plant systematics and morphological characters of leaves,roots,stem,flower,infloresenceand fruit

Basics of Plant Systematics by: Khalid Hussain and Co-authors Page 1
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BASICS OF PLANT SYSTEMATICS
(First Edition)
Khalid Hussain
Khalid Nawaz
Feng Lin
Co-authors
Abdul Majeed & Romana Javed
(According to the syllabus of degree classes)

Preface
Authors are thankful to Allah, created them to help mankind through knowledge
and Holy Prophet (PBUH), showed the right path. This book has been complied by
keeping the difficulties of students in understanding of Plant
Systematics/Taxonomy. There are many books available in market on the subject
but in this book, existing knowledge related to Plant Systematics/Taxonomy has
been described in easy, short and comprehensive way that will enhance student’s
abilities towards of Plant Systematics/Taxonomy.
This book will also be very effective for self studies. Authors are fully confident
that this book will create knowledge in students with easy way. Students will be
able to get good grades in exams. There are no new discoveries or inventions in this
book; it is based upon existing available literature but difference is the only easy,
simple, comprehensible English language with understandable examples and
pictures.
Further positive suggestions or criticisms are welcomed from readers to improve
and to make the book more effective and popular among the students.
Authors

About the Authors

Mr. Khalid Hussain (left) has already published 4‐books i.e. “Growth Regulation of Medicinal Plants”, “Abiotic
Stresses in Crops”, Ratoon Stunting Disease (RSD) of Sugarcane” and “Divine Healers”. He is presently working as
Lecturer in the department of Botany, University of Gujrat, Pakistan. He earned his Masters in Philosophy (M.Phil)
from University of Agriculture, Faisalabad‐Pakistan. So far, he has more than 35‐research publications in national
and international impact factor journals.  He has 7‐years research experience in the field of Plant Systematics.
Dr. Khalid Nawaz (centre) has completed his PhD degree in Botany from University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan. He is HEC approved PhD supervisor. So far, he has published a remarkable research papers in well
reputed international scientific impact factor journals. He is also co‐author of 2‐books, i.e. “Growth Regulation of
Medicinal Plants”, “Abiotic Stresses in Crops” He is working as Assistant Professor in the department of Botany
University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan.
Dr. Feng Lin (right) is a Professor, doctoral supervisor and leading scholar at Shenyang Agricultural University,
Liaoning Province, China. She successfully identified seven genes for resistance to stripe rust in wheat and officially
named resistance gene Yr39 and three quantitative trait loci, and provisionally named other three genes. About 40
papers have been published in impact factor journals at home and abroad. She is also co‐author of one book
published entitled “Abiotic Stresses in Crops”.
Co-Authors
Dr. Abdul Majeed is a Professor /chairperson of Botany at the University of Gujrat (H.H.), campus, Pakistan. He is a
vetern and has rendered 32 years of service in the Punjab Education department. He did his masters from the
University of Punjab and his PhD from the Swansea College Singleton Park Swansea, University of Wales, U.K. In
the University of Gujrat, he teaches stress physiology, plant diversity, ethnobotany and ecophysiology.
Miss Romana Javed is a luminous student of BS (Hons) in Botany, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan. She has
obtained extraordinary grades in her exam so far. She has outstanding contribution in typing and compiling of this
book. It was not possible to assemble this book without her day and night hard work.


Dedicated
To
Our Worthy Teachers
&
University of Gujrat-Pakistan

Acknowledgements
All praises to Almighty ALLAH, who is most beneficial and merciful. He created us
to conquer this world and provided us the power to spread and share the knowledge
with others. We are the followers of Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), He showed
us the right path to obey our Allah. He was the educator for all human beings. By
keeping our leanings from our Prophet, we have made the effort to compile this
comprehensive book to develop understanding for Plant Systematics with an easy
approach.
We are thankful to Vice Chancellor, University of Gujrat-Pakistan, Prof. Dr.
Mohammad Nizamuddin, whose inspirations and determination urged us to
complete this book.
We always proceeded under the positive and result oriented inspiration from Prof.
Dr. Abdul Majeed, Chairman, Department of Botany, University of Gujrat-
Pakistan. Cordial thanks to Botany faculty and students, helped us to write this
book especially, Dr. Khizar Hayat Bhatti, Muhmmad Farrukh Nisar and Dr. Ejaz
Hussain Siddiqi. Special Thanks to Mr. Muhammad Zeeshan Ilyias for his help in
completion of this book.
Remarkable gratitude to our parents and family, supported us in every field of life
and they always lend their hands for our success.
Authors
Dated: August-2010

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
NO.
DESCRIPTION PAGES
1 INTRODUCTION 7-13
2 ROOT 14-21
3 STEM 22-27
4 LEAF 28-50
5 INFLORESCENCE 51-54
6 FLOWER 55-76
7 FRUIT 77-82
8 PLACENTATION 83-83
9 DESCRIPTION OF FAMILIES 84-109
10 BOTANICAL NAMES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS 110-112
REFERENCES 113-113

Chapter: 1
INTRODUCTION
Taxonomy
• The study of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms is called as
Taxonomy.
• Taxonomy is actually the study of relationships of organisms with their ancestors by
evolutionary sequences.
• Taxonomy is derived from Greek word Taxis, means arrangement and Nomos means Law,
so taxonomy means “arrangement with law”.
• The name taxonomy was given by A.P. de Candolle in 1813.
Plant Systematics
• The study of plant taxonomy (identification, nomenclature and classification) in comparative
groups is called as Plant Systematics.
Aims of Taxonomy and Systematics
1. Identification of organisms and their classification
2. Discovery of new flora
3. Degree of relationship of an organism with ancestors that represents its kinship
4. Classification of plants according to evolutionary sequence
5. To provide single uniform Latin name throughout the world
Classification
Classification can be defined as “arrangement of plants into groups on the basis of correlated
characteristics and resemblances with evolutionary sequences”.
Identification
Identification is the “recognition of any plant on the basis of specific characteristics that may be
a vegetative or a floral character”.

Nomenclature
Nomenclature represents, “the principle for naming of plants according to ICBN (International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature)”.
Principles of Taxonomy and Systematics
The following are important principles of Taxonomy and Systematics:
1. Naming of the plants should be according to binomial/trinomial nomenclature.
2. Taxa (unit of classification) or groups are arranged on the basis of a set of correlated
relationships or resemblances.
3. No single character will be considered as the base of classification.
4. Only those characters will be considered for classification which do not change under
different environmental conditions.
5. Modified characters will not be considered for classification.
6. Taxa or groups will be arranged according to ICBN such as:
Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
7. Each taxa or group should be arranged on the basis of common ancestory.
8. Classification should be practical and it should reflect identification and proper
nomenclature.
9. There should be some flexibility in classification for addition or deletion of modified
characteristics.
Binomial Nomenclature
• This system of nomenclature was founded by Gaspord Bauhin in 1596 and was employed by
Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. He wrote a book named “Species Plantarum”.

• This binomial nomenclature was adopted in 1901 in International Zoological conference and
in 1905 in International Botanical conference.
• According to this system, the name of a organism will consists of two parts.
1. Genus 2. Species
• Genus represents the organisms having correlated characteristics and resemblances.
• Species represents a specific character or origin of an organism. For example in Rosa indica,
Rosa represents genus name and indica represents the species origination.
• Each name will be written in italics or underline.
• Genus name starts with capital letter and species name starts with small letters.
• The authority of the scientist described the plant is written at the end of organism name
describing the abbreviations of scientist name in capital letter, for example Rosa indica L.
Here, L represents the name of scientist (Linnaeus).
• Sometimes two scientists described the same species in different times, the name of second
scientist will be written at the end. For example, Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), is the
name of Pearl millet. Robert Brown is the second author, who identified this species of pearl
millet.
Advantages of binomial nomenclature
1. It represents a uniform botanical name throughout the world.
2. It represents the correlated characteristics and resemblances among genus.
3. Species represent a specific character that can be a meaning of a character, location or
origination.
Trinomial nomenclature
Trinomial nomenclature is used when the organisms within a species fall into separate groups
(having different characters within the species) that need to be distinguished even though they
could interbreed. So that the usual binomial nomenclature does not suffice to identify an
organism adequately.
The hierarchy of taxa below the species level is
• subspecies
• variety
• sub variety

The simplest form of trinomial nomenclature occurs when only a subspecies is being specified.
In this case, the subspecies name is added after the species name, without capitalization but
normally in italics.
If the genus and species name have already been mentioned in the same paragraph, they are often
abbreviated to initial letters: for example one might write, "The Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax
carbo has a distinct subspecies in Australasia, the Black Shag P. c. novaehollandiae".
From a scientific point of view, a name is incomplete without an author label and publication
details. This specifies who published the name and in what publication and gives the date of the
publication in which the name was published.
Examples
• Adenia aculeata subsp. inermis de Wilde (specifiying that inermis is a subspecies, and
identifying de Wilde as the author who named this organism)
• Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum Backeb. (glabrum is a subvariety name)
• Acanthocalycium spiniflorum forma klimpelianum (Weidlich & Werderm.) Donald
(klimpelianum is a form name).
Vegetative characters vs Reproductive characters
Taxonomy on the basis of vegetative characters represents the morphology of leaf, stem and root
but these characters can change or modify under different environmental conditions, therefore
reproductive characteristics of flower (e.g. number, shape and structure of sepal, petal,
gynoecium and androecium) have much importance than vegetative characters. So, the
reproductive characters are also of much importance than vegetative characters in Plant
Systematics.
Modern Trends in Plant Taxonomy/Systematics
• Old taxonomists classified the plants on the basis of morphology, such taxonomy is
called classical or orthodox or alpha taxonomy.
• With passage of time, other branches of botany have been correlated with taxonomy such
as anatomy, palynology, cytotaxonomy, biochemistry, physiology, chemotaxonomy and
numerical taxonomy is called Omega or Experimental Taxonomy. Description of
important branches co-relating Systematics are as under:
1. Anatomy
It is the study of internal morphology or internal structure of plant and its organs. These
characters are important for the study of correlated evolutionary sequences.

2. Palynology
Palynology is the study of pollen grains or spores. For taxonomy study, data regarding
number of pollen grains, attachments and dispersal is useful.
3. Cytotaxonomy
Cytotaxonomy is the studies related to Nucleic acid. Study of chromosomes, its structure,
number and method of replication is also useful for study of taxonomy.
4. Chemotaxonomy
The chemical nature of plant products is also important for taxonomy and classification.
5. Numerical taxonomy
The mathematical data regarding plant is also useful for the study of taxonomy.
Classification
Classification is the arrangement of plants into groups on the basis of correlated characteristics
and evolutionary sequences.
Systems of classification
There are four systems of classification.
1. Artificial system
2. Natural system
3. Phylogenetic system
4. Modern system
1. Artificial system
• Artificial system is based upon one or two morphological characters.
• This system does not have any group of related plants.
• This system is only helpful for identification of plants.
• This system does not show any correlated character and evolutionary sequence.
• Example: Linnaeus system of classification

2. Natural system
• This system is not only based upon one or two morphological characters but also shows
resemblances among plants.
• This system does not explain any evolutionary sequence.
• Example : Bentham and Hooker system of classification
• This system is followed in Pakistan
3. Phylogenetic system
• This system is based upon a set of morphological characters along with evolutionary
sequences.
• It shows resemblances and evolutionary sequences
• Example: Engler and Prantle system of classification
4. Modern system
• This system is based upon correlated data obtained from other branches of botany with
Systematics such as Anatomy, Palynology, Biochemistry etc.
• It also shows inter-correlated characters and evolutionary sequences.
• Example: Takhtajans system of classification
Units of classification
1. Units of classification are called as Taxa or Taxon (singular).
2. There are major and minor categories.
3. Species and genus are included in major categories.
4. Family, order and class are considered as minor categories.
5. According to ICBN, family, order, class and division have specific suffix as.
Family→ aceae
Order→ ales
Class→ ae
Division→ phyta

For Example: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Family→ Malvaceae
Order→ Malvales
Class→ Dicotyledanae
Division→ Spermatophyta
Species
The group of organisms that can freely interbreed and can produce fertile offspring is called as
species. It is the lowest level of classification.
Example: In Pisum sativum L. sativum represents the name of species.
Sometimes there are differences among species, and then these are called as subspecies or
varieties.
Examples:
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage), here capitata is the variety name
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower), here botrytis is the variety name
Genus
It is higher level of classification than species and it consists of closely related organisms.
Examples:
Mangifera indica L. (Mango)
In Mangifera indica L., Mangifera represents the name of genus and it can have many species.
Family
It is higher level of classification than genus and it consists of closely related genus.
Examples: Family Solanaceae (Potato Family including Solanum genus).

Chapter: 2
ROOT
What is root?
Root is the first part that comes out from radicle of the embryo, grows downward and has no
distinct nodes and internodes.
Characteristics of root
1. Root is the descending (geotropic) organ of plant and is usually non-green.
2. It has no distinct nodes and internodes
3. It does not bear leaves and buds
4. Branches are endogenous in origin
5. Root tip is protected by root cap
6. Root bears unicellular root hairs
Functions of root
The main functions of root are:
a) Absorption of water and nutrients from the soil
(b) Fixation of plant to the soil
(c) Beside the absorption of water and nutrients, roots are modified to store food, to give
mechanical support to plant.
Regions of root
A typical root possesses three regions
1. Root cap. It is a cap-like structure at the tip of root. It covers and protects the growing point
from injury.
2. Meristematic zone. It lies beyond the root cap. It is the growing point of root and adds up
new cells in root.
3. Zone of elongation. The cells of this region are newly formed cells and elongate rapidly. This
region brings about an increase in length of root.

Root System
There are two types of root system
1. Tap root system
It develops from radicle of germinating seed and grows as tap root. It branches to produce
secondary or tertiary root.
2. Adventitious root system
It develops from any part of plant other than radicle. In other words, adventitious roots do not
arise from radicle.
Roots may develop from base of stem, nodes or internodes of stem or from foliar bud as in
Bryophyllum.
Modification of Root System
Modification in Tap Root
1. Storage roots

The primary root of tap root becomes fleshy and swollen due to storage of food. These are of
following types:
(a) Conical: Root is broad at the base and gradually tapers towards apex e.g. Daucus carota
(Carrot).
(b) Napiform: The food gets accumulated only in upper parts to give it a top-shaped
appearance e.g. Beta vulgaris (sugar beet) and Brassica napus (turnip).
(c) Fusiform: The root is swollen in middle and tapers towards the base and apex e.g.
Raphanus sativus (radish).
2. Nodulated tap roots
These roots are modified for N2 fixation. These roots are present in leguminous plants (pea,
gram). These roots bear many small irregular swellings called root nodules. These nodules are
living places for nitrogen fixing bacteria as Rhizobium leguminosarum. These bacteria fix and
convert free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which are absorbed by plant roots.

3. Pneumatophores or respiratory roots
These are aerial negatively geotropic (grow away from soil) roots or aerophores produced in
mangrove plants e.g. Sonneratia, Avicennia, Rhizophora. The underground roots of plants sent
out aerial roots or Pneumatophores. These bear several pores or lenticels which help in gaseous
exchange.
Modification in Adventitious Root
In some plants adventitious roots store food and become fleshy. They get swollen and assume
following shapes:
1. Tuberous roots
These adventitious roots are without any shape e.g. sweet potato. Here adventitious roots arise
from nodes. Some of these roots develop into root tubers.
2. Fasciculated roots
In some cases tuberous roots occur in clusters at the base of stem. They are known as
fasciculated roots e.g. Dahlia, Asparagus etc.
3. Nodulous and beaded roots
When roots become swollen near tips, they are said to be Nodulous roots e.g. mango, ginger and
turmeric.
When the swelling occurs at frequent intervals, the roots are said to be beaded roots e.g.
Momordica charanti (bitter gourd).

Tuberous Roots of Sweet Potato Fascicled Roots of Dahlia
Fascicled Roots of Asparagus Palmate Tuberous Roots of an Orchid
Annulated Root Moniliform
Roots Modified for Vital Functions
1. Epiphytic roots or hygroscopic roots
These adventitious roots are found in some orchids that grow as epiphytes on tree trunks. These
specialized roots are whitish and thickened having a sponge like tissue called velamen. It helps in
absorbing and storing water e.g. Vanda.
2. Assimilatory roots
These are chlorophyll containing green roots performing photosynthesis. e.g. Trapa, Tinospora
etc.
3. Parasitic roots/Haustoria

These roots are preset in non-green parasitic plants that are unable to manufacture their own
food. These roots penetrate the host tissue and enter its conducting system to absorb the food
required e.g. Cuscuta reflexa (Akas bael).
Aerial Epiphytic Roots of an Orchid Parasitic Roots of Cuscuta
4. Reproductive roots
Many roots e.g. in sweet potato, develop buds to form leafy shoots that later serve as a means of
propagation.
Reproductive Roots of Sweet Potato
5. Mycorrhizal roots
In plants like Pinus and Monotrapa, roots become associated with fungal hyphae helps to absorb
water and minerals from soil and to get the supply of organic food from the roots.
Pinus Rootlets invested with Mycorrhizal Fungus

Roots Modified for Additional Support
1. Stilt roots
Cluster of roots that arise from first few nodes of the stem obliquely into the soil and give
support to plant. e.g. Maize, Sugarcane.
2. Prop roots
These roots arise from branches and grow vertically downwards into soil. These act as pillars and
give mechanical support to aerial branches e.g. banyan.
3. Climbing roots
These roots arise from nodes of stem and help the plant with weak stem to climb. e.g. Betel leaf.
Prop Roots Banyan
A. Main Tree Trunk
B. Branch of Tree Trunk
C. Aerial Root
D. Prop Root
Stilt Root of Maize

Prop Roots Pandanus
1. Leaf
2. Main Trunk Branch
3. Main Trunk Tilted
4. Multiple Root Cap
Climbing Roots
A. Clinging Roots

Chapter: 3
STEM
What is stem? It is the part of primary axis of the plant arises from the plumule.
What is a shoot? The part of the stem which bears leaves is called as shoot.
Characteristics of stem
1. The stem develops from plumule.
2. It is an ascending axis and is differentiated into nodes and internodes.
3. It shows negative geotropism and positive phototropism.
4. It possesses terminal bud at its tip and in addition bears leaves, branches and flowers.
5. The young stem is green and photosynthetic.
6. The stem bears multicellular hairs.
7. Lateral buds are exogenous in origin.
Types of flowering plants based upon life cycle
1. Annuals
The plants that complete their life cycle in one growing season are called annuals. New plants
are produced by the seeds developed on these plants. Examples: Wheat (Triticum aestivum),
Maize (Zea mays), Rice (Oryza sativa)
2. Biennials
The plants that complete their life cycle in two growing seasons are called biennials. During first
year, leaves are produced while in second year flowers and seeds are produced. Examples:
Radish (Raphanus sativus), Carrot (Daucus carota)
3. Perennials
The plants which grow continuously through their life cycle. Examples, Acacia arabica (Kikar),
Ficus religiosa, Ficus bengalensis
Types of plants based upon stem
1. Herbs
Plants having soft stems and these are mostly annual or biennials. These are non woody plants.

Examples: Wheat (Triticum aestivum), Maize (Zea mays), Rice (Oryza sativa), Carrot (Daucus
carota)
2. Shrubs
Shrubs are plants larger than herbs having many woody stems. These are plants having bushy
growth and branches are present mostly at ground level. Examples: Rosa indica, Citrus sinensis
3. Trees
Trees are plants having wood with tall stem. Examples: Mangifera indica, Ficus religiosa
It is to note that: All trees are plant but all plants CANNOT be a tree.
Types of stem
There are following types of stem.
1. Herbaceous
It is the soft stem that can be easily broken into different parts. Examples: Wheat (Triticum
aestivum), Maize (Zea mays).
2. Woody
It is the solid, thick stem with wood formation. Examples: Mangifera indica, Ficus religiosa
3. Fistular
These are stems with hollow internodes. Examples: Bambo (Bambusa bambos)
4. Jointed
The stems having swollen nodes and look like joints. Examples: Grass (Cynodon dactylon),
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
5. Succulents
It is the thick and fleshy stem. Examples: Opuntia robutosa (Cheetar thor)
6. Spiny
The stems having spines. Examples: Acacia arabica

Bud
It is the compact structure formed on stem by short internodes and smaller overlapped leaves or
immature shoot.
Plants based upon weak stem
1. Climber
These are the plants having soft stem and grow on other structures or plants with the help of
tendrils. Examples: Grapes (Vitis venifera).
2. Creeper
These are the plants having soft stem and grow parallel to the soil. Examples: Vinca rosea,
Ipomoea spp.
Modification in underground stems
1. Rhizome
These are underground elongated stem with distinct nodes and internodes. Buds are present from
which shoots are developed. Examples: Ginger (Zingiber officinale), Turmeric (Curcuma longa).
2. Corm
These are underground stem having thick solid more or less rounded in structure with few
internodes. It is covered by many scales like leaves. Examples: Crocus sativus (Saffron).

3. Bulb
These are reduced underground stem having disc at the base from which roots arise and it is
covered by thick fleshy leaves having stored food. Examples: Allium cepa (onion), Allium
sativum (Garlic).
4. Tuber
These are swollen underground stem having stored food. Examples: Potato (Solanum
tuberosum).
Branching pattern
There are following two main types branching pattern in plants.
1. Dichotomous branching pattern

In this type of branching pattern, stem at the apex is divided into two branches which further
divides at equal growth rate into two branches or so on.
2. Lateral branching pattern
In this type of branching pattern, branches arise from the axis of leaf with unequal growth rate.
Types of lateral branching pattern
There are following two types of lateral branching pattern.
1. Racemose lateral branching pattern
In this type of lateral branching system, main stem continues to grow and branches arise from
lateral side.
2. Cymose Lateral branching pattern
In this type of lateral branching system, main stem stops its growth and branches are produced
on lateral sides.
Types of cymose lateral branching pattern
There are following three types of cymose lateral branching pattern.
1. Uniparous cymose lateral branching pattern
This type of cymose lateral branching give rises only single branch.
2. Biparous cymose lateral branching pattern
This type of cymose lateral branching give rises two branches.
3. Multiparous cymose lateral branching pattern
This type of cymose lateral branching give rises many branches.

Types of uniparous cymose lateral branching pattern
There are following two types of cymose lateral branching pattern.
1. Scorpoid uniparous cymose lateral branching pattern
The lateral branches bearing flowers develop alternatively forming a zig-zag e.g.
heliotropium.
2. Helicoid uniparous cymose lateral branching pattern
The lateral branches bearing flowers occur on same side forming a sort of a curve or helix
e.g. Begonia and Solanum nigrum.

Scorpioid and Helicoid Uniparous

Chapter: 4
LEAF
Leaf is mostly considered as green photosynthetic, aerial part of plant present on upper ground
surface.
Functions of Leaves
1. Photosynthesis (conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the presence of
chlorophyll)
2. Respiration ( Exchange of gases)
3. Transpiration (Loss of water in the form of vapors from cell surface)
Types of leaves
There are following 5-types of leaves.
1. Dicotyledonary leaves
These are leaves having preserved food and emerge out at the time of germination. Example:
Leaves in pea
2. Foliage leaves
The green leaves performing photosynthetic function are called foliage leaves. Example: Mango
(Mangifera indica L.) leaves
3. Scale leaves
These are leaves present on underground parts. Example: Leaves in onion (Allium cepa L.)
4. Bracts and Bracteoles
Bracts are leaves present on flowering shoots and Bracteoles are leaves present on flowering
stalk (pedicel) as in Rose (Rosa indica L.).
5. Floral leaves
These are specialized leaves present in flower such as sepals and petals.

Parts of leaf
There are following parts of a leaf:
• Leaf apex
• Leaf blade or Lamina
• Mid rib
• Veinlets
• Petiole
• Stipule
• Leaf base
Terms in leaves
• Petiolate
If leaves have petiole, then these leaves are called as petiolate e.g. peepal (Ficus religiosa L.)
leaves.
• Sessile or Expetiolate
Leaves without petiole are called as sessile or expetiolate e.g. Sonchus leaves
Leaf apex
Leaf base

• Perfoliate leaves
The leaves having petiole passing through lamina are called perfoliate leaves e.g. leaves in lilies

• Pulvinus leaves
Leaves having swollen base are called as pulvinus leaves e.g. leaves in Touch me not (Mimosa
pudica L.).
Stipule
• Lateral outgrowth present at the base of node of leaf is called as stipule.
• If stipules are present in plants, then leaves are called as stipulate leaves. e.g. Rose
• If stipules are absent, then leaves are called as exstipulate leaves.

• Function of stipule
It protects the young buds or young green leaves.
Types of stipule
1. Free lateral- Two, soft, thin and green stipules are present on either sides of the leaf
base e.g. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose) (Fig. A).
2. Adnate or adherent- The two stipules are adherent to the sides of the petiole to a
certain distance e.g. Rosa indica (rose) (Fig. B).
3. Intra-petiolar - Both stipules fuse by their inner margins to form a single compound
stipule, e.g. Gardenia jasminoides (Gardenia) (Fig. C, D).
4. Interpetiolar- In this condition leaves are opposite decussate and superposed and
stipules of two leaves fuse together e.g. Ixora duffii (Ixora) (Fig. E).
5. Ocloreate- The two stipules fuse to form a hollow tube-like structure covering the
internode upto a certain height, e.g. Polygonum cuspidatum (Polygonum) (Fig. F).
6. Convolute or bud scales- The stipules become scaly and protect the vegetative bud,
e.g. Artocarpus altilis (Bread fruit) (Fig. G).
7. Leafy or foliaceous- The stipules are large leaf - like green structures. They also take
up the function of foliage leaves, e.g. Pisum sativum (pea) (Fig. H).
8. Spiny- Here stipules modify into spines and serve as a defensive armature, e.g. Acacia
and Zizyphus jujuba (Ber) (Fig. I).
9. Tendrillar- The stipules modify into tendrils and help in climbing, e.g. Smilax
officinalis (Willow) (Fig. J).

Phyllotaxis
Phyllo means leaf and Taxis mean arrangement. So it can be defined as “Arrangement of leaves
on stem”.
Objectives of phyllotaxis
To avoid overcrowding of leaves and to get maximum light for photosynthesis.

Types of Phyllotaxis
There are two types of pyllotaxis.
1. Spiral Phyllotaxis
2. Cyclic Phyllotaxis
1. Spiral Phyllotaxis
In spiral arrangement leaves are present singly on each node and having spiral like arrangement
e.g. in Mustard (Brassica compestris), Sun flower (Helianthus annus). The leaves are called as
alternate.
2. Cyclic Phyllotaxis
In this arrangement two or more leaves are present on each node. They are further divided in to
two types.
i. Opposite ii. Whorled or Vercillate
i. Opposite Cyclic Phyllotaxis
In this cyclic arrangement two leaves are present on each node. e.g. Jambo (Eugenia jambolana).

ii. Whorled or Vercillate Cyclic Phyllotaxis
More than two leaves are present on each node and arranged in cyclic form. Such as Oleander
(Nerium oleander).
Venation
Arrangement of veins or vienlets in the lamina of leaf is called as venation. Venation is divided
into following types:
1. Parallel venation
In this type many veins of equal length and size run parallel from base to apex e.g. In monocots
Venation
Parallel
Venation
Reticulate
Venation
Unicostate
Parallel
Venation
Multicostate
Parallel
Venation
Convergent
Multicostate
Parallel
Venation
Divergent
Multicostate
Parallel
Venation
Unicostate
Reticulate
Venation
Multicostate
Reticulate
Venation
Convergent
Multicostate
Reticulate
Venation
Divergent
Multicostate
Reticulate
Venation

There are further two types of parallel venation.
i. Unicostate Parallel Venation
In unicostate parallel venation there is a single midrib having parallel veinlets e.g. Banana (Musa
paradisiaca).

ii. Multicostate Parallel Venation
In this type of parallel venation many midribs are running parallel to each other from base to
apex e.g. in monocots (single cotyledon plants)
Types of multicostate venation
It is further divided into two types.
a) Convergent venation
Many midribs arise from base that converge at the apex such as in
• Allium cepa (Onion)
• Allium sativum (Garlic)
b) Divergent venation
Many midribs arise from base and diverge at the apex such as in Royal palm

Convergent Parallel Venations Divergent Parallel Venations
2. Reticulate venation
In reticulate venation, there is a network of veins originating from one or more mid ribs. e.g. in
Morus alba (mulberry).
Types of reticulate venation
There are two further types of reticulate venation.
1. Unicostate reticulate venation
In this type, there is only one midrib and having many veins towards the margins of the leaf.
Examples: Peepal (Ficus religiosa), Guava (Psidium guajava)

2. Multicostate reticulate venation
In multicostate reticulate venation, there are many midribs spreading in whole lamina.
Types of multicostate reticulate venation
It is further divided into two types
i. Divergent multicostate reticulate venation
In this type of venation, many midribs arise from the base and diverge towards the apex.
ii. Convergent multicostate reticulate venation
In this type of venation, many midribs arise from the base and converge towards the apex.

Insertion
Attachment of leaf to stem or branches is called as insertion.
Types of insertion
1. Cauline insertion
In this type, leaves are only present on main stem, e.g. in Sunflower (Helianthus annus)
2. Ramel insertion
In this type, leaves are attached only on branches e.g. in Peepal (Ficus religiosa)

3. Radical insertion
In this type, leaves emerge from root, but in actual position these leaves come out from short
stem, e.g. Carrot (Daucus carota), Radish (Raphanus sativus)

4. Ramal and cauline insertion
In this type, leaves are attached on main stem and branches.
Types of leaf
There are two main types of leaf.
1. Simple leaf
In simple leaf, there is only one piece of lamina e.g. in guava, peepal etc.
2. Compound leaf
In compound leaf, lamina is divided into many parts called as leaflets e.g. in Oxalis, Trifolium.

Types of compound leaf
Compound leaf is further divided into:
1. Pinnate leaf
2. Palmate leaf
1. Pinnate Compound leaf
In this type, leaflets arises from a single stalk called as Rachis e.g. Rosa indica

Types of Pinnate Compound Leaf
1. Paripinnate
In this type, there are even numbers of leaflets, e.g. Cassia fistula.

2. Imparipinnate
In this type, there are odd numbers of leaflets, e.g. Rosa indica.
3. Bipinnate
In bipinnate type, two leaflets are present, e.g.
• Acacia arabica
• Albizia lebbeck
4. Tripinnate
In tripinnate type, three leaflets are present, e.g.
• Melia azedarach
• Azedirachata indica

2. Palmate compound leaf
In this type, leaflets of a compound leaf come out from one point at the tip of petiole e.g.
Medicago sativa.
Types of palmate compound leaf
1. Unifoliate palmate compound leaf
Having only one leaflet present at the top. Example: Citrus fruit
• Citrus reticulata (Kino)
• Citrus sinensis (Malta)
• Citrus limonia /Citrus limonium (Lemon)
2. Bifoliate palmate compound leaf
Having two leaflets present at the top Example: Lavandula bipinata (Lavender)

3. Trifoliate palmate compound leaf
Having three leaflets present at the top. Example: Oxalis corniculata
4. Multifoliate palmate compound leaf
Having many leaflets present at the top. Example: Bombax malbaricum / Bombax ceiba
Special modifications in leaf
1. Leaf tendrils
The leaves modified into tendril. Example: In Wild pea (Lathyrus aphaca)
2. Leaf spines

The leaves modified into spines that help in reduction of transpiration. Example: Berberis
lycidium
In some plants, leaf apex is modified into spines. Example: Agave americana
3. Leaf pitcher
In some plant species, leaf is modified for capturing and digestion of insects. Example Pitcher
plant (Sarracenia alata).

4. Leaf Bladder
In this type, leaf is modified for insect capturing. Leaf is divided into segments and contains
enzymes that help in digestion. Example Bladder wort (Utricularia purpurascens)


5. Phyllodes
In some plants, leaf petiole is flattened that acts as lamina and is called phyllodes. Example
Australian acacia (Acacia saligna)

5. Storage leaves
These leaves help in storage of food. Example Leaf of onion (Allium cepa)
Heterophylly
In some aquatic plant species, lamina of submerged leaves is much divided and shows different
morphology from other leaves. This condition is called as heterophylly. Example Ranunculus
aquaticus.

Shapes of leaf lamina
There are twenty two different shapes of lamina.
i. Acicular - Needle shaped as in Pinus roxburghii (Pine) (Fig. A).
ii. Linear - Long, narrow and flat as in many grasses (Cynodon dactylon), wheat (Triticum
aestivum) (Fig. B).
iii. Lanceolate - Lance shaped, wider at middle and narrow at base and apex as in Nerium
oleander (Oleander, Kanir) (Fig. C).
iv. Oblong - More or less rectangular as in Musa paradisiaca (Banana) (Fig. D).
v. Subulate - Tapering gradually from base to apex as in Salsola articulata (Jointed Anabis)
(Fig. E).
vi. Ovate - Egg shaped as in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose) (Fig. F).
vii. Cordate - Heart shaped with a deep notch at the base as in (Piper betle) Pan (Fig. G).
viii. Sagitate - The two basal lobes point towards the base and shaped like an arrow head as in
Lanceleaved (Sagittaria ancifolia), Arvy (Colocasia esculenta) (Fig. H)
ix. Rotund- Circular as in Lotus (Nymphaea lotus), Water lily (Nymphaea spp) (Fig. I).
x. Hastate- Like sagitate but the two basal lobes point outwards as in Sweet potato (Ipomoea
batatas (Fig. J).

xi. Obovate - Wider at the apex and tapering gradually towards the base as in jack fruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus) (Fig. K).
xii. Elliptical- Wider at the middle like an ellipse as in Periwinkle creeper (Vinca rosea), guava
(Psidium guajava L.). (Fig. L).
xiii. Spathulate- Shaped like a spatula as in Pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) (Fig. M).
xiv. Falcate- Sickle shaped lamina as in Eucalyptus (Fig. N).
xv. Oblique- A leaf twisted or inclined from the normal position, or A leaf having one half
different from the other as in Neem (Azadirachta indica) (Fig. O).
xvi. Lyrate - With a larger apical and smaller lateral lobes as in Radish (Raphanus sativus),
Mustard (Brassica campestris) (Fig. P).
xvii. Rhombate- Having lobes at the basal part as in Mako (Solanum nigrum) (Fig. Q).
xviii. Runcinate - Lamina with traingular apex and small lateral lobes towards lower sides as in
Prickly Sow thistle (Sonchus asper) (Fig. R).
xix. Cuneate- Wedge shaped, wider at the apex and narrower at base as in water lettuce (Pistia
stratiotes) (Fig. S).
xx. Reniform- Kidney shaped as in Pennywort or Guto kola (Centella asiatica) (Fig. T).
xxi. Lunate- Shaped like a half moon as in passion fruit (Passiflora indica) (Fig. U).
xxii. Obcordate- Reverse of cordate with a deep apical notch as in butterfly tree or Kachnar
(Bauhinia purpurea) (Fig. V).

Shapes of leaf margins
The margin of the leaf may be of following 8-types.
(i) Entire- Smooth margins as in mango (Mangifera indica)(Fig. A).
(ii) Repand– Wavy margins as in peepal (Ficus religiosa) (Fig. B).
(iii) Serrate- Margins with large saw like teeth pointed upwardly as in rose (Rosa indica) (Fig.
C). or Biserrate - When teeth or margins are again serrated as in elm tree (Ulmus americana).
(v) Dentate- Margins with outwardly pointed teeth as in water lily (Nymphaea stellata) (Fig. D).
(vi) Crenate- Margins with rounded teeth as in Air plant (Bryophyllum calycinum) (Fig. E).
(vii) Spiny- The marginal teeth are with spines as in Prickly-poppy (Argemone mexicana) (Fig.
F).
(viii) Lobed- The margin is dissected to form lobes as in Mako (Solanum nigrum) (Fig. G).

Shapes of apex
The apex of the lamina may be of following types.
(i) Acute- Pointed and narrow as in mango (Mangifera indica) (Fig. A).
(ii) Obtuse- The apex is broad, round and blunt as in banyan (Ficus bengalensis)(Fig. B).
(iii) Mucronate- The apex is broad and round with pointed tip e.g. Ixora spp (ornamental shrub)
(Fig. C).
(iv) Acuminate- The apex forms a long tapering tail as in Peepal (Ficus religiosa) (Fig. D).
(v) Emarginate- A broad apex with a deep apical notch as in Kachnar (Bauhinia purpurea) (Fig.
E).
(vi) Tendrillar- The apex forms a tendril as in Flame lily (Gloriosa superba)(Fig. F).
(vii) Cirrhose- The tip of broad apex forms a soft thread-like structure as in banana (Musa
paradisiaca) (Fig. G).
(viii) Retuse- A broad apex with an apical notch as in Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) (Fig. H).
(ix) Truncate- When the apex is abruptly cut across as in Paris polyphylla (Fig. I).
(x) Cuspidate or spiny- The apex becomes hard and pointed like a spine e.g. date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera) (Fig. J)

Chapter: 5
INFLORESCENCE
Definition
Arrangement of flowers on stem is called inflorescence. In simple way Inflorescence
means, how flowers are arranged on the stem?
Types of inflorescence
There are following main types of inflorescence.
Shapes Name and Description Examples
Single/Solitary
This is the simplest type of inflorescence where
there is only a single flower. The flower may be
terminal on a short peduncle or it may be
axillary in position.
Example: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Spike
In this type, group of flowers arising from the
main stem without individual flower stalks. In
other words, sessile flowers arise from a single
main stem
Example: Verbena hastate L.
Raceme
In this type, flowers have stalks of equal length,
and the tip of the stem continues to grow to
produce more flowers. Flowers open from the
bottom towards up.
Example: Linaria vulgaris L.

Panicle
In this type of inflorescence, the flowers are
with pedicels, which are attached along the
branches arising from the peduncle (the stalk of
a plant bearing an inflorescence).
Example: Oryza sativa
Cyme
A Cyme is that type of inflorescence in which
flower is produced at the end of each growing
branch, so new growth comes from side shoots
and the oldest flowers are at the top.
Example: Geranium pratense
Verticillaster
A Verticillaster is a whorled inflorescence,
where the flowers are borne in rings at intervals
up to the stem. The tip continues to grow,
producing more whorls. This type of
inflorescence is common in members of the
Mint Family (Lamiaceae).
Example: Ocimum sanctum
Corymb
In this type of inflorescence, cluster of flowers
are produce at the same level, with flower stalks
of different lengths, forming a flat-topped
flower cluster.
Example: Achillea millefolium
Umbel
Umbel is an inflorescence in which all the
flower stalks are of the same length, so that the
flower head is rounded like an umbrella. Many
bulbs have this type of flower head.
Example: Nerine bowdenii

Compound Umbel
Compound umbel inflorescence is just like the
umbel where each stalk of the umbel produces a
smaller umbel of flowers. This type of
inflorescence is present in Family (Apiaceae).
Example: Foeniculum vulgare
Capitulum or head
Capitulum is a flower head composed of many
separate unstalked flowers close together. This
type of inflorescence is typical of the Daisy
Family (Asteraceae), where the outer flowers
have one conspicuous large petal and the central
disk is formed of flowers with smaller petals.
Example: Helianthus annuus L.
Catkin
In catkin flower are unisexual without pedicels
and are attached along the length of the
peduncle. The flowers are usually very small
and fall as a group.
Examples: Morus alba L.
Spadix
The flowers have no pedicels and are attached
along the length of thickened or fleshy peduncle,
which is enveloped by a conspicuously colored
bract called a spathe. Family Araceae have
spadix inflorescence.
Example: Colocasia esculenta
Types of Cyme
In a cyme, the oldest flower terminates the main axis. Scorpoid cymes have one-sided branching,
forming a coiled inflorescence typical of the families Boraginaceae and Hydrophyllaceae.

Chapter: 6
FLOWER
Definition
It is a modified shoot performing specialized function of reproduction. It is the structure of
sexual reproduction in angiosperms.
Study of flower is called anthology.
Parts of flower
• Flower consists of a stalk called as pedicle.
• At the apex of pedicle, there is a swollen portion called as Thallamus or Receptacle.
• Thallamus have whorl of floral leaves, such as Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
Gynoecium.
1. Calyx
Sepals are collectively called as calyx. It is the first whorl of the flower, mostly green in color.
They protect the other parts of flower.
2. Corolla
Petals are collectively called as corolla. It is the second whorl of the flower, and is mostly
colored. They attract insects that are helpful in pollination.
3. Androecium

It is the male reproductive part of the flower. Stamens are collectively called as Androecium.
Each stamen consists of two parts:
o Filament
o Anther
Anther contains pollen grains. Each pollen grain produces pollen tube having sperm nuclei which
fertilized the egg present in ovary.
4. Gynoecium
It is the female reproductive part of flower. Carpels are collectively called as Gynoecium. Carpel
is also called as pistil. It consists of following three parts:
o Stigma
o Style
o Ovary (contains ovule)

• Some times there are scale like leaves on the pedicle called as bracteoles.

• First two whorls (calyx and corolla) are called as non essential or accessory part of the
flower.
• Androecium and Gynoecium are called as essential parts of the flower.
Types of flower
There are following types of flowers.
1. Complete flower
The flower having four whorls of floral leaves (Sepals, Petals, Stamens and Carpel) is called
complete flower.
2. Incomplete flower
The flower having absent one or more floral whorl is called incomplete flower.
3. Perfect or Bisexual or Hermaphrodite flower
The flower having both Androecium and Gynoecium is called perfect or bisexual or
hermaphrodite flower.
4. Imperfect or Unisexual flower
The flower having one reproducing part missing that may be Androecium or Gynoecium is
called imperfect or unisexual flower.
5. Staminate flower
Unisexual flower having only stamens is called as staminate flower.
6. Pistilate flower
Unisexual flower having pistil or carpel only is called as pistilate flower.
Monoecious Plants
When male and female flowers are present on single plant called as Monoecious.
Dioecious Plants
When male and female flowers are present on different plants called as Dioecious.

Symmetry of the flower
Following three types of symmetry are present in flowers.
1. Actinomorphic symmetry
It is that type of symmetry in which flower can be divided into two equal parts by MORE THAN
ONE plane. This is also called as Radial symmetry. Flowers having radial symmetry are called
as Regular flower. Example: Tulip flower

2. Zygomorphic symmetry
It is that type of symmetry in which flower can be divided into two equal parts only by ONE
plane. This is also called as Bilateral symmetry. Example: Flower of pea (Pisum sativum).

3. Irregular symmetry
It is that type of symmetry in which, flower CAN NOT be divided into two equal parts by any
plane. Example: Canna indica L.

Insertion
Attachment of the floral leaves on the thalamus or receptacle is called as insertion.
Types of insertion
There are following three types of insertion.
1. Hypogynous insertion
In this type of insertion, thalamus is in the form of conical disc at which gynoecium is present.
Other floral parts such as calyx, corolla, and androecium arise below the gynoecium. In this type
ovary is superior and other floral parts are inferior. Such flowers are called as Hypogynous
flowers.
2. Perigynous insertion
In this type of insertion, thalamus is in the form of circular disc. Gynoecium is present in the
center of this circular thalamus. Other floral parts such as calyx, corolla, and androecium arise
from the base of the gynoecium. In this type ovary is superior and other floral parts are inferior.
Such flowers are called as perigynous flowers.

3. Epigynous insertion
In this type of insertion, thalamus grows upward and it surrounds gynoecium completely. Other
floral parts also surround the gynoecium. In this type ovary is inferior and other floral parts are
superior. Such flowers are called as Epigynous flowers.
Aestivation
The arrangement of sepals and petals in bud conditions is called aestivation. It has following
types.
1. Valvate aestivation
In this type of arrangement sepals and petals are present in one whorl. Their margins touch each
other but do not overlap. Example: Atrabotrya spp.
2. Twisted aestivation
In this type of arrangement, one margin of a sepal and petal overlap with next one and this next
one is overlapped with 3rd
one. Example: Cotton (Gossypium arborium). It is also called as
Controted aestivation.
3. Imbricate aestivation
In this type of arrangement margins of sepals and petals overlap in the sequence that one is
internal being overlapped on both margins. Example: Amaltas (Cassia fistula).

4. Vexillary aestivation
In this type of arrangement there are five sepals and petals. The posterior one is the largest and
almost covers the two lateral ones and lateral overlap the two smaller ones.. Example:
Pappilionaceae family.
5. Quincuntial aestivation
In this type, there are two interior and two exterior floral leaves. One margin of exterior is
overlapped by fifth one and second margin of exterior is overlapping the interior. Example:
Psidium guajava (Guava).

Forms of calyx
Sepals are collectively called as calyx. There are following types of calyx.
1. Petaloid calyx
These are colored calyx like petals for example in some members of Verbenaceae family
2. Polysepalous calyx
In this form sepals are free from each other e.g. Brassica spp.
3. Gamosepalous calyx
In this form sepals are united or fused e.g. Rose, Citrus, Pea. It is divided into 2-types.

Types of Gamosepalous calyx
Gamosepalous calyx is further divided into following two types.
i. Gamosepalous regular calyx: In this type sepals are united and are alike e.g. Aeschynanthus
spp . It is further divided into 6-types.
Types of gamosepalous regular calyx
It is divided into following 6-types.
a. Tubular regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type sepals are united to form a tube like structure e.g. Verbena.
b. Campanulate regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type sepals form a bell shape structure e.g. Petunia.

c. Infundibulum regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type sepals are united to form a funnel shape structure e.g. Atropa.
d. Globose regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type sepals are united to form a globe shape structure e.g. Rasberry.
e. Ureolate regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type sepals are fused to form an urn shape structure e.g. Arbutus menziesii

d. Pappus regular gamosepalous calyx
In this type of calyx, sepals are modified in hair like structures e.g. in family composite
ii. Gamosepalous irregular calyx: In this type sepals are united and are not alike. It is further
divided into 2-types.
Types of Gamosepalous irregular calyx
1. Bilabiate gamosepalous irregular calyx
In this type sepals are united but are not alike. It forms lips like structure.
2. Spurred gamosepalous irregular calyx
In this type sepals are united but are not alike. It forms a hollow tube like structure.

3. Hooded gamosepalous irregular calyx
In this type of calyx, one or more sepals unite to form a hood like structure. E.g. Monkshood
Forms of corolla
Petals are collectively called as corolla. It is the second whorl of floral leaves in flower. These
are mostly colored. There are following types of corolla.
1. Sepaloid corolla
These petals are mostly green in color like sepals e.g. Petunia hybrida
2. Gamopetalous corolla
In this form petals are united or fused e.g. Ipomoea spp.

3. Polypetalous corolla
In this form petals are free from each other e.g. Brassica
Types of gamopetalous corolla
It is further divided into following two types.
i. Gamopetalous regular corolla
In this type petals are united and are alike e.g. Ipomoea spp.

Types of Gamopetalous regular corolla
It is divided into following 5-types.
1. Tubular regular gamosepalous corolla
In this type petals are united to form a tube like structure e.g. Campsis radicans
2. Campanulate regular gamopetalous corolla
In this form petals form a bell shape structure e.g. Bellflower (family Campanulaceae).

3. Infundibulum regular gamopetalous corolla
In this form petals form a funnel shape structure e.g. Cyrtanthus elatus

4. Globose regular gamopetalous corolla
In this type petals form a globe shape structure e.g. Erica tetralix
5. Rotate regular gamopetalous corolla
In this type petals are united to form a wheel like.
ii. Gamopetalous irregular corolla
In this type petals are united and are not alike.

Types of gamopetalous irregular corolla
i. Bilabiate gamopetalous irregular corolla
In this type petals are united but are not alike. It forms lips like structure.
ii. Spurred gamopetalous irregular corolla
In this type petals are united but are not alike. It forms a hollow tube like structure.

Androecium
Stamens are collectively called as androecium. It consists of anther and filament.
Types of androecium
There are following types of androecium.
1. Monandrous stamens
In this type of androecium, stamens are present singly and free.

2. Diandrous
In this type of androecium, stamens are two and free.
3. Tri, tetra or pentandrous
In this type of androecium stamens are three, four and five respectively and are free.
4. Didynamous
In this type of androecium, four stamens are present, two are short and two are long.
5. Tetradynamous
In this type of androecium, six stamens are present, two are short and four are long.

6. Epipetalous
In this type of androecium, stamens are fused with petals.
7. Epiphyllous
In this type of androecium, stamens are fused with perianth.
8. Gynandrous
In this type of androecium, stamens are fused with gynoecium.

9. Monadelphous
In this type of androecium, stamens are united by their filaments to form a single group e.g.
Cotton
10. Diadelphous
In this type of androecium, stamens are united by their filaments to form two groups e.g. pea.
11. Polyadelphous
In this type of androecium, stamens are united by their filaments to form many groups e.g.
Bombax.
12. Synandrous
In this type of androecium, stamens are united by anthers and also by filaments e.g. Datura.

Gynoecium
Carpels are collectively called as gynoecium. It is the female reproductive part of the flower.
Gynoecium has following three parts.
1. Stigma
2. Style
3. Ovary
Types of Gynoecium
There are following 4-types of gynoecium.
1. Monocarpellary
In this type of gynoecium, single carpel is present. It is also called as simple pistil.
2. Polycarpellary
In this type of gynoecium, many carpels are present that may be dicarpellary (2-carpels),
tricarpellary (3-carpels) and so on.
3. Apocarpous
In this type of gynoecium, many carpels are present and are free from each other.
4. Syncarpous
In this type of gynoecium, many carpels are present that are united with each other.

What is floral formula?
A floral formula is a system of representing the structure of a flower using specific letters,
numbers and symbols.
How to write a floral formula?
Floral formula is based on following terms:
1. Sex of flower
Unisexual male =
Unisexual female =
Bisexual =
2. Symmetry of flower
Actinomorphic =
Zygomorphic = Ө
3. Calyx
Denoted by = K
Number (Free) =Kn n= Number of calyx for example 1-10
Number (Fused) = K(n)
4. Corolla
Denoted by = C
Number (Free) =Cn n= Number of corolla for example 1-10
Number (Fused) = C (n)
5. Androecium
Denoted by = A

Number (Free) =An n= Number of stamens for example 1-10
Number (Fused) = A (n)
Epipetalous =
6. Gynoecium
Denoted by = G
Apocarpous = Gn n= Number of carpels for example 1-10
Syncarpous = G (n)
Ovary superior = G
Ovary inferior =
7. Perianth (in some cases calyx and corolla are collectively called as Perianth when there is no
distinction in them)
Denoted by = P
Free = Pn n= Number of Carpels for example 1-10
Fused = P (n)
Floral Diagram
The floral diagram consists of a plan view of the flower with the organs arranged on circles or
spirals, showing the degree of overlapping, any fusion of parts or irregularity and the position
relative to the main stem of the plant (indicated by a small circle).
Bracts and bracteoles are also shown. The longitudinal section is necessary to show the degree of
perigyny if any.

Chapter: 7
FRUIT
What is fruit?
The ripened ovary or ovaries of a seed-bearing plant is called as fruit. It contains seeds and
occurring in a wide variety of forms.
• Fruits are the containers in which the plant puts its seeds.
• Fruits have many different forms. Some are fleshy with parts that we like to eat, some are
dry, some are heavy and are designed to be dispersed by falling and rolling away from
the parent plant, some have wings or fluffy tails to enable them to be caught by the wind
for dispersal.
Types of Fruits
Fruits are divided into:
1. Fleshy Fruits
2. Dry Fruits
1. Fleshy Fruits can be subdivided into two types:
a) Produced from a single flower
b) Produced from a group of flowers. They can have one seed or several seeds in it.
Fleshy Fruits formed from a single flower are classified as: Berry, Drupe, Aggregation of
Drupes, Pome, Hesperidium. Some authorities also classified these fruits separately: Hep,
Pseudocarp, Pepo.
Fleshy Fruits which develop from a group of flowers are: Sorosis, Synconium, Coenocarpium.
2. Dry Fruits can be divided into:
a) Those in which the seeds are contained in a seedpod which opens to release the seeds are
called as Dehiscent fruits.
b) Those in which there is not a seedpod to open (such fruit that do not open) called as
Indehiscent fruits.

Dry Dehiscent Fruits are Follicle, Legume, Siliqua, Capsule. Some authorities separate these
further.
Dry Indehiscent Fruits are: Achene, Nut, Samara, Caryopsis. There are also Schizocarpic Fruits.
Types of fleshy fruits
1. Fleshy fruits developed from a single flower
Berry
A Berry is a single fleshy fruit without a stone, usually containing a
number of seeds.
Examples: Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia chinensis), Coffee (Coffea arabica),
Currant (Ribes), Pasionfruit (Passiflora), Pepper (Capsicum), Tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentus).
Drupe
A Drupe is a single fleshy fruit with a hard stone which contains the single
seed.
Examples: Cherry (Prunus avium), Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), Plum
(Prunus domestica), Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Olive (Olea europaea),
Peach (Prunus persica).
Aggregation of Drupes
An Aggregation of Drupes is a fleshy fruit, made up of many drupes but
formed from a single flower, each drupe contains one seed.
Examples; Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus).
Pome
These are sometimes called Accessory Fruits. Pome is a fleshy fruit, such
as an apple, pear, or quince, having several seed chambers and an outer
fleshy part largely derived from the hypanthium (floral structure consisting
of the bases of the sepals, petals, and stamens fused together).

Examples: Apple (Malus domestica), Pear (Pyrus communis), Quince
(Cydonia oblonga).
Hesperidium
A Hesperidium is a berry with a tough, aromatic rind.
Examples: Orange (Citrus sinensis), rapefruit (Citrus x paradisi), Lemon
(Citrus limon), Lime (Citrus aurantifolia).
There are other types of fleshy fruit which some scientist classify separately.
1. Hep or Hip is a fleshy fruit containing achenes, as in the Rose (Rosa)
2. Pepo is a fleshy fruit with a leathery skin, formed from an inferior ovary. This type of fruit is
found only in members of the Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae) - Cucumbers (Cucumis melo),
Water Melon (Citrullus lanatus) and Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima).

3. Pseudocarp is a false fruit, because it does not contain the seeds. The seeds are achene, on the
outside of a fleshy fruit. Examples: Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa).
2. Fleshy fruits developed from a group of flowers
There are a few fruits formed from a group of flowers. These are:
1. Sorosis, as in the Mulberry (Morus)
2. Syngonium, as in the Fig (Ficus)
3. Coenocarpium, as in the Pineapple (Ananas).
Types of dry dehiscent fruits
Follicle
A Follicle is a dry dehiscent fruit which splits on one side only. It may
contain one or many seeds.
Examples: Columbine (Aquilegia), Delphinium (Delphinium), Larkspur
(Consolida), Black seeds (Nigella damascena), Milkweed (Asclepias).

Legume
Legume is a dry dehiscent pod that splits from two sides.
Examples: Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus), members of the Pea Family
(Leguminosae/Fabaceae): Acacia (Acacia), Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza
glabra), Pea (Pisum sativa), Peanut (Arachis hypogaea).
Lomentum
Lomentum is a dry dehiscent fruit, a legume constricted between the seeds.
Examples: Golden Chain Tree (Laburnum anagyroides), Sophora
(Sophora).
Siliqua
Siliqua is a dry dehiscent fruit. It is long and thin, splits down the two long
sides and the septum between the two halves.
Examples: Family (Brassicaceae), Cabbage (Brassica olearacea).
A siliqua which is less than twice as long as broad is called a Silicula.
.
Capsule
Capsule is the most common fruit type. A Capsule is a dry fruit which
splits open to release the seeds.
Examples: Cotton (Gossypium), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus).
There are several types of Capsule, depending on how the fruit splits.
a) Valvate Capsule
Valvate Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit in which the tips of the seed
capsule split.
Examples: Jacob's Ladder (Polemonium), Pink (Dianthus), Primrose
(Primula).

b) Porose Capsule
Porose Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, opening with pores or holes around
the top.
Examples: Poppy (Papaver somniferum).
c) Loculicidal Capsule
Loculicidal Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, splitting along the locule
(midrib of each ovary).
Examples: Gladwyn (Iris foetidissima), Evening Primrose (Oenothera
biennis).
d) Circumscissile Capsule
Circumscissile Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, opening by splitting
through the centre of the fruit, so that the top of the capsule lifts off like a
lid. Example is Pimpernel (Anagallis)
E) Septicidal Capsule splits along the septa (joints of the ovary) as in the
Foxglove (Digitalis).
Types of dry indehiscent fruits
Achene
Achene is a single-seeded dry indehiscent fruit in which the seed coat is
not part of the fruit coat.
Examples: Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), Buttercup (Ranunculus),
Coreopsis (Coreopsis), Dahlia (Dahlia), English Marigold (Calendula),
Zinnia (Zinnia).
Cypsela
Cypsela is a single-seeded dry indehiscent fruit that develops from inferior
ovary. They are sometimes included with Achene.
Examples: Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), Family Asteraceae.

Nut
Nut is a large single hardened achene.
Examples: Chestnut (Castanea sativa), Hazel (Corylus avellana), Hickory
(Carya).
Nutlet
Mint Family (Lamiaceae) is a very large plant family, and has a particular
type of seed which is not quite any of the normal ones called as Nutlet
fruits.
The fruits of this family are single-seeded achene-like nutlets, which are
held at the bottom of the calyx.
Examples: Salvia (Salvia). All members of the Mint Family (Lamiaceae)
have this type of fruit.
Caryopsis
Caryopsis is a simple dry indehiscent fruit, like an achene, but with the
seed coat fused with the fruit coat.
Examples: Corn (Zea), all members of the Grass Family (Poaceae), Barley
(Hordeum), Wheat (Triticum).
Samara
Samara is an independent dry indehiscent fruit, in which has wall extended
to form a wing (i.e. not a winged seed inside another type of seed pod).
Examples: Maple (Acer). This is a Schizocarpic Samara, because the fruit
splits into its separate Samaras. Other fruits of this type are: Ash
(Fraxinus) also Schizocarpic, Elm (Ulmus).

Chapter: 8

PLACENTATION
The arrangement of ovules on the placenta inside the ovary is called Placentation. There are
several types of Placentation.
• In flowering plants, placentation occurs where the ovules are attached inside the ovary.
• The ovules inside a flower's ovary are attached via funiculi that are similar to umbilical
cord of animals.
• The part of the ovary where the funiculus attaches is referred to as the placenta.
• In botany, the term placentation most commonly refers to the arrangement of placenta
inside the ovary.
Types Plant Placentation
1. Axile placentation: The ovary is sectioned by radial spokes with placentas in separate
locules, as in compound carpel.
2. Free or central placentation: The placentas are in a central column within a non-
sectioned ovary, as in compound carpel.
3. Parietal placentation: The placentas are in the ovary wall within a non-sectioned ovary,
as in compound carpel.
4. Marginal placentation: There is only one elongated placenta on one side of the ovary.
This is conspicuous in legumes, , as in simple carpel.
5. Basal placentation: The placenta is at the base (bottom) of the ovary, as in simple or
compound carpel.
6. Apical placentation: The placenta is at the apex (top) of the ovary, as in simple or
compound carpel.

Chapter: 9

DESCRIPTION OF FAMILIES
FAMILY: RANUNCULACEAE
Distinguished Characters
Habit Herbs, shrubs or may be trees
Stem Herbaceous, some are woody vines
Leaf Simple or compound, alternate and stipulate
Flower Actinomorphic symmetry, may be superior and inferior
Calyx 5-sepals, gamosepalous (fused)
Corolla 5-Petals, polypetalous (free from each other)
Androecium Many and free
Gynoecium Monocarpellary, polycarpellary, Syncarpous or Apocarpous
Fruit Drupe or Pome
Description
• Ranunculaceae is also called as the Buttercup family.
Distribution
• It consists of about 1800 species in about 50 genera.
• Mainly found in temperate and colder parts of the world.
• Important genera included in this family are, Nigella, Ranunculus etc.
Vegetative characters
Habit
Annual, Biennial herbs. Some members form rhizomes or tubers under unfavorable conditions
Roots
Tuberous or Rhizomatous roots
Stem
The stems are hollow and furrowed
Leaf
Alternate, Exstipulate, Opposite and Compound (more or less divided), Palmately lobed
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Cymose, Racemose
Flower
Ebracteate, Bisexual, Actinomorphic or some time Zygomorphic, Hypogynous
Perianth
Most of cases Perianth is not distinguished into calyx and corolla
In Ranunculus, it is differentiated into calyx and corolla, five sepals and five petals are present
Androecium
Indefinite, Polyandrous (free)
Gynoecium
Polycarpellary, Apocarpous

Fruit
Achene, Capsule
Seed
Endospermic
Pollination
Entomophilous (insect pollination)
Floral Formula
K5, C5, A∞, G∞
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Nigella sativa (Black seeds)
• Ranunculus repens (Buttercup)
• Aconitum heterophyllum (Aconitum)
• Delphinium ajacis (Rocket Larkspur)
• Caltha palustris (Marsh Marigold)
• Clematis alpina (Alpine Clematis)
Economic Importance
• Ornamentals: Aconitum, Ranunculus
• Medicinal uses: Seeds of Nigella are used in medicine
• Source of compounds: Alkaloids, which are a general class of nitrogen-containing
compounds, many of which are derived from amino acids.

FAMILY: BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)
Flower Polypetalous, Hypogynous, Di or tetramerous
Corolla Cruciform (cross like)
Androecium Stamens are tetradynamous (six stamens, two are short and four are long)
Gynoecium Ovary biolocular
Fruit Siliqua
Description
• It includes about 338 genera and 3710 species
• This family is also called Cruciferae due to the presence of cruciform (cross like) corolla.
Distribution
• Brassicaceae family is cosmopolitan (world wide) in distribution.
• Commonly in temperate regions.
• Most of vegetables are included in this family such as Radish, Turnip and Brassica.
Habit
Annual, Biennial, Perennials, Mostly Herbs and Shrubs
Roots
Tap roots, Storage roots such as Fusiform roots (Radish) and Napiform roots (Turnip).
Stem
Herbaceous
Leaf
Simple, Alternate, Exstipulate, Radical and Cauline
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Racemose, Corymb, Corymbose
Flower
Bisexual, Actinomorphic, Complete, Cruciform, Pedicillate, Ebracteate, Hypogynous
Calyx
Four sepals, Polysepalous (Arranged in two whorls)
Corolla
Four petals, Polypetalous, Cruciform
Androecium
Mostly six stamens, Tetradynamous
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, Syncarpous, Superior, Unilocular
Fruit
Siliqua
Seed
Non-edospermic
Pollination

Entomophilous (insect pollination)
Floral formula
K4, C4, A6, G(2)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Brassica compestris (Brassica)
• Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
• Brassica oleraceae var. capitata (Cabbage)
• Brassica rapa (Turnip)
• Brassica juncea (Rai)
• Raphanus sativus (Radish)
Economic Importance
• It is good source of food such as Turnip, Cauliflower, Radish, etc
• Source of fodder as Brassica spp.
• Source of medicine e.g. Eruca sativa
• Ornamentals as Iberis spp.

FAMILY: LEGUMINOSAE (FABACEAE)
The Fabaceae comprises three subfamilies (with distribution and some representative species).
1. Mimosaceae: 80 genera and 3200 species. Mostly in tropical and warm temperate
regions. Mimosa
2. Caesalpiniaceae: 180 genera and 3,000 species, cosmopolitan. Caesalpinia, Bauhinia
3. Papilionaceae: 470 genera and 14,000 species, cosmopolitan. Dalbergia
• Pea flowers
• Nodules on the roots
• Pinnate leaves
• Seeds in pods like peas or beans
Description of subfamily Caesalpiniaceae
• This subfamily has about 180 genera and 3000 Species.
Distribution
• It is distributed in subtropical and tropical regions
• Few members are found in temperate regions.
Habit
Herbs, Shrubs, Trees
Roots
Tap roots and branched
Stem
Erect, Climbing, mostly Woody
Leaf
Exstipulate, alternate, pinnately or bipinnately compound, some time unifoliate
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Racemose, rarely Cymose
Flower
Bisexual, Zygomorphic or Actinomorphic, Complete, Hypogynous and Bracteate
Calyx
5-Sepals, Polysepalous with imbricate or valvate aestivation
Corolla
5-petals, Polypetalous

Androecium
Mostly 10-stamens, Staminodes, some time, 1 or 3 or 5 stamens, Polyandrous
Gynoecium
Monocarpellary, Bicarpellary, Superior
Fruit
Legumes, some time indehiscent
Seeds
Non-endospermic
Pollination
Entomophilous (insect pollinated)
Floral Formula
K5, C5, A10, G1
Floral Diagram

Important genera
• Bauhinia purpurea (kachnar)
• Cassia fistula (Amaltas)
• Caesalpinia bonduc (Bida Nut)
• Tamarindus indica (Tamarind, Imli)
Economic Importance
• Source of food: Kachanr
• Medicinal uses: as Bonduc used in fevers and Tamarind in thrust
• Timber: as Dalbergia sissoo.
• Ornamental: Amaltas, Kachnar

FAMILY: ROSACEAE
Habit Herbs, Shrubs, Trees
Leaf Alternate, Stipulate, Simple or Compound
Flower Actinomorphic, Hypogynous, Epigynous, Perigynous
Calyx 5-Seplas, Gamosepalous
Corolla 5-Petals, Polypetalous
Androecium Indefinite stamens
Gynoecium One to many
Fruit Achenes, Drupe, Pome
Description
• This family includes about 115 genera and 3200 species.
Distribution
• Rosaceae family is cosmopolitan (world wide) in distribution.
• Mostly found in cold and temperate regions.
• Important genera included in this family are Rose, Apple, Strawberry, Pear, Peach, Plum.
Habit
Biennial or Perennials, Mostly Shrubs and small Trees, Vegetative propagation is carried out by
suckers, runners and cutting.
Roots
Stem
Herbaceous, Woody, Sometimes spiny
Leaf
Simple, Alternate, Compound, Pinnate, Petiolate, Stipulate
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Racemose, Corymb, Corymbose
Flower
Bisexual, rarely unisexual, Actinomorphic, Hypogynous, Bracteolate, Epigynous or Perigynous
Calyx
5-sepals, Gymosepalous, Green in color
Corolla
5- petals or multiple of five, Polypetalous
Androecium
Stamens are free, Infinite, arranged in many whorls
Gynoecium
Many, Apocarpous or Syncarpous , Superior or Inferior
Fruit
• Pome (Pome is present in genus Pyrus, developed from syncarpous and inferior ovary)

• Drupe (Drupe is present in genus Prunus, developed from monocarpellary and superior
ovary)
Seed
Exalbuminous
Pollination
• Entomophilous (Insect pollination)
• Anemophilous (wind pollination)
Floral formula
K5C5, α A α G α
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Fragaria ananassa (Strawberry)
• Pyrus malus (Apple)
• Prunus armeniaca (Apricot)
• Prunus domestica (Plum)
• Rosa indica (Rose)
• Rosa damascena (Damascena rose)
• Eriobotrya japonica (Loquat)
• Prunus persica (Peach)
Economic Importance
• It is good source of food such as Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, strawberry.
• Source of oil e.g. Rose
• Source of medicine e.g. Rose
• Source of ornament e.g. Rose

FAMILY: EUPHORBIACEA
Habit Shrubs or Trees
Leaf Alternate, Stipulate
Flower Unisexual, Hypogynous
Perianth 1-2 whorled or completely absent
Androecium Stamens ranges 1 to many
Gynoecium Ovary trilocular
Fruit Regma
Description
• This family has about 283 genera, 7300 species.
Distribution
• It is cosmopolitan in distribution.
• Important members are Euphorbia, caster oil
Vegetative Characters
Habit
Herbs, Shrubs and Trees
Roots
Stem
Herbaceous or Woody, Sometime Phylloclades (flattened branch that perform photosynthesis)
Leaf
Alternate, usually Stipulate
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Racemose, Cymose or complex
Flower
Always Unisexual (male or female), Small, Bracteates, Actinomorphic, Incomplete, Hypogynous
Perianth
1-2 whorled or completely absent
Androecium
Stamen ranges from one to many
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, Syncarpous, Ovary superior
Fruit
Regma, Drupe
Seed
Endospermic
Pollination

Floral Formula
Euphorbia Male:
P0, A1, G0
Euphorbia Female
P0, A0, G(3)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Croton tiglium (Jamalgota)
• Croton aromaticus (Croton)
• Ricinus communis (Castor oil )
• Jatropha hastate (Jatropha)
• Jatropha curcas (Safed arind)
• Euphorbia milii (Thorny Euphorbia)
• Emblica officinalis (Amla)
Economic Importance
• As Food: Emblica officinalis are source of food.
• As Medicines: Coroton tiglium (Jamalgota), Ricinus communis (Castor oil )
• Source of Dyes: Jatropha curcas, Emblica officinalis are source of different dyes.
• Ornamentals: Jatropha spp, Euphorbia spp, Acalypha hispida are ornamental plants

FAMILY: CUCURBITACEAE
Habit Mostly herbs climbing by tendrils
Leaf Cordate or Palmately lobed
Flower Monoecious, Actinomorphic
Calyx 5-sepals
Corolla 5-petals
Androecium 5-Stamens
Gynoecium Ovary inferior, Trilocular
Fruit: Berry
Description
• This family has about 100 genera, 850 species.
Distribution
• Genera of the family are distributed in tropical, subtropical temperate regions
• Most common members are Pumpkins, water melon , melon
Habit
Mostly Annual or Perennial herbs
Roots
Stem
Herbaceous, Glabrous, Hairy
Leaf
Alternate, Reticulate, Petiolate
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Cymose, Rarely Racemose
Flower
Unisexual, Actinomorphic, Epigynous
i. Male Flower
Calyx
5-sepals, Gamosepalous, Petaloid, Campanulate in form/shape
Corolla
5-petals Campanulate or Rotate in shape
Androecium
5- Stamens alternating with petals
ii. Female Flower
Calyx
5-sepals, Gamosepalous

Corolla
5-petals, mostly free
Androecium
Generally absent but in some plants these are in the form of staminodes (rudiments of stamens).
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, Syncarpous, Ovary inferior
Fruit
Succulent berry
Seed
Exalbuminous
Pollination
Entomophilous
Floral Formula
Male Flower
, K(5), C(5),A1+(2)+(2),G0
Female Flower
K(5), C(5),A(0),G(3)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Citrullus vulgaris (Water melon)
• Citrullus colocynthis (Tuma)
• Citrullus vulgaris var. fistulosus (Tinda)
• Cucumis melo (Melon)
• Cucumis sativus (Cucumber)
• Cucurbita pepo (Pumpkin)
• Luffa acutangula (Loofa)
• Momordica charantia (Bitter gourd)
Economic Importance
• As Food: Cucurbita pepo, Luffa acutangula, Momordica charantia, Citrullus vulgaris
var. fistulosus
• As Medicines: Citrullus colocynth (Tuma)
• Ornamental Plants: Coccinia cordifolia, Cocicnia indica

FAMILY: SOLANACEAE
Habit Mostly Herbs or Climbing Vines
Leaf Alternate, Exstipulate, Simple
Flower Bisexual, Hypogynous, Pentamerous
Calyx Gamosepalous (Sepals fused)
Corolla Gamopetalous (Petals fused)
Stamens Mostly Epipetalous
Carpels Bicarpellary, Syncarpous (fused)
Fruit: Capsule or berry
Description
• This family has 85 genera, 2200 species.
Distribution
• Genera of the family are cosmopolitan in distribution
• Mostly distributed in temperate and tropical regions
• Important members are Solanum, Potato, Tomato, tobacco
Habit
Mostly Herbs or Climbing Vines
Roots
Tap or Adventitious roots
Stem
Herbaceous, Erect, Hairy
Leaf
Alternate, Exstipulate, Simple
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Usually Cyme a type of Cymose
Flower
Hermaphrodite, Complete, Pedicillate, Actinomorphic, Hypogynous
Calyx
5-Sepals, Gamosepalous
Corolla
5-Petals, Gamopetalous
Androecium
5-Stamens in two whorls, Epipetalous
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, Syncarpous
Fruit
Capsule, Berry

Seed
Endospermic
Pollination
Entomophilous (Insect pollinated)
Floral Formula
K(5), C(5), A5, G(2)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Solanum tuberosum (Potato)
• Solanum melongena (Brinjal)
• Solanum nigrum (Mako)
• Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)
• Capsicum annum (Red pepper)
• Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco)
• Withania somnifera (Asgandh)
• Datura alba (Datura)
• Petunia alba (Petunia flowers)
• Cestrum nocturnum (Lady of night)
Economic Importance
• As Food: Solanum tuberosum ,Solanum melongena. Lycopersicum esculentum
• As Medicine:
1. Atropa belladona used for making belladona plasters. Atropine is a medicinal extract.
2. Hyoscyamus niger : used as sedative
3. Withania somnifera used as an aphrodisiac.
4. Datura stromanium: used as sedative and intoxicant.
• As Ornamental: Cestum nocturnum night queen or night jasmine, Petunia

FAMILY: LABIATAE (LAMIACEAE)
Habit Herbs, Shrubs
Leaf Opposite, Decussate
Flower Zygomorphic, Hypogynous
Corolla Bilabiate (lips form)
Androecium Epipetalous, Didynamous
Gynoecium Psedosepta are present in ovary, Style originated from base of ovary (Gynobasic)
Fruit Carcerulus (type of capsule that breaks up on maturity into one-seeded segments)
Description
• This family has about 200 genera, 3200 species
Distribution
• It is cosmopolitan in distribution.
• Mostly distributed in temperate and tropical regions of the world.
• Most common members are Mints, rosemary and basil
Habit
Mostly Annual or Perennial herbs
Roots
Stem
Herbaceous, Quadarangular (four sided)
Leaf
Opposite, Decussate, Simple
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Verticillaster (Typical identification of the family)
Flower
Bisexual, Zygomorphic, Complete, Hypogynous
Calyx
5-Sepals, Gamosepalous, Campanulate or Tube like
Corolla
5-Petals, Gamopetlous
Androecium
4-stamens, Epipetalous, Didynamous
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, Syncarpous
Fruit
Carcerulus (consist of 4-one seeded nutless)
Seed
Ex-albuminous

Pollination
Floral Formula
K(5), C(5), A4, G(2)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Mentha sylvestris (Mint)
• Mentha arvensis (Field mint)
• Mentha piperata (Peppermint)
• Mentha longifolia (Wild Mint)
• Ocimum bacilicum (Basil)
• Ocimum sanctum (Holy basil)
• Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary)
• Salvia splendens (Scarlet sage)
• Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender)
• Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary)
• Thymus vulgaris (thyme)
Economic Importance
• As Medicines: Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi), Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary), Thymus
vulgaris are source of medicine.
• Use in Perfume industry: Ocimum bacilicum (Niazboo), Rosmarinus officinalis
(Rosemary) are commonly used in perfume industry.
• Ornamentals: Salvia splendens, Salvia officinalis

FAMILY: UMBELLIFERAE (APIACEAE)
Habit Mostly Herbs
Leaf Alternate
Stem Fistular
Inflorescence Compound umbel
Flower Bisexual, Epigynous, Pentamerous
Calyx 5-Sepal, very tiny
Corolla: 5-Petals and free
Gynoecium Bicarpellary, Syncarpous (fused)
Fruit Cremocarp
Description
• This family is also called as Apiaceae
Distribution
• This family have 200 genera, 2900 species distributed in temperate regions
Habit
Annual, Biennial or Perennial shrubs
Root
Stem
Erect
Leaf
Alternate, Exstipulate
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Umbel (This is the main identifying character of the family)
Flower
Hermaphrodite, Complete, Pedicillate, Actinomorphic, Epigynous
Calyx
5-Sepals, free and very small
Corolla
5-Petals, Separate, often yellow or white
Androecium
5-Stamens, Free
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, Syncarpous, Ovary inferior
Fruit
Cremocarp

Seed
Endospermic
Pollination
Floral Formula
K5, C5, A5, G(2)
Floral Diagram
Important Genera
• Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)
• Daucus carota (Carrot)
• Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel)
• Carum copticum (Ajwain)
• Ferula asafoetida (Hing)
• Apium graveolens (Celery)
• Anethum graveolens (Dil)
Economic Importance
• As Food: Daucus carota, Apium graveolens
• As Medicines: Foeniculum, Anetum (sowa), Hydrocotyle
• As Poison: Conium maculatum (Poison Hemlock) used to kill Socrates and Cicuta
maculata (Water Hemlock) possibly more poisonous than Conium

FAMILY: ASTERACEAE (COMPOSITAE)
Habit Herbs, Shrubs or Trees. Many plants possess milky juice
Leaves Alternate, Opposite, rarely Stipulate.
Inflorescence Capitulum (Typical identification of the family)
Ray & Disc Florets Several whorls of bracts, all flowers ligulate, tubular or both.
Calyx Pappus form or absent.
Androecium 5-Stamens epipetalous
Gynoecium 2-Carpels, inferior
Fruit Cypsella
Distribution
• The family contains about 920 genera and probably 19,000 species.
• It is the largest family of angiosperms.
Distribution
• The members of the family are cosmopolitan, i.e., found everywhere on the surface of
earth in a variety of ecological conditions from the sea coasts to the altitudes.
Habit
Herbs, Shrubs, Rarely Trees and Climbers
Roots
Stem
Herbaceous, sometimes Woody, Hairy and Erect
Leaves
Alternate, Sometimes opposite and rarely whorled, Simple or Compound, Exstipulate, Petiolate,
Sometimes Acicular (needle-like or reduced to scales)' as in some xerophytic species.
Floral Characters
Inflorescence
Racemose, Head or Capitulum
Flower
Flowers of a capitulum are florets, Florets may be Hermaphrodite, Unisexual (monoecious or
dioecious) Pentamerous; Actinomorphic or Zygomorphic; Epigynous.
Two kinds of florets are found:
i. Disc Florets--tubular flowers
ii. Ray Florets-ligulate flowers.
• The florets are arranged in following 3-ways:

1- Ray and disc florets present in a single head may be tubular and actinomorphic, e.g., in
Ageratum
2- Ray and disc florets in the head may be ligulate and zygomorphic, e.g., in Launea,
3- Disc florets may be actinomorphic and tubular while the ray florets may be zygomorphic and
ligulate or Bilabiate
i. Disc Florets: Sessile, Regular, Actinomorphic, Hermaphrodite, Bracteates, Epigynous.
Calyx: Absent, sometimes modified into bristles or hair-like structures called Pappus that helps
in the dispersal of fruits.
Corolla: 5-Petals, Gamopetalous
Androecium: 5-Stamens, Epipetalous
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, Syncarpous, Inferior
ii. Ray Floret: Sessile, Zygomorphic, Irregular, Ligulate
Calyx: Pappus or absent.
Corolla: 5-Petals, Gamopetalous, Bilabiate or Ligulate.
Androecium: Absent.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, Syncarpous, Inferior
Fruit: Cypsella (achenial single seeded fruit)
Seed: Non-endospermic.
Pollination: Anemophilous (wind pollination)

Floral formula
Ray Floret
Kpappus,C(5), A(5), G(2)
Disc Floret
, neuter, Kpappus,C(5), A0, G0
Floral diagram
Important Genera
• Gerbera jamesonii (Gerbera)
• Senecio elegans (Wild Cineraria)
• Artemisia arborescens (Wromwood)
• Helianthus annus (Sunflower)
• Tagetus erectus (Pot marigold)
• Chrysanthemum indicum (Gul-e-Daudi)
• Zinnia elegans (Zinnia)
• Silybum marianum (Milk thistle)
• Stevia rebaudiana (Sweet leaf)
• Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower)
• Cynara cardunculus (Artichoke)
• Lactuca sativa (Lettuce)
• Dahlia pinnata (Dahlia)
Economics Importance
• Oils: Safflower oil, Sunflower oil,
• Food: Artichoke, Lettuce, Sunflower seeds
• Ornamentals: Dahlias, Zinnias
• Medicinal Uses: Anti-malarial (Artemisia), In Hepatitis (Milk Thistle)
• Industrial: Alcoholic beverage flavoring (Artemisia), Insecticides (Pyrethrins), Orange
dye (Tagetes), Sweetener (Stevia rebaudiana).

FAMILY: LILIACEAE
Habit Mostly Herbs, Rarely Shrubs
Stem Underground modified
Leaf Alternate and Radical
Flower Superior, Trimerous (have3-perianth, stamens and carpels)
Perianth 3+3, fused or may be free
Androecium 3+3, Epiphyllous (stamens fused with Perianth)
Gynoecium Tricarpellary (3-carpels), Syncarpous (fused), Trilocular (3-chamberd)
Fruit Capsule or Berry
Description
• It is family of lilies and it includes about 280 genera and 4000 species.
Distribution
• Liliaceae family is cosmopolitan (world wide) in distribution.
• It is represented by an important genera Asphodelus spp.
• Other members are Garlic, Onion, Lilly and Tulips.
Habit
Annual, Biennial or Perennials, Mostly Herbs and Shrubs. Xerophytic plants are also included
e.g. Aloe vera
Roots
Mostly Adventitious and Fibrous roots
Stem
Herbaceous or woody, some species have underground bulbs and rhizome.
Leaf
Radical, Cauline, Alternate, Opposite, Sessile, Exstipulate. Leaf venation is parallel but in Smilax
leaf venation is reticulate.
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Recemose, Flowers are terminal and solitary
Flower
Pedicillated, Bracteate, Bisexual, Complete, Actinomorphic or may be Zygomorphic
Perianth
Perianth is present in two whorls, Sepals are green and Gamosepalous, Petals are colored
Androecium
6-Stamens are present into many whorls, Epiphyllous
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, Syncarpous, Ovary trilocular, Superior
Fruit
Berry, Capsule
Seed
Endospermic

Pollination
Entomorphilous (insect pollination)
Floral formula
P2, A6, G(3)
Floral diagram
Important Genera
• Allium cepa (Onion)
• Allium sativum (Garlic)
• Asparagus officinalis (Asparagus)
• Asphodelus fistulosa (Asphodelus)
• Tulipa sylvestris (Tulip)
• Lilium pumilum (Lilium)
Economic Importance
• It is good source of food such as onion and garlic
• Good source of ornament and cut flower such as rose, tulips, asparagus, lilium etc.
• Source of medicine e.g. asparagus.

FAMILY: GRAMINEAE (POACEAE)
Habit Mostly Herbs
Stem Cylindrical and Hollow
Leaf Have sheath and simple
Flower Superior, Zygomorphic
Perianth Mostly absent
Gynoecium Monocarpellary
Fruit Cryopsis
Description
This family consists of 500 genera and 4650 species. This family is known by two names:
Graminae and Poaceae
Distribution
• Poaceae family is cosmopolitan (world wide) in distribution.
• It is the family of grasses, that’s why it is also called as grass family.
• Important genera included in this family are wheat, maize, rice, sugarcane, grasses, pearl
millet, sorghum and bamboo.
Habit
Annual, Biennial or Perennials. Herbs, Shrubs and few Woody species
The largest member of the family is bamboo which is about 100 feet in length.
Roots
Mostly Adventitious, Fibrous roots. In some members there is stilt root e.g. in maize
Stem
Jointed, Erect, Creeping, Fistular (hollow) as in bamboo, hard and solid as in maize
Having prominent nodes and internodes
Tubers and rhizomes are also found in this family
The aerial stem is usually known as culm as in grasses
Leaf
Simple, Alternate, Sessile. Leaf base having sheath present round the stem.
Stipule present at the junction of leaf and leaf sheath called ligule.
Floral characters
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is complex and having several spikelets which form a spike.
Spikelets arranged on rachis.
A spikelet consists of following parts: Stamens , Lodicules, Lema, Palea, Glume-I, Glume-II

Each Spikelet may bear one to many florets attached to a central stalk called as Rachis. There is
a pair of sterile Glumes at the base of the spikelet. Above glumes, lemma and palea are present
that act as bracts. Inner to these bracts, lodicules are present.
Flower
Sessile (without pedicle), Bracteates (have bracts), Unisexual (have only stamens or ovary)
Bisexual (have both stamens and ovary), Zygomorphic (can be divided into two equal parts
only by ONE plane), Hypogynous (have superior ovary)
Perianth
Absent, In some members, two or three membrane like structures called as lodicules are present
that is regarded as perianth.
Androecium
Usually 3-Stamens are present, Sometimes six stamens are present as in rice.
Gynoecium
Monocarpellary (have one carpel), Syncarpous (having three carpels but only one is functional)
Syn means united, Superior, Stigma is feather like
Fruit
Berry, Nut, Cryopsis
Seed
Endospermic
Pollination
Anemophilous (wind pollination)
General Floral formula
ӨP0A3G1

Floral diagram
Important Genera
• Zea mays (Maize)
• Oryza sativa (Rice)
• Triticum aestivum (Wheat)
• Pennisetum glaucum (Pearl millet)
• Cynodon dactylon (Grass)
• Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)
• Bambusa bambos (Bamboo)
• Andropogon sorghum (Sorghum)
• Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon grass)
• Hordeum vulgare (Barley)
Economic Importance
• Members of this family such as wheat, maize, rice and sugarcane are good source of
food.
• Source of sugar e.g. sugarcane
• Source of oil and medicine.
• Oil is obtained from lemon grass and it is a good source of herbal tea that is used for
stomach.
• Used in bakery and is a good source of energy.
• Alcohol and biodiesel is obtained from sugarcane.

plant systematics and morphological characters of leaves,roots,stem,flower,infloresenceand fruit

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