladder logic programming, SCADA systems, and potential benefits of using PLCs and SCADA for industrial automation and process control.
Evolution of protective systems in petro chemGlen Alleman
Electrical protective or emergency shutdown systems are utilized
throughout the petrochemical industry for safety and to avoid severe environmental and/or economic events. Requirements
fur these critical systems are that they work every time, on demand, and do not initiate nuisance events. These requirements were difficult to achieve in most early systems but the systems have improved over the years. Emergency shutdown system design has been unregulated in the U.S., but new standards will require strict guidelines for design, application, docllmentation, and software testing and control.
Wide area protection-and_emergency_control (1)Alaa Eladl
This document discusses wide-area protection and emergency control in power systems. It describes how major disturbances can stress power systems beyond their planned operating limits due to unpredictable events. It explores using advanced wide-area monitoring and control systems based on communication and synchronization technologies to automatically detect and respond to disturbances across large regions in order to minimize their impacts. Such systems have potential to provide faster, more coordinated responses than traditional local protection schemes or human operators. The document outlines different types of power system disturbances and remedial measures needed to maintain stability.
This slide is an introductory part of the course Computer Application in Power system. it will describe the basic tasks of a computer and different computer application areas.
IRJET- Building Management System and its Network DesignIRJET Journal
This document discusses building management systems (BMS) and their network design. It provides an overview of what a BMS is and its main components, including hardware like control units, sensors and actuators. It describes the basic functions and working of a BMS, including monitoring various building systems from one central location. The document also provides examples of BMS implementations in areas like fire detection and alarms, security/CCTV surveillance, access control and elevator management. It concludes that a well-designed BMS can intelligently reduce costs, increase security and energy efficiency in commercial buildings.
Guideline for the certification of wind turbine service technicians 2015 julyMichael Mattocks
The document discusses guidelines for certifying wind turbine service technicians, including safety rules and cyber security concerns. It outlines the roles of organizations like RenewableUK, the Health & Safety Executive, and certification bodies in developing and enforcing standards for wind turbine safety. Technicians must be aware of statutory regulations and the importance of cyber security for wind farm control systems, as unauthorized access could disrupt controls and endanger safety.
Guideline for the Chartered Certification WTSR of Wind Turbine Service Techni...Michael Mattocks
The document discusses guidelines for certifying wind turbine service technicians, including safety rules and cybersecurity concerns. It outlines the roles of organizations like RenewableUK, the Health & Safety Executive, and WindHSE.org in developing wind turbine safety standards. The Wind Turbine Safety Rules version 3 include guidelines around high voltage boundaries and transformers. The document also warns that industrial control systems like those used in wind turbines are vulnerable to cyber attacks, referencing malware like Stuxnet that have targeted these systems in the past. Technicians must be aware of cybersecurity protocols to safely operate and maintain wind farm equipment.
This document discusses the risks to industrial control systems (ICS) from aging and obsolete hardware and software. As ICS age over decades, maintenance becomes more difficult as replacement parts and skills are lost. Additionally, connecting ICS to business networks improves monitoring but introduces cybersecurity risks as outdated systems lack patches. The author analyzes how obsolescence impacts hardware, software, documentation and human competency. Best practices are proposed like lifecycle management, inventory plans and disaster recovery to mitigate supply chain risks and obtain secure replacements for aging ICS components.
This document discusses issues related to smart grid resilience and proposed enhancements. It begins with an introduction to smart grids and the concept of resilience. Major issues discussed include cyber threats like false data injection attacks and denial-of-service attacks, as well as natural disasters. Several enhancement techniques are then proposed, such as using energy storage systems, distributed energy resources, microgrids, and blockchain technology. The document focuses on cybersecurity issues in more depth, outlining various false data injection attacks and their potential impacts. It also discusses denial-of-service attacks and proposes detection and mitigation methods. Overall, the document analyzes resilience challenges in smart grids and presents technical solutions aimed at improving system reliability and recovery capabilities.
SCADA systems are used to monitor and control equipment and processes in industries like oil/gas, water treatment, and manufacturing. They gather data in real-time from remote locations and send control commands back. SCADA has evolved through 3 generations from standalone monolithic systems to distributed systems on local networks to today's networked systems using open standards and wide area networks. Security issues need to be addressed like encrypting communications, securing devices, auditing networks, and implementing threat protection. The future of SCADA involves more sophisticated systems that can handle huge data volumes and territories with some having artificial intelligence capabilities.
Evaluation of cybersecurity threats -mdms.pdfBhekumuzi Xaba
This document discusses cybersecurity threats to smart metering systems. It begins with an overview of smart metering and its benefits, then describes the functional architecture which includes smart meters, communication networks, and interfaces. The document identifies vulnerabilities in smart metering systems like IP misconfiguration, injection attacks, denial of service attacks, and memory corruption. It proposes a taxonomy of threats by matching system vulnerabilities to threat vectors like physical attacks, network attacks, and interface attacks. The document argues that addressing these security issues is important for increasing adoption of smart metering.
BlackHat 2010 - Electricity for Free - The Dirty Underbelly of SCADA and Smar...Michael Smith
This document discusses vulnerabilities in SCADA and smart meter systems used for electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It provides an overview of how electricity is generated, transmitted through high-voltage lines, and distributed through lower voltage lines to consumers. The document then details the methodology used to assess SCADA systems, common vulnerabilities found, and examples of vulnerabilities in programmable logic controllers and smart meters. The goal is to raise awareness of security issues in these critical infrastructure systems.
SECURITY IN LARGE, STRATEGIC AND COMPLEX SYSTEMSMarco Lisi
Lesson on "Security in large, Strategic and Complex Systems" at the "Master di II Livello" in "Homeland Security" -
Università degli Studi Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, A. A. 2012-2013
Zpryme Report on Modeling and SimulationPaula Smith
The document discusses modeling and simulation (M&S) for smart grid infrastructure. It notes that M&S is being used to study the complex interactions between power systems and communication networks in a smart grid context. Several challenges of smart grid simulation are outlined, including combining power system and communication network simulation and different time models used. Solutions discussed include co-simulation, where separate power system and communication network simulators are connected, and integrated simulation, where components are simulated together within one environment. Government agencies and laboratories leading M&S research are also outlined.
The document outlines the functional design specification for an integrated centralized SCADA and automation system for Nalanda University, including proposed hardware and software systems for the SCADA system at the central command center and RTU systems at substations, with details on system functions, hardware requirements, and functional design of the overall distribution management system.
This paper presents a novel optimization technique using genetic algorithms to develop an optimized emergency defence plan for power systems. The technique determines the optimal combination of generator tripping, load shedding, and islanding to regain system stability following severe contingencies. It was applied to the Libyan power system using time-domain simulations to evaluate solutions. Results showed the optimized defence plan required less load shedding than the existing Libyan plan and improved system response during a 2003 blackout event.
Cybersecurity Considerations for Power Substation SCADA Systems Using IEC 618...Power System Operation
Because of recent cyber-attacks and threats against power utilities, cybersecurity continues to increase in importance and be on the minds of substation design engineers.
One major concern for power distribution utilities is “ensuring that all communication protocols performing control functions and data acquisition for substations are properly secured. With IEC-61850 being one of the most widely used communications protocols by utilities today, particularly in distribution automation (DA),” increases the need for greater security in communication protocols. [1]
IEC-61850 is also becoming the preferred standard for substation design and operations due to the common framework and object-oriented design for point names as well as the increased performance and lower lifecycle cost of SCADA systems utilizing the methodology and protocols. This paper will discuss major vulnerabilities and cybersecurity considerations that require proper analysis when designing and implementing a secure IEC-61850 standard-based SCADA system within a power substation. However, this paper will not discuss implementation methods or provide implementation concepts.
A Review Of Recent Development In Smart Grid And Micro Grid LaboratoriesJoaquin Hamad
This document summarizes recent developments in smart grid and micro-grid laboratories. It first discusses key features of smart grids, including their decentralized structure and integration of renewable energy. It then reviews several micro-grid laboratory projects in Europe, the US, and Japan that test control systems and other smart grid technologies at small scales. Finally, it outlines ongoing work at UTeM to develop a laboratory-scale micro-grid system to study issues like distributed energy emulation, synchronization with the main grid, and islanding detection.
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF PROTECTION SCHEME OF DIGITAL SUBSTATION USING IEC61850-...IAEME Publication
Substations are a fundamental part in electrical energy transmission and
distribution. The role of a substation is to transfer and transform electrical energy by
stepping up or down the voltage. To do this, high voltage switching equipment and
power transformers are used, in addition to instrument transformers that supply the
status of the primary system to the secondary equipment. Substation Automation
Systems are then used to control, protect and monitor the substations. The IEC 61850
standard developed digital substation with most advanced techniques. The IEC 61850
standard define in its sub- clauses IEC 600448 and IEC 61850-9-2 about digital
interface, digital communication and Sampled Values transmission over an Ethernet
link called Process Bus. Process Bus technology mainly developed in order to reduce
the usage of copper wiring at substation control by introducing IEC 61850-9-2 digital
interface.
Cyber-Defensive Architecture for Networked Industrial Control SystemsIJEACS
This paper deals with the inevitable consequence of the convenience and efficiency we benefit from the open, networked control system operation of safety-critical applications: vulnerability to such system from cyber-attacks. Even with numerous metrics and methods for intrusion detection and mitigation strategy, a complete detection and deterrence of internal code flaws and outside cyber-attacks has not been found and would not be found anytime soon. Considering the ever incompleteness of detection and prevention and the impact and consequence of mal-functions of the safety-critical operations caused by cyber incidents, this paper proposes a new computer control system architecture which assures resiliency even under compromised situations. The proposed architecture is centered on diversification of hardware systems and unidirectional communication from the proposed system in alerting suspicious activities to upper layers. This paper details the architectural structure of the proposed cyber defensive computer control system architecture for power substation applications and its validation in lab experimentation and on a cybersecurity testbed.
Feasible Interfacing and Programming of Industrial Control Technology Unit wi...theijes
This document discusses the interfacing and programming of an industrial control technology unit with PLCs and robots. It begins with an abstract that describes how the unit assembles components using sensors, actuators, and a PLC for control. A PLC program is presented to control the unit and interface it with a 6-axis robot for workpiece transfer using a pneumatic gripper. The document then reviews literature on using PLCs compared to microprocessors for industrial control. It presents the project requirements, software used, and PLC and robot programming methods. The conclusion discusses the benefits of PLCs for industrial control and their interfacing with robots.
The document discusses energy usage and renewable energy initiatives in the United States and Canada. In the US, transportation accounts for the largest portion of energy usage at 26.7%, followed by electric power at 20.6%. Petroleum is the dominant energy source for transportation, while coal and natural gas are key sources for electric power. Various public-private partnerships promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. In Canada, hydropower generates 59% of the country's electricity. Canada is also increasing its usage of solar, wind, and other renewable sources while reducing reliance on coal for electric power generation.
This document provides instructions for installing both grid-tied and stand-alone solar power systems. For a grid-tied system, it describes mounting the solar panels, installing microinverters to convert DC to AC current, and wiring the system components including the panels, junction box, disconnect switch and circuit breaker. For a stand-alone system, it outlines planning the system based on energy needs, purchasing components like panels, batteries, charge controllers and an inverter, and connecting all the parts as shown in a wiring diagram. Safety precautions are emphasized when working with high voltages from solar equipment.
More Related Content
Similar to PLC Building Automation and Control Systems
Evolution of protective systems in petro chemGlen Alleman
Electrical protective or emergency shutdown systems are utilized
throughout the petrochemical industry for safety and to avoid severe environmental and/or economic events. Requirements
fur these critical systems are that they work every time, on demand, and do not initiate nuisance events. These requirements were difficult to achieve in most early systems but the systems have improved over the years. Emergency shutdown system design has been unregulated in the U.S., but new standards will require strict guidelines for design, application, docllmentation, and software testing and control.
Wide area protection-and_emergency_control (1)Alaa Eladl
This document discusses wide-area protection and emergency control in power systems. It describes how major disturbances can stress power systems beyond their planned operating limits due to unpredictable events. It explores using advanced wide-area monitoring and control systems based on communication and synchronization technologies to automatically detect and respond to disturbances across large regions in order to minimize their impacts. Such systems have potential to provide faster, more coordinated responses than traditional local protection schemes or human operators. The document outlines different types of power system disturbances and remedial measures needed to maintain stability.
This slide is an introductory part of the course Computer Application in Power system. it will describe the basic tasks of a computer and different computer application areas.
IRJET- Building Management System and its Network DesignIRJET Journal
This document discusses building management systems (BMS) and their network design. It provides an overview of what a BMS is and its main components, including hardware like control units, sensors and actuators. It describes the basic functions and working of a BMS, including monitoring various building systems from one central location. The document also provides examples of BMS implementations in areas like fire detection and alarms, security/CCTV surveillance, access control and elevator management. It concludes that a well-designed BMS can intelligently reduce costs, increase security and energy efficiency in commercial buildings.
Guideline for the certification of wind turbine service technicians 2015 julyMichael Mattocks
The document discusses guidelines for certifying wind turbine service technicians, including safety rules and cyber security concerns. It outlines the roles of organizations like RenewableUK, the Health & Safety Executive, and certification bodies in developing and enforcing standards for wind turbine safety. Technicians must be aware of statutory regulations and the importance of cyber security for wind farm control systems, as unauthorized access could disrupt controls and endanger safety.
Guideline for the Chartered Certification WTSR of Wind Turbine Service Techni...Michael Mattocks
The document discusses guidelines for certifying wind turbine service technicians, including safety rules and cybersecurity concerns. It outlines the roles of organizations like RenewableUK, the Health & Safety Executive, and WindHSE.org in developing wind turbine safety standards. The Wind Turbine Safety Rules version 3 include guidelines around high voltage boundaries and transformers. The document also warns that industrial control systems like those used in wind turbines are vulnerable to cyber attacks, referencing malware like Stuxnet that have targeted these systems in the past. Technicians must be aware of cybersecurity protocols to safely operate and maintain wind farm equipment.
This document discusses the risks to industrial control systems (ICS) from aging and obsolete hardware and software. As ICS age over decades, maintenance becomes more difficult as replacement parts and skills are lost. Additionally, connecting ICS to business networks improves monitoring but introduces cybersecurity risks as outdated systems lack patches. The author analyzes how obsolescence impacts hardware, software, documentation and human competency. Best practices are proposed like lifecycle management, inventory plans and disaster recovery to mitigate supply chain risks and obtain secure replacements for aging ICS components.
This document discusses issues related to smart grid resilience and proposed enhancements. It begins with an introduction to smart grids and the concept of resilience. Major issues discussed include cyber threats like false data injection attacks and denial-of-service attacks, as well as natural disasters. Several enhancement techniques are then proposed, such as using energy storage systems, distributed energy resources, microgrids, and blockchain technology. The document focuses on cybersecurity issues in more depth, outlining various false data injection attacks and their potential impacts. It also discusses denial-of-service attacks and proposes detection and mitigation methods. Overall, the document analyzes resilience challenges in smart grids and presents technical solutions aimed at improving system reliability and recovery capabilities.
SCADA systems are used to monitor and control equipment and processes in industries like oil/gas, water treatment, and manufacturing. They gather data in real-time from remote locations and send control commands back. SCADA has evolved through 3 generations from standalone monolithic systems to distributed systems on local networks to today's networked systems using open standards and wide area networks. Security issues need to be addressed like encrypting communications, securing devices, auditing networks, and implementing threat protection. The future of SCADA involves more sophisticated systems that can handle huge data volumes and territories with some having artificial intelligence capabilities.
Evaluation of cybersecurity threats -mdms.pdfBhekumuzi Xaba
This document discusses cybersecurity threats to smart metering systems. It begins with an overview of smart metering and its benefits, then describes the functional architecture which includes smart meters, communication networks, and interfaces. The document identifies vulnerabilities in smart metering systems like IP misconfiguration, injection attacks, denial of service attacks, and memory corruption. It proposes a taxonomy of threats by matching system vulnerabilities to threat vectors like physical attacks, network attacks, and interface attacks. The document argues that addressing these security issues is important for increasing adoption of smart metering.
BlackHat 2010 - Electricity for Free - The Dirty Underbelly of SCADA and Smar...Michael Smith
This document discusses vulnerabilities in SCADA and smart meter systems used for electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It provides an overview of how electricity is generated, transmitted through high-voltage lines, and distributed through lower voltage lines to consumers. The document then details the methodology used to assess SCADA systems, common vulnerabilities found, and examples of vulnerabilities in programmable logic controllers and smart meters. The goal is to raise awareness of security issues in these critical infrastructure systems.
SECURITY IN LARGE, STRATEGIC AND COMPLEX SYSTEMSMarco Lisi
Lesson on "Security in large, Strategic and Complex Systems" at the "Master di II Livello" in "Homeland Security" -
Università degli Studi Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, A. A. 2012-2013
Zpryme Report on Modeling and SimulationPaula Smith
The document discusses modeling and simulation (M&S) for smart grid infrastructure. It notes that M&S is being used to study the complex interactions between power systems and communication networks in a smart grid context. Several challenges of smart grid simulation are outlined, including combining power system and communication network simulation and different time models used. Solutions discussed include co-simulation, where separate power system and communication network simulators are connected, and integrated simulation, where components are simulated together within one environment. Government agencies and laboratories leading M&S research are also outlined.
The document outlines the functional design specification for an integrated centralized SCADA and automation system for Nalanda University, including proposed hardware and software systems for the SCADA system at the central command center and RTU systems at substations, with details on system functions, hardware requirements, and functional design of the overall distribution management system.
This paper presents a novel optimization technique using genetic algorithms to develop an optimized emergency defence plan for power systems. The technique determines the optimal combination of generator tripping, load shedding, and islanding to regain system stability following severe contingencies. It was applied to the Libyan power system using time-domain simulations to evaluate solutions. Results showed the optimized defence plan required less load shedding than the existing Libyan plan and improved system response during a 2003 blackout event.
Cybersecurity Considerations for Power Substation SCADA Systems Using IEC 618...Power System Operation
Because of recent cyber-attacks and threats against power utilities, cybersecurity continues to increase in importance and be on the minds of substation design engineers.
One major concern for power distribution utilities is “ensuring that all communication protocols performing control functions and data acquisition for substations are properly secured. With IEC-61850 being one of the most widely used communications protocols by utilities today, particularly in distribution automation (DA),” increases the need for greater security in communication protocols. [1]
IEC-61850 is also becoming the preferred standard for substation design and operations due to the common framework and object-oriented design for point names as well as the increased performance and lower lifecycle cost of SCADA systems utilizing the methodology and protocols. This paper will discuss major vulnerabilities and cybersecurity considerations that require proper analysis when designing and implementing a secure IEC-61850 standard-based SCADA system within a power substation. However, this paper will not discuss implementation methods or provide implementation concepts.
A Review Of Recent Development In Smart Grid And Micro Grid LaboratoriesJoaquin Hamad
This document summarizes recent developments in smart grid and micro-grid laboratories. It first discusses key features of smart grids, including their decentralized structure and integration of renewable energy. It then reviews several micro-grid laboratory projects in Europe, the US, and Japan that test control systems and other smart grid technologies at small scales. Finally, it outlines ongoing work at UTeM to develop a laboratory-scale micro-grid system to study issues like distributed energy emulation, synchronization with the main grid, and islanding detection.
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF PROTECTION SCHEME OF DIGITAL SUBSTATION USING IEC61850-...IAEME Publication
Substations are a fundamental part in electrical energy transmission and
distribution. The role of a substation is to transfer and transform electrical energy by
stepping up or down the voltage. To do this, high voltage switching equipment and
power transformers are used, in addition to instrument transformers that supply the
status of the primary system to the secondary equipment. Substation Automation
Systems are then used to control, protect and monitor the substations. The IEC 61850
standard developed digital substation with most advanced techniques. The IEC 61850
standard define in its sub- clauses IEC 600448 and IEC 61850-9-2 about digital
interface, digital communication and Sampled Values transmission over an Ethernet
link called Process Bus. Process Bus technology mainly developed in order to reduce
the usage of copper wiring at substation control by introducing IEC 61850-9-2 digital
interface.
Cyber-Defensive Architecture for Networked Industrial Control SystemsIJEACS
This paper deals with the inevitable consequence of the convenience and efficiency we benefit from the open, networked control system operation of safety-critical applications: vulnerability to such system from cyber-attacks. Even with numerous metrics and methods for intrusion detection and mitigation strategy, a complete detection and deterrence of internal code flaws and outside cyber-attacks has not been found and would not be found anytime soon. Considering the ever incompleteness of detection and prevention and the impact and consequence of mal-functions of the safety-critical operations caused by cyber incidents, this paper proposes a new computer control system architecture which assures resiliency even under compromised situations. The proposed architecture is centered on diversification of hardware systems and unidirectional communication from the proposed system in alerting suspicious activities to upper layers. This paper details the architectural structure of the proposed cyber defensive computer control system architecture for power substation applications and its validation in lab experimentation and on a cybersecurity testbed.
Feasible Interfacing and Programming of Industrial Control Technology Unit wi...theijes
This document discusses the interfacing and programming of an industrial control technology unit with PLCs and robots. It begins with an abstract that describes how the unit assembles components using sensors, actuators, and a PLC for control. A PLC program is presented to control the unit and interface it with a 6-axis robot for workpiece transfer using a pneumatic gripper. The document then reviews literature on using PLCs compared to microprocessors for industrial control. It presents the project requirements, software used, and PLC and robot programming methods. The conclusion discusses the benefits of PLCs for industrial control and their interfacing with robots.
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The document discusses energy usage and renewable energy initiatives in the United States and Canada. In the US, transportation accounts for the largest portion of energy usage at 26.7%, followed by electric power at 20.6%. Petroleum is the dominant energy source for transportation, while coal and natural gas are key sources for electric power. Various public-private partnerships promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. In Canada, hydropower generates 59% of the country's electricity. Canada is also increasing its usage of solar, wind, and other renewable sources while reducing reliance on coal for electric power generation.
This document provides instructions for installing both grid-tied and stand-alone solar power systems. For a grid-tied system, it describes mounting the solar panels, installing microinverters to convert DC to AC current, and wiring the system components including the panels, junction box, disconnect switch and circuit breaker. For a stand-alone system, it outlines planning the system based on energy needs, purchasing components like panels, batteries, charge controllers and an inverter, and connecting all the parts as shown in a wiring diagram. Safety precautions are emphasized when working with high voltages from solar equipment.
This document provides a recommendation to switch to a renewable electric energy provider. It discusses the problems with fossil fuel dependency, including the limited reserves and environmental impacts. The document analyzes several renewable energy provider options and ultimately recommends IGS Energy, praising their 25+ years of reliable service and extended home protection plans.
This document provides an overview of image enhancement techniques for remote sensing. It first defines remote sensing as observing and gathering information about areas without direct contact. It then discusses different types of sensors and gives examples of image processing techniques like enhancement, restoration, and classification. The document demonstrates enhancing a Landsat image by adjusting band combinations and applying contrast stretching. It shows original and enhanced RGB images using different band combinations and concludes by asking if the reader has any questions.
The document discusses energy usage and renewable energy initiatives in the United States and Canada. In the US, transportation accounts for the largest portion of energy usage at 26.7%, followed by electric power at 20.6%. Petroleum is the dominant energy source for transportation, while coal and natural gas are key sources for electric power. Various public-private partnerships promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. In Canada, hydropower generates 59% of the country's electricity. Canada is also a significant producer of wind and solar energy and has been increasing renewable energy adoption, especially after Ontario closed all its coal-fired power plants in 2014.
This document discusses solving the inverse kinematics problem for a 6 degree of freedom robot using numerical methods and algorithms. It begins by introducing the robot and describing the inverse kinematics problem. It then outlines the process used to determine the lengths of each link by analyzing the robot configuration. Equations are developed relating the joint angles to cylindrical coordinates. Initial conditions are established indicating how the links contribute to the radial and length components at different joint angles.
The document summarizes an experiment examining different control methods for a robotic arm. An open loop test found the plant transfer function. Proportional, PD, and PID controllers were unable to achieve the desired 5% overshoot and 0.4s settling time. A hybrid controller using lead compensation with two poles and two zeros was able to meet the objectives, with the root locus confirming a 5% overshoot at the target poles. The hybrid controller was determined to be the most effective approach for this plant.
This document analyzes and models a rotational mechanical system to determine its time domain characteristics. The system is modeled using a second-order differential equation and Laplace transform. MATLAB is used to verify results and simulate the system. Key findings include:
1) The system has poles at -8 ± j20, a damping ratio of 0.3714, and 28.46% overshoot.
2) The impulse and step responses are determined and match simulations in MATLAB.
3) A state space model is developed using A, B, C, and D matrices to reduce the system to first-order equations.
1) The document describes a lab experiment using MATLAB and Simulink to model differential equations and a mechanical spring-mass damper system.
2) Two differential equations and one spring-mass system were modeled to analyze the transient and steady-state response.
3) The results showed that the solutions from MATLAB and Simulink matched the expected behaviors and verified the initial and final values as well as time constants of the systems.
This document discusses how digital image processing techniques are used to create false color composites from remote sensing data. Specifically, it describes how Landsat satellite imagery containing bands outside the visible spectrum can be enhanced using histogram equalization for contrast stretching and combining bands into color composites. This allows information from non-visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum to be visualized and analyzed to learn more about the environment than what is visible to the human eye. Code is provided to demonstrate taking Landsat imagery, enhancing the individual bands through histogram equalization, and generating false color composites by concatenating selected bands.
The document discusses image compression using the discrete cosine transform (DCT). It explains that the DCT represents an image as a sum of sinusoids, allowing most visual information to be concentrated in DCT coefficients. This allows for lossy compression by removing insignificant coefficients. The document provides an example MATLAB code to compress an image using DCT. It shows the original 33.8kb image and compressed 13kb image, achieving a compression ratio of 2.6 with minimal quality loss.
1. The document describes an attempt to use adaptive filtering to remove Gaussian noise from an image.
2. Adaptive filtering uses statistical data like variance and mean from an image to alter pixel values and reduce noise.
3. The author implemented an adaptive filter in Matlab to process the red, green, and blue color planes separately but found it did not significantly improve image quality over the noisy input.
The document describes median filtering techniques for digital image processing. It discusses the theory behind median filtering, including how a median filter works by applying an odd-numbered mask to an image and replacing pixel values with the median. It also provides MatLab code that implements median filtering on a noisy image to reduce salt and pepper noise. The code filters the image by separating it into HSV planes, applying the median filter individually to each plane, and then recombining the filtered planes. It finds the author's manual filtering takes longer but produces better results than MatLab's built-in median filtering function.
This document discusses a Free Space Optical (FSO) communication system and proposes addressing atmospheric attenuation for the LaserFire FSO system. It begins with an abstract and table of contents. It then provides background on FSO communication, advantages over other systems, and how FSO works. The document proposes using wavelength selection and good light sources to minimize scattering and absorption effects to compensate for atmospheric challenges over long ranges.
The document discusses connecting an Arduino Uno microcontroller to the internet using a WiFi shield. It describes attaching a TMP36 temperature sensor and RGB LED to the Arduino board. The Arduino is then programmed to upload the sensor's temperature data to a webpage and control the LED remotely via a local web client. Connecting the Arduino to a WiFi network and creating an Arduino server program to host the webpage is explained.
1. PLC Building Automation
and Control Systems
SSET 295 Internship Project
Tags: Automation,BAS, BuildingAutomationSystems,Control,
Control Panels,Critical Infrastructure,EnergyEfficiency,Fire
Safety,LadderLogic,LightingSystems,PLCs,PLCLogix,Power
Management,Programmable LogicControllers,SecuritySystems,
Smart Buildings,Sustainability.
Chad Ryan Weiss
6/17/2016
2. 1
Abstract:
Imagine abuildingthatcan respondto emergency situations. Eventslike Chernobyl,Fukushimaand
Three-Mile Islandmaynothave beensocostlyif automatedprocessesandcontrol systemshadbeen
properlyimplemented. Furthermore,imagine abuildingthatcanincrease itsoverall energyefficiency
usingpredictive analyticswithautomation andcontrol systems;humancivilizationwouldbe takingone
stepcloserto achievingsustainability thuspromotinglongevityforourplanetandall of itsinhabitants.
Thisdocumentprovidesaside-by-sidecomparison of critical infrastructure bothlackingandcontaining
automationandcontrol systems. Finally,thisreportconcludes byprovidingan implementation example
of a PLC (programmable logiccontroller) forvarioussubsystems. Usingladderlogicwiththe PLCLogix
software, the case studyseeks toaddressthe sustainability andemergencyresponseissues plaguing
critical infrastructure whichlacks bothbuildingautomation andPLCcontrol systems.
3. 2
Table of Contents
I. Introduction 4
A. Smart Buildings 4
B. Critical Infrastructure 4
C. SubsystemOverview 4
1. Accessand Security 5
2. CommunicationSystems 5
3. ElevatorsandEscalators 5
4. Fire Safety 5
5. HVAC 6
6. Lighting 6
7. PowerandEnergy 6
8. ManufacturingEquipment 6
9. Water andPlumbing 6
II.Programmable LogicControllers 7
A. LightingSubsystem 7
B. HVACSubsystem 11
C. Accessand SecuritySubsystems 17
D. CommunicationsSubsystem 19
E. Water,PlumbingandFire SafetySubsystems 20
III.Conclusion 23
IV.References 25
5. 4
I. Introduction
A. Smart Buildings
Everysmart buildinghasacontrol room, especiallybuildingslike airports,hospitals,prisonsandpower
plants. These control roomsallowoperatorstomonitorandmanage subsystems remotelyand
sometimesautomatically. Subsystemslike energy,water, plumbing,HVAC,lighting,fire safety,access
and security,elevators,communication,robotsandpower equipmentall requirespecialattention,
because failure in anyone of these subsystemscouldspell disasterunderthe wrongsetof
circumstances. Althougheachsubsystemhasvariable importance,failureisintolerable because
somethingassimple as waterunexpectedly shuttingoff inabuildingcanhave consequencesranging
fromminordiscomforttonuclearmeltdown. The importance of eachsubsystemisentirelydependent
on the type of critical infrastructure that isbeingsupporting.
B. Critical Infrastructure
Critical infrastructurereferstothe infrastructure whoseassets,systemsandnetworks are consideredso
importantto the UnitedStates thattheirdysfunction would bringforthdire consequences fornational
economicsecurity aswell as national publicsafetyorhealth concerns[1]. Accordingtothe United
StatesDepartmentof HomelandSecurity,there are 16 differentcritical infrastructuresincludingthe
following:
Nearlyall of the sectorslistedhere,aside fromtransportationsystems,relymostlyonbuildingsor
superstructuresforshelter. Hence,the subsystems comprisingnearly100% of all critical infrastructures
inthe UnitedStatesare subsystemsrelatedtocommercial andindustrial buildings. Formore oncritical
infrastructures,referto[1].
C. SubsystemOverview
Withoutthe implementationof automationandcontrol systemssome of the subsystemstalkedabout
previously are prone tocatastrophicfailure. The followingsection providesinsighttohow each
subsystemcanbe improvedbyimplementingautomationandcontrols. Furthermore,some sections
provide acomparisonbetweensystemshavingautomationandcontrols tosystemslackingautomation
and controls. Here isa listof the subsystems previousmentioned:
Dams
Defense industrial bases
Emergencyservicessector
Energysector
Informationtechnologysectors
Nuclearreactors,materialsandwaste
Transportationsystems sectors
Water andwastewatersystems
Financial servicessector
Foodand agriculture
Governmentfacilities sector
Healthcare andpublichealthsectors
Chemical sector
Commercial facilitiessector
Communicationssector
Critical manufacturingsector
6. 5
1. Access and Security
Since the year2013, there have beenover180 school shootings inthe UnitedStates;hence,accessand
securityisa top concernwhenitcomesto establishingsubsystemswithincritical infrastructure. A good
securitysystemhasbothactive andpassive sensorsusedforremote sensing. Furthermore,automated
alarmingsystems aswell asphysical barriershelpcontribute tothe overall effectivenessof the security
systeminplay. Whenhumansencounterdanger,ourfirstresponse isautomatic,i.e.eitherfightor
flight. Witha properautomationandcontrol system, accessand securitysubsystemsinbuildings may
be able to assistindeterringfuture school shootings,bankrobberies, terroristattacks orsimilaractsof
crime and terror.
2. CommunicationSystems
Aside fromaccessand security,abuilding’scommunication systemisatop subsystemconsideration
because communicationishalf of whatmakes abuildingsmart,the otherhalf beingautomationand
control. Integratingautomationandcontrol techniquesin communicationsystemswithinbuildings may
allowformore robustinternal andexternal formsof communication. Forexample,manual orautomatic
control of the methodsof communicationusedcouldincrease buildingenergyefficiencywhileenabling
a widerrange of possibilitieswhenitcomestointernal orexternal buildingcommunications.
Furthermore,implementingautomationandcontrolsin communicationsystems couldhelp technicians
or buildingoccupantstroubleshootthe systemsduringtimesof unexpectedfailure. Thistopicis
discussedinfurtherdetail inthe PLCsolutioncase study. See Ref [2] or the ZigBee Alliance/BACnet.
3. Elevators and Escalators
Althoughthissubsystemhasnorelevance in singlestorybuildings,itisalmostalwaysreasonforconcern
inbuildingsof twoormore stories. Hospitals,schools,banks,mallsandlibrariesall have elevators or
escalators toaccommodate those who are handicappedorthose whohave beendisabledinsome way
shape or form. Elevatorsor escalatorswithoutautomationorcontrol systemsare notonlydangerous
but alsowasteful inregardstopower andenergy consumption. Inthe case that one or more floors
withinabuildingare onfire,allowingthese systemstoremainoperational isnotonlystupidbutit could
leadto unnecessary lossof life. Furthermore, leavingescalatorsoncontinuously isaproblemdue tothe
fact that cost will goup, energyefficiency will godownand emergency responseorroutine maintenance
will become negligible.
4. Fire Safety
Anotherimportantsubsystem,thatwhichprotectsthe building’sinhabitants,isthe fire safetysystem.
Withoutautomationandcontrol,response toanemergencysituationsuchasa fire wouldbe much
slowerthanif there were sensorsandautomaticproceduresinvolved. Peoplewouldhave torunaround
tryingto findthe fire extinguisherthenrunall the wayback to the fire,whichhasspreaduncontrollably
by that point. Implementingautomationandcontrol featurestoalreadyexistingfire safetysystems
couldnot onlyreactinstantlytofire;moreover,manual operationsof the fire safetysystemcomponents
like the waterlinescouldpreventwastedwaterincasesof false alarm.
7. 6
5. HVAC
HVACor heating,ventilationandairconditioning systems constitute one of the mostimportant
subsystemsabuildingcould have formanydifferenttypesof critical infrastructure. Chemical and
nuclearfacilitiesuse themtoexhauststeamandtoxicchemicals; furthermore, heating, ventilation and
coolingextendsnotonlytobuildingsbutalsotothe humanbodyand motorizedvehicles. The human
bodyneedstoventall of the carbon dioxide thatbuildsupovertime otherwise hypercapnia,a.k.a.CO2
poisoningcouldhappen. Mostcritical infrastructure HVACsystemsplayahuge role inmaintaining
essential processes. Forexample,HVACsystems keepdatawarehouseequipment cool enough to
ensure thatprocessorsdon’toverheatwhichwouldcompromisefunctionality. Heating,ventilationand
air conditioningwithoutautomation orcontrol wouldmake itimpossibletoholdcertaininternal
buildingconditionssuchastemperature,pressure orhumidity.
6. Lighting
Lightingwithoutautomationorcontrol systemsmake foraveryinefficientsystem. Implementingan
automationsettingcouldreduce the amountof energyusedwhennoone isina roomthus reducing
wastedenergy. Also,addingacontrol systemtolightingandloadsmayenable buildingoperatorsto
detectunexpected burn-outs,shorts,open-circuitsorfaults.
7. Power and Energy
Thissubsystemreferstothe powergenerationandpowerdistributionsubsystems. Powerandenergy,
beingthe backbone of the entire superstructure,requiresimmense automationandcontrol techniques
to ensure nothingcanthwarttheirabilitytoproduce andsupplypowertothe buildingandall of its
critical features. Inthe case of a lightningstrike,hurricaneorsome othernatural disaster,power
systemscouldbecome compromisedthuscompromisinganentire buildingorso. Eventslike the New
York Blackouta couple of yearsago leftthousandsof people freezinginthe wintercoldweatherfor
days. With properimplementationof automationandcontrol systems,troubleshootingmaynothave
takenso longto fix thussavingmanyfromneedlesssuffering.
8. Manufacturing Equipment
For industrial plantsormanufacturingfacilities,industrial powerequipmentcanbe verydemandingon
energyandalsohazardousto the inhabitantsof thatbuilding. If automationandcontrol systemsare
obsolete withinthesesystemsrobotscouldspinout of control or breakdown. Not toolongago, a robot
tooka man’slife ata VolkswagenfacilityinGermany forunexplainedreasons. These typesof incidents
can be reducedtoa minimumwithoutcompromisingproductivitybyaddingsimple automationand
control featurestothe alreadyexistingsystems. Furthermore,one mightevenbe able tosave money
by implementingautomationandcontrol techniques.
9. Water and Plumbing
Water andplumbingmightseemtrivialbutthere are manythingsrelyingonthese subsystems.
Hydraulics,HVACsystemsandhumansare some of the few persons,placesorthingsthatrelyon this
8. 7
absolutelycritical subsystem,whichiswhyitisimportantto know all the detailsasto how flow is
currentlybeingcontrolled. Furthermore,itisnecessarytoenactprecisionprocedural protocol
executioninresponse toemergencysituations. Eventslike TMI,FukushimaandChernobyl couldhave
possibly been avoidedif everysubsystem, includingwaterandplumbing,hadbeenworkingproperly.
II. PLC Programs
A. Lighting Subsystem
A buildinghasfourroomswithfourlightsperroom.
Table 1: Lighting Subsystem I/O Mapping
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4
Master Switch R1L1_POWER MO_R1L1 R1L1_FAULT
R1L2_POWER MO_R1L2 R1L2_FAULT
R1L3_POWER MO_R1L3 R1L3_FAULT
R1L4_POWER MO_R1L4 R1L4_FAULT
R2L1_POWER MO_R2L1 R2L1_FAULT
R2L2_POWER MO_R2L2 R2L2_FAULT
R2L3_POWER MO_R2L3 R2L3_FAULT
R2L4_POWER MO_R2L4 R2L4_FAULT
R3L1_POWER MO_R3L1 R3L1_FAULT
R3L2_POWER MO_R3L2 R3L2_FAULT
R3L3_POWER MO_R3L3 R3L3_FAULT
R3L4_POWER MO_R3L4 R3L4_FAULT
R4L1_POWER MO_R4L1 R4L1_FAULT
R4L2_POWER MO_R4L2 R4L2_FAULT
R4L3_POWER MO_R4L3 R4L3_FAULT
R4L4_POWER MO_R4L4 R4L4_FAULT
Input Output Input Output
Input1 isthe Master Switch;it has twoconditions:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = {
1 𝐸𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙
0 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
The 1 signifiesthatthe Master Switchhasbeenturned“ON”whereasthe 0 representsthe Master
Switchwhenitisturned“OFF”. Whenthe Master Switch has a bitvalue of 1, the program will execute
rung zeroof the mainroutine thusjumpingtothe lightingsubroutine. Onthe contrary, whenthe
Master Switchhas a bitvalue of 0, the programwill execute rungone;hence,disablingall system
input/outputfunctionality. Furthermore,the systemcan be resetuponexecutionof the Kill-Switch
operation. Thisisto make troubleshootingeasierandresponse toemergencysituationsfaster.
UtilizingPLCLogix andthe I/Ointerface,the PLCcontrol panel supportsupto16 lights. Inthisscenario,
a buildinghasfourroomsor floorswithfourlightsperfloor/room. The lightingsubsystemMaster
9. 8
Switchhas the abilitytocut all powertothe building’slightingsubsystems. Furthermore,the PLC
control panel wasdesignedtoallowuserstomanuallycontrol eachlightspecificallyaccordingtothe I/O
mappingof the PLC program and control panel. See Table 1above.
The I/O mappingseeninTable 1 correspondsto the PLCLogix I/Orack or interface. Fig.1 shownbelow
presentsthe layoutof PLCLogix I/Orack.
Figure 1: PLCLogix I/O Rack
ReferringtoFig.1, the discrete I/Ointerface allows forsupervisedandunsupervisedcontrol of the
building’slightingsubsystem. Slot1,input00 is reservedforthe MasterSwitch. The usercan enable or
disable the control panel/buildinglightingsubsystembyopeningorclosingthe MasterSwitchcircuit.
Initially,whenthe MasterSwitchisturnedON,the building’slightsall turnoninthe orderspecifiedby
the PLC ladderlogic. Whenthe Master SwitchisOFF andhence,the control panel andbuildinglighting
subsystemsare deactivated,users nolongerhave anycontrol overanypart of this particularsubsystem
and control panel.
Table 1 slot2, correspondingtoslot2 data entries fromthe discrete I/Ointerface showninFig.1 reads,
R1L1_POWER. This standsfor roomone (R1) lightone (L1) powerindicator. The nextentryreads
R1L2_POWER whichstandsfor room one (R1) lighttwo(L2) powerindicator,etc... Forthisscenario,the
buildinghasfourroomswithfourlightsperroom. In otherscenarios,abuildingmayhave fourfloors
withfouroverheadlightsperfloor. All canbe changedaccordingly,dependingonthe situation, from
10. 9
withinthe PLCprogram. Fromthe PLCLogix discrete I/Ointerface,all of the dataentrieslocatedinslot2
are reserved forthe statusof each individual lightingfixture regardingpower. Inotherwords, this
columnindicateswhetherthe lightisON orOFF. Thisisshownrather clearlyfromthe I/Orack. When
an entrylightsup,thismeansthe lightisON,whenthe entryisnot litup,thismeansthe lightisOFF.
Fig.2 showsthe I/Orack whenall lightsinthe buildingare turnedonrightafteractivatingthe Master
Switch. See Fig.2 below.
The Master Switchoccupyingslot1 data entry00 has the powertoenable ordisable the entire
building’slightingsubsystemandcontrol panel. Sometimes however, itisnecessarytokeepall other
lightsonwhile troubleshootingorrewiringanotherlight. Hence,slot3entries00 through15 are
dedicated tomanual override switchesfor eachlightrespectively. Togglingtheseswitchesturnsthe
lightsOFFand ON. See Fig.3 belowfor anillustration.
Figure 3: Manual Override IllustrationFigure 2: Initial Conditions - Master Switch ON
11. 10
The fourthand final columnof the I/Orack isusedas a faultdetectionindicator. These outputswillonly
activate if the system,foranyreason,shouldfail undernormal operatingcircumstances. Inreal world
situations,PLCcontrollerscontainI/Omodulesthatcansupportcountless variationsof digital and
analogsensingequipmentthusallowingforsophisticatedfaultdetectiontechniques. However,forthe
purposesof thisproject,asimulationwasmade toillustrate how the PLCprogramrespondsto detected
faults.
For the lightingsubsystem,thissimulationusesaseriesof timersandcountersandmultipliersto
effectivelycreate afaultinthe system. Everyso often,the lightoccupyingdataentries 03,goesinto
arrest andunexpectedlyshutsoff. Althoughthe source of errorisunknown,operatorsare able to
detectthat thislighthas “effectivelyfailed”due tothe faultindicatoroutput statusinslot4 on the
discrete I/Ointerface (i.e.slot4). See Fig.4 below foranillustrationof faultdetection.
Figure 4: Fault Detection Illustration
If undernormal operatingcircumstancesa
lightshouldfail,the faultdetection
indicatorwill appearinslot4.
Then,if the lightwasnormallyON before
the fault,operatorscan manuallyoverride
the systembyactivatingthe corresponding
‘flipswitch’locatedinslot3thus cutting
powerto the lighttobe examined.
(All flipswitcheshave beenplacedinseries
withtheircorrespondinglightingfixturesas
to create a convenientergonomicdesign
for simplicity’ssake).
Note:
ReferringtoTable 1, Slot3 hasdata entries
entitled‘MO_R1L1,MO_R1L2…’. MO
simplystandsfor“manual override”and
the meaningof R1L1, R1L2, etc… have
alreadybeendiscussed. Furthermore,Slot
4 has data entriesentitled‘R1L1_FAULT
and R1L2_FAULT’, etc… Thiswasmeantto
be self-explanatoryyetmerelyresembles
the indicationstatusof whetherafaulthas
or has not beendetectedforagiven
lightingfixture withinthe building.
12. 11
The PLC program is ladderlogicbasedandconsistsof two routines,i.e.the mainroutine(whichcontrols
the control panel) andthe building’slightingsubroutine. Originally,the building’slightingsubsystem
was remotelyuncontrollableandabsolutelyunsupervised. This PLCprogram fixesbothof those
problems. Itisdone by providingremote control capabilities tothe building’ssubsystem aswell asfault
detection techniquesincase of an unexpectedlightingfailure. See AppendixA forthe PLC Program.
B. HVAC Subsystem
A typical HVACsystemconsistsof afurnace,heatexchanger,evaporatorcoil,condensingunit,
refrigerantlines, thermostat,ductsandvents. Fromthese 8 basiccomponents,the furnace,heat
exchanger,evaporatorcoil,condensingunitandrefrigerantlinesare able tobe automatedorremotely
controlledfromthe PLCcontrol panel.
StudiesshowthatimplementingPLCdevicesinbuildingHVACsystemscanleaddirectlytomore stable
environmentsaswell ashigherenergy-efficientprocesses. Thisisusuallyaccomplishedwiththe use of
PID controllerswhichcanbe implementedwithinPLCprograms. Standingforproportional integral
derivative the PIDcontrollercanhelp withthe overall rise times,settling times,andpercentovershoot
withinasystem. For HVAC,thiswouldcorrespondtothe temperature of aroom. Less energycanbe
usedif the heatingandcoolingsystemswere able tohitthe markwithoutmuch oscillationaboutthe
desiredsteadystate value. Inotherwords,the fastera systemisable toconverge uponthe final steady
state value,the more efficientitwill become.
The PLC solutionforthissubsystemwill include processcontrol switchesthatcontrol the temperature of
a room. Furthermore,the PLCprogramwill utilizeadigital heaterwhichcaneitherbe ON orOFF. This
heaterwill nothave anyanalogsignal drivingthe controlstherefore itissubjectonlytomanual
operationaswell ascertainconditionsthatenable automaticresponses.
Table 2: HVAC Subsystem I/O Mapping
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4
Furnace Motor_1 Switch_1 Temp_Stable
Condensing_Unit Motor_2 Switch_2 Temp_Increasing
Valve_1 Switch_3 Temp_Decreasing
Motor_3 Switch_4
Motor_4 Switch_5 Heating_Inspection
Valve_2 Switch_6 Cooling_Inspection
Valve_3 Switch_7
Input Output Input Output
Table 2 above showsthe I/Omappingof the HVACsubsystem. There are twoinitial inputs,i.e.the
Furnace and the Condensing_Unitswitcheslocatedinslot1. These twoinputsare responsible forthe
heatingandcoolingof the building. WhenFurnace is closed,the heatingcomponentsof the HVAC
systemare enabled,i.e.Motor_1,Motor_2 andValve_1. Motor_1 is responsible fordrawingairfrom
the returnair duct and blowingitthroughthe furnace combustionchamberandintothe airducts.
13. 12
Motor_2 is the exhaustfanmotor,solelyresponsibleforventingthe fumesaccumulatedinthe
combustionchamber. Valve_1isthe gasvalve andis responsible forsupplyingthe furnace burnerswith
fuel forcombustion. See Fig.5belowfora visual representationof a typical heatingunit.
Figure 5: Gas Powered Heating Unit Ref. [2]
14. 13
The secondinitial input,i.e.the condensingunit,isresponsibleforcoolingthe building. When
Condensing_Unitisclosed,the coolingcomponentsactivate,i.e.Motor_3,Motor_4, Valve_2and
Valve_3. Motor_3 isresponsibleforthe condensingunitfanmotor,Motor_4 isthe compressorpump
motor,Valve_3and Valve_4are the suctionline andliquidline valves. Valves3and 4 are essentiallythe
twovalvesassociatedwiththe coolantlines. See Fig.6below forthe anatomyof a condensingunit.
Slots1 and2 correspondtothe heatingandcoolingunitsandtheirconstituentcomponents
respectively. Slot3 isusedfor controllingeachof the individual componentswithinthe heatingor
coolingunits. Switches1through7 can be manuallytriggeredtocutoff orrestore powertoone of the
componentsinsuch casesas the motor. For valves,these switcheswill eitheropenorclose a valve with
directinstruction.
Slot4 isdedicatedtothe systemstatusindicators,i.e.the temperature rising,temperaturefallingand
temperature stable statuses. Eachstatus isdiscernedbya lightturningon. Furthermore,there isthe
heatinginspectionstatuswhichmeansone of the heatingunitswitcheshave beenflippedandthere is
the coolinginspectionstatuswhichindicatesthata coolingunitswitchhasbeenflipped, mostlikelyfor
inspectionpurposes. See Table 2above forthe complete I/Omap.
Figure 6: Condensing Cooling Unit Ref. [3]
15. 14
The simulationusedforthissubsystemincludesatemperature readingof aroom. Data fromthe
simulationisstoredinthe analogtemperatureinputorslot7 data entry03 withinPLCLogix;the output
isdisplayedinslot8 data entry03 onthe I/Ointerface.
Under initial conditions,the temperature of aroomis setto 70 degreesFahrenheit. Whenthe heating
unit(i.e.the furnace) isturnedon,the temperature will begintorise andthe temperature increasing
indicatorlightwill turnon. Onthe otherhand,whenthe coolingunit,orthe condensingunit,isturned
on the temperature of the roomwill begintofall andthe temperature decreasingstatuslightwill turn
on.
It can reach temperaturesof upto120 degreesFahrenheit.
Figure 7: HVAC PLC I/O Interface - Initial Conditions
Figure 8: HVAC PLC I/O Interface - Furnace ON
Fig.7 showsthe initial conditionsof
the program. Both the furnace and
condenserare off,the temperature
stable lightisonand the temperature
readout is displaying70 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Fig.8 showsthe I/Ointerface when
the heatingunitisactivated.
Immediatelyafteractivatingthe
furnace switch,the heating
componentslightupandthe
temperature increasing statuslight
activates. Afterone secondof
activationthe temperature will start
to rise as seeninslot8 data entry03.
16. 15
It can reach temperaturesaslowas20 degreesFahrenheit.
Figure 9: HVAC PLC I/O Interface - Condensing Unit ON
Fig.9 showsthe I/Ointerface when
the coolingunitis ON. Whenthe
condensingunitisturnedon,the
coolingunitcomponentsactivated
immediatelyalongwiththe
temperature decreasingstatus
indicatorlight. Furthermore,the
temperature canbe seentobe
droppinginslot8 data entry03.
Figure 10: Heater and Cooler ON
In thisPLC program, whenboththe condensingunit
and furnace are turnedon, the temperature will
stabilize around70degrees,inactualityitfluctuates
between69and 71 degreesFahrenheit. Hence,all
three statusindicatorlights,i.e.temp_stable,
temp_increasingandtemp_decreasingare all onat
thispoint.
If for some reasonan operatordecidestoshutoff
one of the heatingunitcomponentssuchasthe gas
valve orvalve_1,the systemwill registerthe furnace
as beingshutoff and the temp_increasingstatus
lightwill turnoff automatically. Furthermore,the
heating_inspectionlightwill turnonalso. See Fig.
11 below foran illustrationof this.
Temp_Decreasing
Heating_Inspection
Figure 11: Heating Inspection
17. 16
On the contrary,if an operatordecidestoshutoff one of the coolingunitcomponents,thenthe system
will registerthe condensing_unittobe effectivelyshutoff andthe temp_decreasing statusindicatorwill
turn off and the cooling_inspectionstatusindicatorwill turnon. See Fig.12 for an illustrationof this.
If componentsfromboththe heatingandcoolingunitsare turnedoff,thenthe systemwill registerthat
bothunitsare turnedoff;therefore,the temp_stablestatusindicatorlightwillappearaswell asthe
heatingandcoolinginspectionlights. See Fig.13 foran illustrationof this.
In conclusion,the HVACPLCprogramis a digital heatingandcoolingsystem. Itisladderlogicbasedwith
onlyone mainroutine forsimplicity. All inputsandoutputsare digital. The simulationproducesone
analogoutput,i.e. the effective roomtemperature. Producedsolelybysimulation,the effective room
temperature isaportrayal of the possibilitiesof thisprogram. Inactuality,thisPLCprogramwould
utilize I/Omodulesandsensorstogive actual data. See AppendixBforthe PLCladderlogicprogram.
Figure 12: Cooling Inspection
Temp_Increasing
Cooling_Inspection
Figure 13: Heating and Cooling Inspection
Temp_Stable
Heating_Inspection
Cooling_Inspection
Here,the furnace and
condensingunitare onbut
the compressorpumpmotor
has beenshutoff for
inspection. Hence,the
coolingunitiseffectivelyshut
off and the furnace heating
unitwill dominate. The temp
increasinglightandcooling
inspectionlightappearas
showninFig.12.
Here,the furnace and
condensingunitare onbut
the compressorpumpmotor
and the exhaustfanmotor
has beenshutoff for
inspection. Hence,boththe
heatingandcoolingunitsare
effectivelyshutoff.
Therefore,the temperature
stable statusindicatoraswell
as the cooling/heating
inspectionstatuslight
indicatorshappenstobe on
as showninFig.13.
18. 17
C. Access and SecuritySubsystems
There are twodifferenttypesof securitytechniques,i.e.perimetercontrol andinternal breach.
Perimetercontrol isamethodusedtokeepintruders/perpetratorsoutof the safetyarea,whereas
internal breachsecurityisusedwhenthe intruder/perpetratorhasbreachedthe premises.
Differenttypesof critical infrastructure require differentlevelsof security. Forexample,anairport
requiresmore securitythaneducationalfacilitiesbecause theyare subjecttomore damagesif
perpetrated. Eventhoughitisdifficulttoharborthe truth that casinoshave greatersecuritycounter
measuresthanlocal highschoolsorelementary schools;realityis,statisticssaythatpremiseslike banks,
casinos,airports,prisons,powerplants,etcetera;all require higherstandards andoftentimes harbor
incrediblyexpensive securitysystems toprotecttheirassets;soexpensive that mosteducational
facilitiesare unable toaffordsuchcountermeasures.
Althoughschoolsare unlikelytoaffordgreatbigsecuritysystems,theycanaffordsome of the basicsas
to preventperimeterbreachesduringafterhours. All securitysystemsbigorsmall runonsome type of
PLC or microcontrolleralongwith24hour supervision. Thissystemwill preventperpetratorsfrom
obtainingaccesstothe safetyareathrougha PLC access control programusingPLCLogix.
The simulationcreatedusingthe PLCLogix software emulatesanelectronickeypaddoorlock. This
device isusedtokeepunwantedsuspectslackingauthorityornecessarycredentialsoutof a designated
area. For example,agunmantryingto gainaccess to a school wouldbe deniedthe opportunity to
wreakhavoc due to the perimeter“accesscontrol”systeminplace. Thatiswhat thisprogramseeksto
do.
Figure 14: Electronic Keypad Lock Ref. [4]
19. 18
Table 3: Access Control Subsystem I/O Mapping
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4
Lock_1 Locked
One Lock_2 Unlocked
Two Lock_3
Three Lock_4
Four Lock_5
Five
Input Output Input Output
Table 3 showsthe I/Omap of the AccessControl PLCprogram. The inputsinslot1, i.e.One,Two,Three,
Four and Five representthe keypadnumbersusedtounlockthe device. Outputslocatedinslot2shows
whethereachstage hasbeenbypassed. Forthisparticularsystem, five unlockingstagesmustbe
activatedinorderto unlockthe systementirely. There are no inputsassociatedwiththisprogram
regardingslot3 and slot4 isusedto indicate whetherthe systemislockedorunlocked.
Figure 15: Access Control Subsystem - Initial Conditions
Upon initial startupthe systemislockedas
indicatedbydataentry00, slot4 seeninFig. 14.
In orderto unlockthe system, the right
combinationorsequence of numbersmustbe
pressedusingthe inputsinslot1.
Once the right combinationhasbeenpressed
withinthe giventime frames,the unlockedstatus
indicatorlightwill appearondataentry01 in slot
4. See Fig. 15 foran illustration.
Afterthe systemisunlockeditwill remain
unlockedforfive secondsbefore returntoa
lockedstate whichgivesthe userenoughtime to
turn the door handle before havingtore-enter
the necessarycredentials.
If the wrongcredentialsare entered,the system
will enteralockdownsituationforfiveseconds
before resettingthe systemautomatically.
RefertoAppendix Ctosee the PLC program
ladderlogicandto discernthe rightcombination
neededtounlockthe system.
Figure 16: Access Control Subsystem - unlocked
20. 19
Accesscontrol is a huge part of infrastructure securityandPLCsallow for promisingsecuritysystems.
One couldutilize the inputsinslot3to manuallycontrol the perimeteraccesscontrol device andwith
furtherequipment,suchasremote sensors,one couldbuildaprettysophisticatedaccesscontrol and
internal breach securitysystembyutilizingPLCs.
D. CommunicationsSubsystem
A buildinghastwomethodsof communication,i.e.byfree space optical (FSO) orradiofrequency(RF).
Table 4: Communication Subsystem I/O Mapping
Slot1 Slot2 Slot3 Slot4
Master Switch N/A FSO_Switch FSO_Communication
N/A RF_Switch RF_Communication
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
Free space optical communicationismore efficient andsecure thanotherformsof communication,such
as radiofrequency andthe Internet. Hence,more buildingsare turningtoFSOtechnologiesasaprimary
methodforcommunicatingbetween one pointandanother. The onlyproblemfacingthistype of
communicationisthe atmosphericchannel throughwhichitpropagates. Intimesof heavyfog,rainor
snow,the optical source isattenuatedinthe atmosphere byatmosphericturbulence,scatteringand
absorption. For thisreason,it isnecessarytohave backupin the formof RF communicationduring
timesof inclementweather. ThisPLCprogram seekstoaddressthatissue bycreatinga hybridRF/FSO
communicationsystem.
ReferringtoTable 2, Slot1 data entry00 isreservedforthe Master Switch,whichcontrolsthe platform.
The data entrieslocatedinslot3 are reservedforthe manual override switches,thustheyare
consideredinputs. Finally,the outputstatusof the overall systemisstoredinthe dataentrieslocatedin
slot4. Furthermore,the programsimulatesbadweatherasa resultof temperaturesdropping. When
the temperature reachesacertainthresholdaround30 degrees,the systemwill automaticallyswitch
fromone form of communicationtoanother,i.e.FSOtoRF.
Figure 17: Communication Subsystem I/O Rack - FSO
21. 20
Whenthe simulatedtemperature isabove 30degreesFahrenheit,the FSOcommunicationlightswitch
will be turnedon. On the otherhand,whenthe temperature is30 degreesFahrenheitorless,the RF
lightswitchwill be on. RefertoFig.17 below foran illustrationof this.
As showninFig.16 and 17, automaticprocessescan be usedto switchmethodsof communicationto
ensure continuity.Furthermore,withmanual overrideswitchesone couldcontrol the methodof
communicationdirectly. Thismaybe useful underaspecificsetof circumstances.
E. Water,Plumbingand Fire Safety Subsystems
Everysmart buildinghasafire safetysysteminstalled. The bestwaytodetectfireswithoutdirect
supervisionisbyusingsmoke detectors. Ionizationsmoke detectorsare apopularchoice fordetecting
smoke because of theirsensitivitytoit. Theyuse a radioactive substance thatgeneratescurrentinside
the detector. If there issmoke presentinthe detector,the currentwill cease toflow andthe alarmwill
be triggered. Underthiscondition,alongwithseveral others,fire mitigationdevicessuchaswater
dispersionsystemstendtoturnonautomatically.
For thisreason,itis incrediblyimportanttohave functionalwaterandplumbingsystemsincase of fire
or otherrelatedcatastrophes. Thismayinclude core meltdownsinnuclearpowerplants. Automation
and control systemsforwater,plumbingandfire safetysubsystemscansave livesandprevent
emergenciesfromescalating. ThisPLCprogramwill create a watermanagementsystemaswell asafire
safetysystemthatutilizesautomationandcontrol practicestoensure sustainabilityandsafety.
Figure 18: Communication Subsystem I/O rack - RF
22. 21
Table 5: Fire Safety, Water and Plumbing I/O Mapping
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4
Simulator F1R1V1 MO_SWITCH_1 F1R1V2
FLOOR_1_SWITCH F1R2V1 MO_SWITCH_2 F1R2V2
FLOOR_2_SWITCH F1R3V1 MO_SWITCH_3 F1R3V2
FLOOR_3_SWITCH F1R4V1 MO_SWITCH_4 F1R4V2
FLOOR_4_SWITCH F2R1V1 MO_SWITCH_5 F2R1V2
ALL_ON F2R2V1 MO_SWITCH_6 F2R2V2
ALL_OFF F2R3V1 MO_SWITCH_7 F2R3V2
F2R4V1 MO_SWITCH_8 F2R4V2
F3R1V1 MO_SWITCH_9 F3R1V2
F3R2V1 MO_SWITCH_10 F3R2V2
F3R3V1 MO_SWITCH_11 F3R3V2
F3R4V1 MO_SWITCH_12 F3R4V2
F4R1V1 MO_SWITCH_13 F4R1V2
F4R2V1 MO_SWITCH_14 F4R2V2
F4R3V1 MO_SWITCH_15 F4R3V2
F4R4V1 MO_SWITCH_16 F4R4V2
Input Output Input Output
Table 5 isan input/outputmapof the fire safety,waterandplumbingsubsystems. Slot1controlsthe
built-insimulationaswell asthe variouswaterdistributionsystemsforeachfloor. The outputsare
locatedinslots2 and4. Theyare simplystatus indicatorlightsthatshow whetheradevice hasbeen
turnedon;in thiscase,the devicesbeingturnedoff andonare water line valvescomingbefore and
afterthe sprinklernozzle(s).
Legend:
F – Floor
R – Room
V – Valve
MO – Manual Override
Thisbuilding,the programwasbuiltfor,consistsof fourfloorswithfourroomsperfloor. Slot3 isa
control panel usedtocontrol the waterdispersingsystems. Forexample,MO_SWITCH_1controlsthe
valveslocatedoverroomone floorone (F1R1V1and F1R1V2).
The inputslocatedinslot1 are furthercontrols. Floorcontrolsactivate anddisable the valveslocated
on floorone,two,three andfourrespectively. Slot1 alsocontainsan ‘all on’and ‘all off’switch. Lastly,
there isthe simulatorswitchwhichcontrolsthe built-insimulation,i.e.anionizingfire detector
detectingsmoke bynoticingasignificantdropof electrical currentinthe device.
23. 22
Figures19 and 20 showthe twomaindevicesusedinfire safetysystemswithinbuildings. Fig.19 shows
the waterdispensingnozzle whichisresponsibleforthwartingactive firesandFig.20 showsan ionizing
fire detectorwhichisusedindetectingthe signsof anactive fire. These twodevicesworkinharmonyto
ensure buildingsafetyagainstthreatregardingfire safety. The PLCprogram forthisbuildingsubsystem
shouldallowfora more efficient approachtohandlingbuildingfires. Byallowingformore precise
control of the water,plumbingandfire safetysystem, the situationislesslikelytoresultinloss,i.e.loss
of water,resourcesandlife.
The simulationbuiltintothisprogramruns ona 60 secondtimerthat alternatesbetweentwoscenarios,
1) an ionizingfire detectordetectssmoke and2) an ionizingfiredetectordoesnotdetectsmoke. When
no smoke isdetected,the I/OmaplooksasshowninFig.21 below.
Figure 19: Water Dispersing Nozzle Ref. [5] Figure 10: Ionizing Fire Detector Ref. [6]
Figure 11: Fire Safety Subsystem I/O Rack
24. 23
In Fig.21 slot8 data entry01, 5.0 mA of currentindicatesthatnosmoke isdisruptingthe alphaparticle
emission –stimulatedcurrentof the ionizingsmoke detector. Conversely,whenthe display reads1.0
mA whichmeansthe ionizingbeamof alphaparticleshasbeendisruptedbysmoke,thusreducingthe
currentwithinthe device. See Fig.22.
The 1.0 mA of current showninFig.22 slot8 data entry01 indicatesthatthe fire detectorhasdetected
smoke. Asshowninslots2 and4, all lightshave beenlituptoindicate the valvesleadingtothe water
distributionnozzles have beenopened. Hence waterisflowingandextinguishingthe fire inthe building.
On topof thisautomaticprocess,the PLC programutilizesdigital switchestoissue variouscontrol
responses. Suchresponsesinclude:activating/deactivatingnozzlesindividually,byfloororaltogether.
Thisis to ensure thatwaterisnot wastedinan eventsuchas a false alarmbut alsoto ensure that
actionscan be takenintothe handsof a humanintervenerwhenthe time isright. Combiningboth
automaticprocesseswithcontrol methodsissuedbydirectsupervisionwill allow forasmarterand safer
environment. See Appendix Eforthe PLC program.
Conclusion
Everysmart buildinghasautomatedprocessesinadditiontovariouscontrol systems. Inthisreportwe
introducedthe conceptof a smart buildingandhow itmightextendtovarioustypesof critical
infrastructure acrossthe UnitedStates. Upondoingso, we identifiednine majorsubsystemswithin
Figure 12: Fire Safety Simulation - Fire Detected
25. 24
smart buildings. Outof these nine,we addressedfivebycreatingPLCprogramsto enhance subsystems
lackingautomationandcontrol processes,i.e.Lighting,HVAC,AccessandSecurity,Communicationsand
Fire Safety.
While introducingthe lightingsubsystem, we were abletodistinguishwhatcontrolsmayhelpincrease
sustainabilityandemergencyresponse times. Thiswasachievedbycreatingacontrol panel thatwould
allowforfaultdetectionandmanual overridecapabilities. Bybeingable tocontrol the lightingsystem
withinabuildingremotelycreates notonly aconvenience topeoplebuta practical applicationaswell.
For the HVACsubsystem,we analyzedHVACsystemcomponentsinordertofindareasthatmay allow
for controlsimplementation. Upondoingsowe discoveredthatthe heatingandcondensing(cooling)
unitseachhave fans (motors) andvalvesthatare critical to the functionalityof the units. Therefore,
controlswere implementedtoeachof these components. Furthermore,the PLCprogramthat was built
simulatesadigital heater/coolerwitharange from20 degreesFahrenheitto 120 degreesFahrenheit. It
alsohas a temperature stabilizationsettingwhichhoversaround70 degreesFahrenheit.
The third smartbuildingsubsystemwasthe accessandsecuritysubsystem. Forthissubsystemwe built
an electronicperimeteraccesscontrol securitylock. Usingonlytimersand conditions,the lockonly
openstothose whoknowthe correct sequence andforthose whocanexecute thissequence withina
giventimeframe.
Followingthe accessandsecuritysubsystemwasthe communicationssubsystem. The PLCprogram
constructedforthissubsystemwasnotfor internal buildingcommunicationbutforexternal building
communication. Essentially,the PLCprogramsimulatesanautomaticswitchinghybridRF/FSO
communicationsystemgiventhe atmosphericconditionsasaninput.
Lastlywas the fire safetywaterandplumbingsubsystems;here we constructedasimulationthatranon
a 60 secondtimeralternatingbetweentimesof fire andtimeswithout. The PLCprogram wasbuiltto
respondtothe built-insimulationbyissuingcommandsautomatically. Furthermore,the systemwas
builttoresponddirectlytouserinputmeaningthat,underdirectsupervision,the systemcouldbe
controlledatwill.
By creatingPLC programsfor eachindividual buildingsubsystem,we create smarterbuildings. The
conceptof a safer,smarterbuildingwasthe drivingforce behindtheseprojects. Furthermore, utilizing
PLCs wasa greatway to gaininsightintothe worldof programmable logiccontrollersandhow effective
they can be in makingourworlda saferandsmarter place tolive in.