This document provides information about plate tectonics and related geological concepts. It begins with an overview of plate tectonics theory, including the three main types of plate boundaries (transform, convergent, and divergent). It then discusses early evidence that supported continental drift, including matching coastlines and shared fossil distributions. Additional sections cover paleomagnetism data, seafloor spreading evidence, characteristics of different plate boundary types, and potential driving forces of plate tectonics like mantle convection. The document concludes by discussing mountain building at plate boundaries and ways plate tectonics may operate on other celestial bodies.

1. Plate Tectonics
Chapter 19
Plate Tectonics
• Plate tectonics - Earth’s surface composed thick plates that
move
• Intense geologic activity is concentrated at plate boundaries
• Combination of continental drift and seafloor spreading
hypotheses
proposed in late 1960s
Review: Three Types of Plate Boundaries
Transform Convergent Divergent
(strike-slip) (subduction) (spreading)
But how do we
know that plates
move at all ?

2. Early Case for Continental Drift
• Puzzle-piece fit of
coastlines of Africa and
South America has long
been known
•In early 1900s, Alfred Wegner noted South America, Africa,
India,
Antarctica, and Australia have almost identical rocks and fossils
Early Case for Continental Drift
– Glossopteris (plant),
Lystrosaurus and
Cynognathus (animals)
fossils found on all five
continents
– Mesosaurus (reptile)
fossils found in Brazil and
South Africa only
Glaciers
• Most of the Earth's ice is found in Antarctic continental
glacier.

3. • Where are some other continental glaciers ?
• Glacial striations on a
rock from stones grinding at
the base of a heavy ice sheet
leave these shiny linear
marks on the bedrock below.
Glacial Characteristics
• Glaciers flow downhill as a solid mass that creates channels,
and
walls made of ground up rock debris known as a merraine.
Erosional Landscapes
• Erosional landforms produced by
valley glaciers include:
– U-shaped valleys
– Hanging valleys
• Smaller tributary glacial valleys
left stranded above more
quickly eroded central valleys

4. Early Case for Continental Drift
• Wegner reassembled continents into
the supercontinent Pangaea
• Late Paleozoic glaciation patterns on
southern continents best explained by
their reconstruction into (Pangaea)
Gondwanaland
Early Case for Continental Drift
• Coal beds of North America and Europe
indicate Laurasia super continent
• Continental Drift hypothesis initially
rejected
– Wegener could not come up with viable
driving force
– continents should not be able to “plow
through” sea floor rocks
The Earth's Magnetic Field
Can Give Us Clues

5. Paleomagnetism and Continental Drift Revived
• Studies of rock magnetism allowed
determination of magnetic pole
locations (close to geographic poles)
• Paleomagnetism uses mineral
magnetic alignment and dip angle to
determine the distance to the
magnetic pole when rocks formed
– Steeper dip angles indicate rocks formed
closer to the magnetic poles
• Rocks with increasing age point to
pole locations increasingly far from
present magnetic pole positions
Paleomagnetism and
Continental Drift Revived
• Apparent polar wander curves
for different continents suggested
plate movement !
• Wegner was right!

6. * Earthquakes don't occur randomly – but in patterns
* Friction and motion at plate boundaries seem to produce
earthquakes
Early Case for Continental Drift
• Puzzle-piece fit of
coastlines of Africa and
South America has long
been known
Plate Tectonics and the Scientific Method
How does an idea become a theory ?
* When Wegner first suggest the idea of Plate tectonic what was
it ?
a) theory b) hypothesis c) data d) proof
* What data was later acquired to test this ?
* When did plate tectonics become an accepted theory ?
(What discovery proved the original predictions ?)

7. The Scientific Method
Step 1: A question is asked
Step 2: Gather data
Step 3: Use data to propose a hypothesis
(Has this hypothesis been tested yet ? NO!
Step 4: Make a prediction (based on hypothesis)
Step 5: Test prediction (with new data)
Step 6: Hypothesis becomes a theory ! Yeah!
(if predictions and tests are good)
Let's Use the Scientific Method !
You are Captain Kirk on the USS
Enterprise. You have traveled
unexpectedly to a parallel universe. You
come upon a planet that looks like
Earth.
Use the Scientific Method to:
1) Make a hypothesis about your
discovery
2) Design a way to testing your
hypothesis
3) Determine whether your hypothesis is
correct and whether it can be

8. transformed into a theory.
Banded rocks on the seafloor
Seafloor spreading
Evidence of Plate Motion
• Marine magnetic anomalies -
bands of stronger and weaker than
average magnetic field strength
– Parallel to mid-oceanic ridges
– Field strength related to basalts
magnetized with current magnetic
field
– Symmetric “bar-code” anomaly
– Matches pattern of reversals seen in
continental rocks

9. * Symmetric “bar-code” pattern reflects plate motion away from
central ridge
* Matches pattern of reversals seen in continental rocks (Vine
and Matthews)
Evidence of Plate Motion
Seafloor Magnetic Anomalies
Which plates are moving fastest, which move the slowest ?
a
Atlantic Spreading Center – Iceland
Lake Thingvalire, Iceland
videoDivergent Plate Boundary
Seafloor Spreading

10. • Seafloor rocks, and mantle rocks beneath them, cool and
become
more dense with distance from mid-oceanic ridge
• When sufficiently cool and dense, these rocks may sink back
into
the mantle at subduction zones
– Downward plunge of cold rocks gives rise to oceanic trenches
• Overall young age for sea floor rocks (everywhere <200
million
years) is explained by this model
Transform Plate Boundaries
– Plates slide past one another
– Fault zones, earthquakes
mark plate boundaries
– San Andreas fault in California
San Andreas Fault,
Carizzo Plain, Central Ca
Transform Plate Boundaries
• At transform plate boundaries,
plates slide horizontally past one

11. another
– Marked by transform faults
– Transform faults may connect:
• Two offset segments of mid-oceanic
ridge
• A mid-oceanic ridge and a trench
• Two trenches
– Transform offsets of mid-oceanic
ridges allow series of straight-line
segments to approximate curved
boundaries required by spheroidal
Earth
Convergent Plate Boundaries
– Plates move toward each other
– Mountain belts and volcanoes common
– Oceanic plates may sink along a subduction zone,
– Typically marked by a deep ocean trench
India-Eurasia Collision
Continents Grow During

12. the Subduction Process
Convergent Plate Boundaries
• At convergent plate boundaries,
plates move toward one another
• Nature of boundary depends on plates
involved (oceanic vs. continental)
– Ocean-ocean plate convergence
• Marked by ocean trench, Benioff zone, and
volcanic island arc
– Ocean-continent plate convergence
• Marked by ocean trench, Benioff zone,
volcanic arc, and mountain belt
– Continent-Continent plate convergence
• Marked by mountain belts and thrust faults
Press & Siever
Fig. 1.16
Volcanoes originate from
subducting plates
Activity:

13. -Locate Volcanoes on west coast of US
-Find pattern in volcano alignment ?
Pacific Ring of Fire
Mt Vesuvius
Mt Pinatubo
Krakatoa
Hawaii
Mt St Helens
What Causes Plate Motions?
• Causes of plate motion are not yet fully understood, but any
proposed mechanism must explain why:
– Mid-oceanic ridges are hot and elevated, while trenches are
cold and deep
– Ridge crests have tensional cracks
– The leading edges of some plates are subducting sea floor,
while others are
continents (which cannot subduct)

14. • Mantle convection may be the cause or an effect of
circulation set up by
- - slab-pull
- ridge-push and/or
What Causes Plate Motions?
Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
• Mantle plumes - narrow
columns of hot mantle rock
rise through the mantle
– Stationary with respect to
moving plates
– Large mantle plumes may
spread out and tear apart the
overlying plate
• Flood basalt eruptions
• Rifting apart of continental land
masses
– New divergent boundaries
may form

15. Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
• Mantle plumes may form “hot
spots” of active volcanism at
Earth’s surface
– Approximately 45 known hotspots
• Hot spots in the interior of a plate
produce volcanic chains
– Orientation of the volcanic chain
shows direction of plate motion over
time
– Age of volcanic rocks can be used to
determine rate of plate movement
– Hawaiian islands are a good
example
Plate Tectonics on Other Planets ?
The origin of Valles Marineris on Mars — the longest trough
system in
the solar system — was formed by rifting, strike-slip faulting,
and
subsurface mass removal (An Yin, 2012).
Plate Tectonics on Other Mars

16. Valles Marineris on Mars has been compared
to the Grand Canyon on Earth.
Magnetic Anomalies on Mars
Global maps obtained using
data from
Mars Global Surveyer
Southern Highlands of Mars
(southern hemisphere) is
very old undisturbed crust
that is heavily cratered.
Do you see any patterns in
the ancient crust ?
If so – what do they mean ?
Magnetic Anomalies on Mars
field ?
Tectonics on Mars
Plate Tectonics on Europa

17. (Moon of Jupiter)
Fractures in Europa's ice
sheet indicate stresses from
the moon's interior.
Plate Tectonics on Europa
(Moon of Jupiter)
Fractures in Europa's ice
sheet indicate stresses from
the moon's interior.
Plate Tectonics on Europa
Observed satellite data
Interpretation:
Plate Tectonics
on Other Europa ?
Phaidra Linea and other, similar
bands on Europa (one of
Jupitor's moons) can be
reconstructed to reunite
geologic features, demonstrating
that these kinds of bands are
"pull-apart" boundaries, where
the surface has fractured,
opened up, and new crust

18. formed.
This process may be similar to
spreading centers on Earth.
Mountain Belts and Earth’s Systems
Chapter 20
• Mountain belts are chains of mountain
ranges that are 1000s of km long
– Commonly located at or near the edges of
continental landmasses
• As mountains grow higher and steeper,
erosion rates increase (particularly from
running water and ice )
Characteristics of Mountain Belts
• Mountain belts are very long
compared to their width
– The North American Cordillera runs
from southwestern Alaska down to
Panama
• Older mountain ranges
(Appalachians) tend to be lower
than younger ones (Himalayas)

19. due to erosion
• Ancient mountain belts (billions of
years old) have eroded nearly flat
to form the stable cores (cratons or
shields) of the continents
Rock Patterns in Mountain Belts
• Fold and thrust belts (composed of many
folds and reverse faults) indicate crustal
shortening (and thickening) produced by
compression
– Common at convergent boundaries
– Typically contain large amounts of
metamorphic rock
Evolution of Mountain Belts
• Rocks (sedimentary and volcanic) that will later be uplifted
into mountains are deposited during accumulation stage at
convergent boundaries
• Mountains are uplifted at convergent boundaries during
the orogenic stage. Subsequent gravitational collapse and

20. spreading may bring deep-seated rocks to the surface
• After convergence stops, a long
period of erosion, uplift and
block-faulting occurs
– As erosion removes overlying rock,
the crustal root of a mountain range
rises by isostatic adjustment
Evolution of Mountain Belts
Teton Range, Wyoming
Growth of Continents
• Continents grow larger as
mountain belts evolve along their
margins
• New accreted terranes can be
added with each episode of
convergence adding new
continental crust which surrounds
older cratons that form the cores
of the continents

21. “ Nothing hurries geology”
- Mark Twain
Geologic Time
- Geologic processes occur gradually
over millions of years
- Changes imperceptible in our lifetime
- Best estimates for age of Earth is
~ 4.56 billion years
History of Life
- 544 million years ago (Ma): Complex life forms
- 65 Ma: Dinosaurs became extinct
- Only a few Ma : Humans came on the seen
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Please read and follow the uploaded information
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Rubric.
Assignment 3: Dismissal Meeting
Due Week 6 and worth 150 points
Imagine that you are an office manager and you have been
tasked with the job of coordinating and heading the dismissal
meeting for an employee layoff.

22. Write a six to eight (6-8) page paper in which you:
1. Propose three (3) ways that a manager can cope with any
negative emotions that may accompany an employee layoff.
2. Describe a step-by-step process of conducting the dismissal
meeting.
3. Determine the compensation that the fictitious company may
provide to the separated employee.
4. Using Microsoft Word or an equivalent such as OpenOffice,
create a chart that depicts the timeline of the disbursement of
the compensation.
5. Predict three (3) ways that this layoff may affect the
company.
6. Use at least three (3) quality academic resources in this
assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify
as academic resources.
7. Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
8. Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size
12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references
must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your
professor for any additional instructions.
9. Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment,
the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and
the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included
in the required assignment page length.
10. The specific course learning outcomes associated with this
assignment are:
11. Formulate HRM strategies and policies to recruit, select,
place, and retain the most efficient and effective workforce.
12. Develop effective talent management strategies to recruit
and select employees.
13. Design processes to manage employee performance,
retention, and separation.
14. Analyze laws governing employment and how organizations
can ensure ethical practices.
15. Use technology and information resources to research issues
in strategic human resource development.

23. 16. Write clearly and concisely about strategic human resource
development using proper writing mechanics.
Grading for this assignment will be based on answer quality,
logic/organization of the paper, and language and writing skills,
using the following rubric.
Points: 120
Assignment 1: Phase I – Business Assessment
Criteria
Unacceptable
Below 70% F
Fair
70-79% C
Proficient
80-89% B
Exemplary
90-100% A
1. Assess the current situation for the company, focusing on the
issues that the HR Manager is currently facing from not having
an HRIS in place.
Weight: 20%
Did not submit or incompletely assessed the current situation
for the company, and did not submit or incompletely focused on
the issues that the HR Manager is currently facing from not
having an HRIS in place.
Partially assessed the current situation for the company, and
partially focused on the issues that the HR Manager is currently
facing from not having an HRIS in place.
Satisfactorily assessed the current situation for the company,
and satisfactorily focused on the issues that the HR Manager is
currently facing from not having an HRIS in place.
Thoroughly assessed the current situation for the company, and
thoroughly focused on the issues that the HR Manager is
currently facing from not having an HRIS in place.
2. Develop a business assessment for the company, focusing on
managing employees from an HR perspective in a grocery store
environment and retail industry.

24. Weight: 20%
Did not submit or incompletely developed a business assessment
for the company, and did not submit or incompletely focused on
managing employees from an HR perspective in a grocery store
environment and retail industry.
Partially developed a business assessment for the company, and
partially focused on managing employees from an HR
perspective in a grocery store environment and retail industry.
Satisfactorily developed a business assessment for the company,
and satisfactorily focused on managing employees from an HR
perspective in a grocery store environment and retail industry.
Thoroughly developed a business assessment for the company,
and thoroughly focused on managing employees from an HR
perspective in a grocery store environment and retail industry.
3. Create a list of the key HR functions that you believe will be
beneficial to the organization. From the list, choose one (1) HR
function that will be the focus of your business proposal moving
forward. Explain the main reasons why you chose that HR
function and validate your reasoning with research and theory.
Weight: 25%
Did not submit or incompletely created a list of the key HR
functions that you believe will be beneficial to the organization.
Did not submit or incompletely chose one (1) HR function that
will be the focus of your business proposal moving forward. Did
not submit or incompletely explained the main reasons why you
chose that HR function and did not submit or incompletely
validated your reasoning with research and theory.
Partially created a list of the key HR functions that you believe
will be beneficial to the organization. Partially chose one (1)
HR function that will be the focus of your business proposal
moving forward. Partially explained the main reasons why you
chose that HR function and partially validated your reasoning
with research and theory.
Satisfactorily created a list of the key HR functions that you
believe will be beneficial to the organization. Satisfactorily
chose one (1) HR function that will be the focus of your

25. business proposal moving forward. Satisfactorily explained the
main reasons why you chose that HR function and satisfactorily
validated your reasoning with research and theory.
Thoroughly created a list of the key HR functions that you
believe will be beneficial to the organization. Thoroughly chose
one (1) HR function that will be the focus of your business
proposal moving forward. Thoroughly explained the main
reasons why you chose that HR function and thoroughly
validated your reasoning with research and theory.
4. Explain two to three (2-3) reasons why the company would
benefit from adopting an HRIS. Focus on how the HRIS would
address the HR function you identified in your business
assessment.
Weight: 20%
Did not submit or incompletely explained two to three (2-3)
reasons why the company would benefit from adopting an HRIS.
Did not submit or incompletely focused on how the HRIS would
address the HR function you identified in your business
assessment.
Partially explained two to three (2-3) reasons why the company
would benefit from adopting an HRIS. Partially focused on how
the HRIS would address the HR function you identified in your
business assessment.
Satisfactorily explained two to three (2-3) reasons why the
company would benefit from adopting an HRIS. Satisfactorily
focused on how the HRIS would address the HR function you
identified in your business assessment.
Thoroughly explained two to three (2-3) reasons why the
company would benefit from adopting an HRIS. Thoroughly
focused on how the HRIS would address the HR function you
identified in your business assessment.
5. 2 references
Weight: 5%
No references provided.
Does not meet the required number of references; some or all
references poor quality choices.

26. Meets number of required references; all references high quality
choices.
Exceeds number of required references; all references high
quality choices.
6. Clarity, writing mechanics, and formatting requirements
Weight: 10%
More than 6 errors present
5-6 errors present
3-4 errors present
0-2 errors present