Acromegaly is a chronic disease caused by excessive growth hormone production, usually from a pituitary tumor, leading to enlarged hands, feet, and lower face. Gigantism is similar but occurs in childhood, resulting in excessive growth and height over 7 feet. Panhypopituitarism is decreased secretion of pituitary hormones, causing dwarfism in children and Simmond's disease in adults, characterized by multiple hormone deficiencies.
The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). Their synthesis requires iodine and occurs through four steps: uptake of iodine, activation of iodine, iodination of tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, and coupling of iodotyrosines. The hormones are stored, secreted into blood when stimulated by TSH, and transported bound to carrier proteins. They are degraded through deiodination and excretion in the bile and urine. T3 and T4 increase metabolic rate and oxygen consumption, promote protein synthesis, and regulate glucose and lipid metabolism.
The document discusses the mode of action and regulation of thyroid hormones. It states that thyroid hormones act by entering cell nuclei and binding with thyroid receptors, initiating gene transcription and protein synthesis. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the pituitary gland is the major regulator of thyroid hormone production and release. TSH levels are controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus through a negative feedback loop with thyroid hormones. A number of other factors also influence thyroid secretion.
This document provides an overview of thyroid hormone physiology. It discusses the anatomy and iodine uptake of the thyroid gland. The biosynthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones T4 and T3 is described, including their transport through the bloodstream. The document outlines the activation and degradation of thyroid hormones in target tissues via deiodinase enzymes. It discusses the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in increasing metabolism and temperature. The control and regulation of thyroid hormones by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis is summarized. Finally, the document briefly discusses thyroid disease states like hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, as well as thyroid function tests and antithyroid medications.
PHYSIOLOGY
OF
THYROID
HORMONES
Understand the significance of the conversion of tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) and reverse T3 (rT3) in extrathyroidal tissues.
Understand how thyroid hormones produce their cellular effects.
Describe the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in the body.
Outline the mechanisms for regulation of thyroid hormone.
Correlate knowledge to hypo- and hypersecretion of thyroid hormones
The document summarizes thyroid hormone function and regulation. It discusses the microscopic appearance and cellular mechanisms of the thyroid gland, as well as how thyroid secretion is regulated by TSH and neurogenic stimuli like cold. It notes that TSH increases thyroid functions such as iodide pumping, tyrosine iodination, thyroglobulin proteolysis, and thyroid cell size and number. The document concludes with multiple choice questions about thyroid hormone biosynthesis, the effects of TSH, and thyroid hormone receptor binding.
prepared by medical practitioner Dr.HARI BASKAR ,from Coimbatore,India, is well versed in physiology and general medical sciences is a most common reference author in this subject.This presentation focuses on the metabolic actions of thyroid hormone-THYROXIN.
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
Acromegaly is a chronic disease caused by excessive growth hormone production, usually from a pituitary tumor, leading to enlarged hands, feet, and lower face. Gigantism is similar but occurs in childhood, resulting in excessive growth and height over 7 feet. Panhypopituitarism is decreased secretion of pituitary hormones, causing dwarfism in children and Simmond's disease in adults, characterized by multiple hormone deficiencies.
The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). Their synthesis requires iodine and occurs through four steps: uptake of iodine, activation of iodine, iodination of tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, and coupling of iodotyrosines. The hormones are stored, secreted into blood when stimulated by TSH, and transported bound to carrier proteins. They are degraded through deiodination and excretion in the bile and urine. T3 and T4 increase metabolic rate and oxygen consumption, promote protein synthesis, and regulate glucose and lipid metabolism.
The document discusses the mode of action and regulation of thyroid hormones. It states that thyroid hormones act by entering cell nuclei and binding with thyroid receptors, initiating gene transcription and protein synthesis. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the pituitary gland is the major regulator of thyroid hormone production and release. TSH levels are controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus through a negative feedback loop with thyroid hormones. A number of other factors also influence thyroid secretion.
This document provides an overview of thyroid hormone physiology. It discusses the anatomy and iodine uptake of the thyroid gland. The biosynthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones T4 and T3 is described, including their transport through the bloodstream. The document outlines the activation and degradation of thyroid hormones in target tissues via deiodinase enzymes. It discusses the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in increasing metabolism and temperature. The control and regulation of thyroid hormones by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis is summarized. Finally, the document briefly discusses thyroid disease states like hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, as well as thyroid function tests and antithyroid medications.
PHYSIOLOGY
OF
THYROID
HORMONES
Understand the significance of the conversion of tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) and reverse T3 (rT3) in extrathyroidal tissues.
Understand how thyroid hormones produce their cellular effects.
Describe the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in the body.
Outline the mechanisms for regulation of thyroid hormone.
Correlate knowledge to hypo- and hypersecretion of thyroid hormones
The document summarizes thyroid hormone function and regulation. It discusses the microscopic appearance and cellular mechanisms of the thyroid gland, as well as how thyroid secretion is regulated by TSH and neurogenic stimuli like cold. It notes that TSH increases thyroid functions such as iodide pumping, tyrosine iodination, thyroglobulin proteolysis, and thyroid cell size and number. The document concludes with multiple choice questions about thyroid hormone biosynthesis, the effects of TSH, and thyroid hormone receptor binding.
prepared by medical practitioner Dr.HARI BASKAR ,from Coimbatore,India, is well versed in physiology and general medical sciences is a most common reference author in this subject.This presentation focuses on the metabolic actions of thyroid hormone-THYROXIN.
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and its prohormone, thyroxine (T4), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. Iodine is necessary for the production of T3 and T4. A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T3 and T4, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), which has a longer half-life than T3.The ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is roughly 20 to 1. T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by deiodinases (5'-iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T1a) and thyronamine (T0a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production.
This document discusses thyroid disorders and the functions of thyroid hormones. It covers the synthesis of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland and their binding in the bloodstream. The major actions of thyroid hormones are on metabolism, growth, tissue differentiation, and multiple body systems. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Common thyroid disorders discussed include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, myxedema, Grave's disease, exophthalmic goiter, and cretinism.
This slideshow gives you a information about hormone thyroid and its clinical activity and molecular mechanism. And also hormone abnormalities and drugs used to treat them .
hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism is discussed along with drugs used to overcome those condition.
The document summarizes the physiology of the thyroid gland. It discusses the anatomy of the thyroid gland, the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones, and the regulation of thyroid hormone secretion. It describes the major actions of thyroid hormones on metabolism, body systems, and growth. It also discusses diseases associated with underactivity and overactivity of the thyroid gland, such as hypothyroidism (underactivity) and hyperthyroidism (overactivity).
The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. It takes up iodine to produce thyroglobulin, which is the precursor for the active hormones T3 and T4. Production of thyroid hormones is regulated by TSH from the pituitary, which is itself regulated by TRH from the hypothalamus in a negative feedback loop. Both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can result from problems in this regulatory system and cause a variety of symptoms and health effects.
This document discusses thyroid hormones, including their synthesis, storage, secretion, transport, degradation, and metabolic effects. Thyroid hormones include thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are synthesized from tyrosine in the thyroid gland through a process involving iodine uptake, oxidation, iodination, and coupling reactions. They are stored bound to thyroglobulin and secreted into the bloodstream upon stimulation by TSH. In the blood, they are transported bound to carrier proteins and act upon target tissues after becoming unbound. Their degradation involves deiodination and conjugation in the liver prior to excretion. Their metabolic effects include increasing oxygen consumption and protein synthesis while promoting glucose
The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. It is located in the neck and consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus. Follicles in the thyroid produce thyroglobulin, which is iodinated to form the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). T4 makes up most thyroid hormone production and is converted to the more active T3 in tissues. Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin, which regulates calcium levels.
Hormones are chemical messengers that coordinate communication between cells and tissues to maintain homeostasis. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and reproductive glands. Hormones can act through either a fixed membrane receptor mechanism where they bind cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers, or a steroid receptor mechanism where they enter cells and bind intracellular receptors to influence gene expression. The thyroid gland produces the hormones T3 and T4 which increase metabolism, growth, and mental processes. Thyroid hormone synthesis is a complex process involving iodine transport, thyroglobulin production, iodination, and hormone
The thyroid gland secretes the major hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland. T4 and T3 are bound to plasma proteins and transported throughout the body, where a small unbound fraction exerts biological effects. The thyroid hormones regulate growth, development, metabolism, and other physiological processes. Thyroid function is tested by measuring T3, T4, TSH, and other markers. Disorders like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can be treated with thyroid hormone supplements or inhibitors.
This document discusses the thyroid gland and thyroid disorders. It covers:
- Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) causes like Graves' disease, symptoms like weight loss and exophthalmos, and treatments like antithyroid drugs and surgery.
- Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) causes like Hashimoto's thyroiditis, symptoms like weight gain and myxedema in adults or cretinism in children, and treatment with thyroid hormone replacement.
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid) which can occur in both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, depending on if hormone levels are increased or decreased.
The document discusses several hormones that regulate the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, including prolactin, gonadotropins, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. It describes their structures, functions in controlling target organs, pathological conditions associated with abnormal levels, and clinical uses and side effects of related drugs.
This document summarizes the key aspects of thyroid hormone production and regulation. It describes how the thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) from iodine and the amino acid tyrosine. It also explains how thyroid hormone production and secretion is regulated through a negative feedback loop involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid itself. Specifically, it details how thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary stimulates the thyroid in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus, and how high thyroid hormone levels inhibit this process.
T3 and T4 are iodine-containing thyroid hormones. T4 is the major circulating hormone secreted by the thyroid, while T3 is more potent but only about 1/3 of T4 is converted to T3 in tissues. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion by stimulating thyroid follicular cells. TSH increases iodine uptake and thyroid hormone production and release.
This document discusses thyroid hormone and factors that affect thyroid function. It provides information on:
1. Thyroid disorders are common worldwide, especially hypothyroidism which contributes significantly to disease burden.
2. Many extra-thyroidal factors can influence thyroid function tests results, including age, gender, ethnicity, smoking, nutrition, medication and illness.
3. Interpreting thyroid function tests requires considering the pattern of TSH, free T4, antibodies and clinical factors. Subclinical hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism are important to identify.
This document provides an overview of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormones. It discusses the functional anatomy and gross anatomy of the thyroid, as well as the histological structure. It explains the biosynthesis and storage of thyroid hormones, their secretion, transport, and metabolism. It covers the regulation of thyroid hormone secretion and applied aspects like hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Key points covered include the roles and actions of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4, iodine metabolism in the thyroid, and thyroid function tests.
The document discusses thyroid metabolic hormones and their functions. It covers:
- Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland under control of TSH.
- Physiologic functions of thyroid hormones which increase metabolic rate by activating genes in cells.
- Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion by TSH and TRH from the hypothalamus and pituitary, and by negative feedback from thyroid hormones.
- Diseases of the thyroid including hyperthyroidism which causes excessive thyroid hormone secretion and hypothyroidism which causes inadequate secretion.
Antithyroid drugs work by inhibiting thyroid hormone synthesis or release. The major drugs used are carbimazole and propylthiouracil, which inhibit hormone synthesis. Carbimazole is more potent and given once daily, while propylthiouracil is dosed three times daily. Iodide salts rapidly inhibit hormone release and synthesis. Radioactive iodine is concentrated in the thyroid where it destroys follicular cells. Beta-blockers alleviate symptoms of overactivity and reduce peripheral hormone conversion. These drugs control hyperthyroidism from Graves' disease and toxic nodular goiter.
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: T3, T4, and calcitonin. T3 and T4 regulate metabolism, while calcitonin regulates calcium levels. The thyroid is located in the neck below the Adam's apple. T3 and T4 are synthesized from tyrosine and stored bound to thyroglobulin. They are regulated by TSH from the pituitary and feedback to decrease TSH secretion. The main actions of thyroid hormones are to increase growth, metabolism, and heart rate. Hypothyroidism is treated with thyroxine replacement therapy.
The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are regulated by thyroid stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland. T4 is converted to the active hormone T3 in tissues. Thyroid hormones increase metabolism by stimulating oxygen consumption in cells. Hypothyroidism causes a decrease in metabolic rate and symptoms like weight gain, dry skin, and slowed thinking.
The document summarizes the thyroid gland and its hormone production. It discusses:
- The thyroid gland's location in the neck and its lobes/isthmus.
- The three hormones it produces: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.
- The process of hormone biosynthesis, including iodine trapping, oxidation, thyroglobulin synthesis, iodination of tyrosine, and coupling reactions to form T3 and T4.
- Storage of hormones in thyroglobulin vesicles and their release into blood circulation.
The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and its prohormone, thyroxine (T4), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. Iodine is necessary for the production of T3 and T4. A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T3 and T4, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), which has a longer half-life than T3.The ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is roughly 20 to 1. T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by deiodinases (5'-iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T1a) and thyronamine (T0a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production.
This document discusses thyroid disorders and the functions of thyroid hormones. It covers the synthesis of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland and their binding in the bloodstream. The major actions of thyroid hormones are on metabolism, growth, tissue differentiation, and multiple body systems. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Common thyroid disorders discussed include hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, myxedema, Grave's disease, exophthalmic goiter, and cretinism.
This slideshow gives you a information about hormone thyroid and its clinical activity and molecular mechanism. And also hormone abnormalities and drugs used to treat them .
hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism is discussed along with drugs used to overcome those condition.
The document summarizes the physiology of the thyroid gland. It discusses the anatomy of the thyroid gland, the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones, and the regulation of thyroid hormone secretion. It describes the major actions of thyroid hormones on metabolism, body systems, and growth. It also discusses diseases associated with underactivity and overactivity of the thyroid gland, such as hypothyroidism (underactivity) and hyperthyroidism (overactivity).
The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. It takes up iodine to produce thyroglobulin, which is the precursor for the active hormones T3 and T4. Production of thyroid hormones is regulated by TSH from the pituitary, which is itself regulated by TRH from the hypothalamus in a negative feedback loop. Both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can result from problems in this regulatory system and cause a variety of symptoms and health effects.
This document discusses thyroid hormones, including their synthesis, storage, secretion, transport, degradation, and metabolic effects. Thyroid hormones include thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are synthesized from tyrosine in the thyroid gland through a process involving iodine uptake, oxidation, iodination, and coupling reactions. They are stored bound to thyroglobulin and secreted into the bloodstream upon stimulation by TSH. In the blood, they are transported bound to carrier proteins and act upon target tissues after becoming unbound. Their degradation involves deiodination and conjugation in the liver prior to excretion. Their metabolic effects include increasing oxygen consumption and protein synthesis while promoting glucose
The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. It is located in the neck and consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus. Follicles in the thyroid produce thyroglobulin, which is iodinated to form the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). T4 makes up most thyroid hormone production and is converted to the more active T3 in tissues. Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin, which regulates calcium levels.
Hormones are chemical messengers that coordinate communication between cells and tissues to maintain homeostasis. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and reproductive glands. Hormones can act through either a fixed membrane receptor mechanism where they bind cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers, or a steroid receptor mechanism where they enter cells and bind intracellular receptors to influence gene expression. The thyroid gland produces the hormones T3 and T4 which increase metabolism, growth, and mental processes. Thyroid hormone synthesis is a complex process involving iodine transport, thyroglobulin production, iodination, and hormone
The thyroid gland secretes the major hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland. T4 and T3 are bound to plasma proteins and transported throughout the body, where a small unbound fraction exerts biological effects. The thyroid hormones regulate growth, development, metabolism, and other physiological processes. Thyroid function is tested by measuring T3, T4, TSH, and other markers. Disorders like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can be treated with thyroid hormone supplements or inhibitors.
This document discusses the thyroid gland and thyroid disorders. It covers:
- Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) causes like Graves' disease, symptoms like weight loss and exophthalmos, and treatments like antithyroid drugs and surgery.
- Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) causes like Hashimoto's thyroiditis, symptoms like weight gain and myxedema in adults or cretinism in children, and treatment with thyroid hormone replacement.
- Goiter (enlarged thyroid) which can occur in both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, depending on if hormone levels are increased or decreased.
The document discusses several hormones that regulate the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, including prolactin, gonadotropins, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. It describes their structures, functions in controlling target organs, pathological conditions associated with abnormal levels, and clinical uses and side effects of related drugs.
This document summarizes the key aspects of thyroid hormone production and regulation. It describes how the thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) from iodine and the amino acid tyrosine. It also explains how thyroid hormone production and secretion is regulated through a negative feedback loop involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid itself. Specifically, it details how thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary stimulates the thyroid in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus, and how high thyroid hormone levels inhibit this process.
T3 and T4 are iodine-containing thyroid hormones. T4 is the major circulating hormone secreted by the thyroid, while T3 is more potent but only about 1/3 of T4 is converted to T3 in tissues. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion by stimulating thyroid follicular cells. TSH increases iodine uptake and thyroid hormone production and release.
This document discusses thyroid hormone and factors that affect thyroid function. It provides information on:
1. Thyroid disorders are common worldwide, especially hypothyroidism which contributes significantly to disease burden.
2. Many extra-thyroidal factors can influence thyroid function tests results, including age, gender, ethnicity, smoking, nutrition, medication and illness.
3. Interpreting thyroid function tests requires considering the pattern of TSH, free T4, antibodies and clinical factors. Subclinical hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism are important to identify.
This document provides an overview of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormones. It discusses the functional anatomy and gross anatomy of the thyroid, as well as the histological structure. It explains the biosynthesis and storage of thyroid hormones, their secretion, transport, and metabolism. It covers the regulation of thyroid hormone secretion and applied aspects like hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Key points covered include the roles and actions of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4, iodine metabolism in the thyroid, and thyroid function tests.
The document discusses thyroid metabolic hormones and their functions. It covers:
- Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland under control of TSH.
- Physiologic functions of thyroid hormones which increase metabolic rate by activating genes in cells.
- Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion by TSH and TRH from the hypothalamus and pituitary, and by negative feedback from thyroid hormones.
- Diseases of the thyroid including hyperthyroidism which causes excessive thyroid hormone secretion and hypothyroidism which causes inadequate secretion.
Antithyroid drugs work by inhibiting thyroid hormone synthesis or release. The major drugs used are carbimazole and propylthiouracil, which inhibit hormone synthesis. Carbimazole is more potent and given once daily, while propylthiouracil is dosed three times daily. Iodide salts rapidly inhibit hormone release and synthesis. Radioactive iodine is concentrated in the thyroid where it destroys follicular cells. Beta-blockers alleviate symptoms of overactivity and reduce peripheral hormone conversion. These drugs control hyperthyroidism from Graves' disease and toxic nodular goiter.
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: T3, T4, and calcitonin. T3 and T4 regulate metabolism, while calcitonin regulates calcium levels. The thyroid is located in the neck below the Adam's apple. T3 and T4 are synthesized from tyrosine and stored bound to thyroglobulin. They are regulated by TSH from the pituitary and feedback to decrease TSH secretion. The main actions of thyroid hormones are to increase growth, metabolism, and heart rate. Hypothyroidism is treated with thyroxine replacement therapy.
The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are regulated by thyroid stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland. T4 is converted to the active hormone T3 in tissues. Thyroid hormones increase metabolism by stimulating oxygen consumption in cells. Hypothyroidism causes a decrease in metabolic rate and symptoms like weight gain, dry skin, and slowed thinking.
The document summarizes the thyroid gland and its hormone production. It discusses:
- The thyroid gland's location in the neck and its lobes/isthmus.
- The three hormones it produces: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.
- The process of hormone biosynthesis, including iodine trapping, oxidation, thyroglobulin synthesis, iodination of tyrosine, and coupling reactions to form T3 and T4.
- Storage of hormones in thyroglobulin vesicles and their release into blood circulation.
1. The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4 hormones which regulate metabolism. Hypothyroidism is treated with levothyroxine replacement while hyperthyroidism is treated with antithyroid drugs like methimazole or propylthiouracil.
2. Methimazole and propylthiouracil work by inhibiting thyroid peroxidase and iodination of tyrosine, blocking thyroid hormone production. Propylthiouracil also blocks conversion of T4 to T3.
3. Treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy uses propylthiouracil in the first trimester and methimazole in the second and third trimesters due to safety.
The thyroid gland secretes three main hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin. T4 and T3 are synthesized through a process involving trapping of iodine by the thyroid, oxidation and organification of iodide, thyroglobulin synthesis, and iodination and coupling reactions to form the hormones. The hormones are stored in the thyroid bound to thyroglobulin and released into the bloodstream when needed to regulate processes throughout the body like metabolism, growth, and brain development. Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by thyroid stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland in a negative feedback loop.
Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 are produced by the thyroid gland and regulate metabolism. T4 is converted to the more active T3 in tissues. Their production requires iodine and is regulated by TSH from the pituitary which is inhibited by thyroid hormone feedback. Thyroid hormones act through nuclear receptors to increase gene transcription and metabolism. Deficiency causes hypothyroidism while excess causes hyperthyroidism, and both can impact growth, development and multiple body systems.
Molecular and Cellular Mechanism of Action of Thyroid_Anas_Saifi.pptxashharnomani
This document provides an overview of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. It discusses the chemistry, biosynthesis, transport, receptors, regulation of secretion, and mechanisms of action of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. It also describes their various effects in the body as well as clinical applications such as replacement therapy and anti-thyroid drugs that interfere with thyroid hormone synthesis.
A power point presentation on thyroid hormones and thyroid inhibitors on subject of pharmacology suitable for reading by undergraduate medical students.
The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which are formed through a process involving iodine trapping, oxidation, tyrosine iodination, and hormone coupling/release from thyroglobulin stored in thyroid follicles. Thyroid hormones increase metabolism, growth, and metabolic processes. Their secretion is regulated through thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) feedback from the pituitary gland. Abnormalities include hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. The endocrine pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon from beta and alpha cells respectively within pancreatic islets. Insulin regulates glucose metabolism and storage through genomic and non-genomic actions.
This document provides information about the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands, including their anatomy, functions, and diseases. Regarding the thyroid gland, it discusses how it produces thyroid hormones T4 and T3, which are essential for growth and metabolism. It also describes the evaluation and treatment of thyroid diseases like hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Concerning the parathyroid glands, it notes their role in calcium homeostasis through PTH secretion and outlines hypoparathyroidism and hyperparathyroidism as disorders of the parathyroid glands.
The document discusses the structure and function of the thyroid gland. It describes the gland's lobes and isthmus, as well as the follicles that contain colloid and thyroid hormones like T3 and T4. The process of thyroid hormone production, secretion, and regulation by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis is explained in detail. The actions of thyroid hormones on metabolism, growth, and various organ systems are also outlined.
This document discusses various hormones and related drugs. It covers pituitary hormones, thyroid hormones, pancreatic hormones, corticosteroids, androgens, estrogens, and prostins. For each category, it describes the hormones, their functions, disorders related to abnormal levels, and drugs that alter their secretion or effects. Key drugs mentioned include thyroid hormones, insulin, antithyroid drugs, and corticosteroids. The document provides references for further information on each topic.
This is a content made by the students of Pharmacy dept of Comilla University about the Endocrine system, In this you can easily find the glands in out body and their functions. and specific organs which secrete specific hormones for our body. figures are added to make it more convenient. thank you all.
Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and are essential for growth, development, and maintaining body temperature and energy levels. Levothyroxine and liothyronine are used to treat hypothyroidism by replacing deficient hormones, while thioamides, iodides, radioactive iodine, and beta blockers are used to treat hyperthyroidism by inhibiting hormone synthesis or action. Specifically, thioamides inhibit thyroid peroxidase and deiodination of hormones, while iodides suppress hormone synthesis and release; radioactive iodine damages the thyroid through beta particle emission; and beta blockers alleviate hyperthyroidism symptoms.
Thyroid function tests help to determine if your thyroid is not working correctly. If blood levels of thyroid hormone are high, the brain senses this and sends a message to stop producing TSH.
a brief on thyroid gland covering following titles:
Introduction
Anatomy and physiology of thyroid gland
Synthesis of thyroid hormones
Regulation
Mechanism of action
Biological function
Introduction:
@ Thyroid releases T3 & T4
@ The ratio of T4 to T3 is 5:1, so most of the hormone released is
thyroxine
@ Most of the T3 in the blood is derived from thyroxine
@ T3 is three to four times more potent than T4
@ The affinity of the receptor site for T3 is about ten times higher than that for T4
The document discusses thyroid gland disorders and hypothyroidism. It provides details on the causes, effects on organ systems, and types of hypothyroidism. The main causes of hypothyroidism are autoimmune thyroiditis, which results in the gradual destruction of the thyroid gland, and surgical or medical thyroid ablation for conditions like Graves' disease. Hypothyroidism can affect many organ systems by reducing the basal metabolic rate and impairing other metabolic processes. It discusses the different types of hypothyroidism, including congenital hypothyroidism and central hypothyroidism.
Congestive Heart failure is caused by low cardiac output and high sympathetic discharge. Diuretics reduce preload, ACE inhibitors lower afterload, beta blockers reduce sympathetic activity, and digitalis has inotropic effects. Newer medications target vasodilation and myosin activation to improve heart efficiency while lowering energy requirements. Combination therapy, following an assessment of cardiac function and volume status, is the most effective strategy to heart failure care.
Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERα, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
Causes:
Tumor Evolution:
Genetic and epigenetic changes during tumor progression can lead to alterations in receptor status.
Treatment Effects:
Therapies, especially endocrine and targeted therapies, can selectively pressure tumor cells, causing shifts in receptor expression.
Heterogeneity:
Inherent heterogeneity within the tumor can result in subpopulations of cells with different receptor statuses.
Impact on Treatment:
Therapeutic Resistance:
Loss of ERα or PgR can lead to resistance to endocrine therapies.
HER2 discordance affects the efficacy of HER2-targeted treatments.
Treatment Adjustment:
Regular reassessment of receptor status may be necessary to adjust treatment strategies appropriately.
Clinical Implications:
Prognosis:
Receptor discordance is often associated with a poorer prognosis.
Biopsies:
Obtaining biopsies from metastatic sites is crucial for accurate receptor status assessment and effective treatment planning.
Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of receptor status throughout the disease course can guide personalized therapy adjustments.
Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
Selective alpha1 blockers are Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin and Silodosin majorly used to treat BPH, also hypertension, PTSD, Raynaud's phenomenon, CHF
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
Allopurinol, a uric acid synthesis inhibitor acts by inhibiting Xanthine oxidase competitively as well as non- competitively, Whereas Oxypurinol is a non-competitive inhibitor of xanthine oxidase.
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
Visit Us: https://drdeepikashomeopathy.com/service/irregular-periods-treatment/
This presentation gives information on the pharmacology of Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes and Leukotrienes i.e. Eicosanoids. Eicosanoids are signaling molecules derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid. They are involved in complex control over inflammation, immunity, and the central nervous system. Eicosanoids are synthesized through the enzymatic oxidation of fatty acids by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes. They have short half-lives and act locally through autocrine and paracrine signaling.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/RvdYsTzgQq8
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/ECILGWtgZko
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Fexofenadine is sold under the brand name Allegra.
It is a selective peripheral H1 blocker. It is classified as a second-generation antihistamine because it is less able to pass the blood–brain barrier and causes lesser sedation, as compared to first-generation antihistamines.
It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Fexofenadine has been manufactured in generic form since 2011.
CLASSIFICATION OF H1 ANTIHISTAMINICS-
FIRST GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-
1)HIGHLY SEDATIVE-DIPHENHYDRAMINE,DIMENHYDRINATE,PROMETHAZINE,HYDROXYZINE 2)MODERATELY SEDATIVE- PHENARIMINE,CYPROHEPTADINE, MECLIZINE,CINNARIZINE
3)MILD SEDATIVE-CHLORPHENIRAMINE,DEXCHLORPHENIRAMINE
TRIPROLIDINE,CLEMASTINE
SECOND GENERATION ANTIHISTAMINICS-FEXOFENADINE,
LORATADINE,DESLORATADINE,CETIRIZINE,LEVOCETIRIZINE,
AZELASTINE,MIZOLASTINE,EBASTINE,RUPATADINE. Mechanism of action of 2nd generation antihistaminics-
These drugs competitively antagonize actions of
histamine at the H1 receptors.
Pharmacological actions-
Antagonism of histamine-The H1 antagonists effectively block histamine induced bronchoconstriction, contraction of intestinal and other smooth muscle and triple response especially wheal, flare and itch. Constriction of larger blood vessel by histamine is also antagonized.
2) Antiallergic actions-Many manifestations of immediate hypersensitivity (type I reactions)are suppressed. Urticaria, itching and angioedema are well controlled.3) CNS action-The older antihistamines produce variable degree of CNS depression.But in case of 2nd gen antihistaminics there is less CNS depressant property as these cross BBB to significantly lesser extent.
4) Anticholinergic action- many H1 blockers
in addition antagonize muscarinic actions of ACh. BUT IN 2ND gen histaminics there is Higher H1 selectivitiy : no anticholinergic side effects
3. Layout:
➔ Formation of thyroid hormones
➔ Peripheral conversion
➔ Hormonal transport
➔ Actions of thyroid hormones
➔ Regulation of hormonal levels
3
4. Biosynthesis of Thyroid Hormones:
➔ T3 and T4 :
Produced from thyrocytes
➔ Calcitonin:
Produced from parafollicular cells that are of
neuroendocrine origin
Reduces blood calcium and PO4 levels by:
•Inhibition of osteoclastic activity
•Decreasing renal reabsorption of Ca and PO4
Tumor marker for recurrence of medullary carcinoma of thyroid
4
5. T3 And T4:
1. Iodine Trapping
2. Thyroglobulin Synthesis
3. Oxidation
4. Organification
5. Coupling
6. Proteolysis
5
6. 6
Both by active transport
(Na-I symporter)
And diffusion (specialized
channels like pendrin)
12. T3 And T4:
➔ T3 is derived from two processes:
● 20% directly secreted by thyroid gland
● 80% from T4 in peripheral tissues (especially
liver)
➔ 15-30 micrograms is secreted per day
➔ Main hormone for metabolic regulation
➔ 5 times more potent
➔ Quick acting (within few hours)
➔ Shorter DOA and half life (1 day)
➔ Lesser plasma protein binding
➔ Used to treat myxedema coma
➔ Clinical Dosing:
➔ Divided doses
➔ Suppressive dose: 4-60 µg
➔ T4 is the primary product of thyroid
gland, which is the only source of T4
➔ 70-90 micrograms is secreted per day
➔ Has to be converted to T3
➔ Less potent
➔ Slow acting (4-14 days)
➔ Longer DOA and half life (7 days)
➔ More plasma protein binding
➔ Used to treat myxedema coma and
regular treatment of myxedema
➔ Clinical Dosing:
➔ Once daily
➔ Replacement dose: 150 µg
➔ Suppressive dose: 200 µg 12
13. Peripheral Conversion:
Deiodination by the enzyme 5’ Deiodinase
Type I:
Present in liver and kidney
Generates most plasma T3 in hyperthyroid state
Type II:
In pituitary, brain and brown fat
Generates most plasma T3 in euthyroid state
Type III:
Converts T4 to rT3, which is biologically inactive 13
14. Hormonal Transport:
Bound Form:
More than 99% of circulating hormones
are bound to plasma carrier proteins
Thyroxine binding globulin (75%)
Transthyretin/thyroxine binding
prealbumin (10-15%)
Albumin (7%)
HDL (3%)
Free Form:
0.03% T4, 0.3% T3
Only free hormone has metabolic activity
and physiologic effects
Total hormone concentration is normally
kept appropriate to maintain a constant
free hormone level
14
15. Actions Of Thyroid
Hormones:
➔ Transported inside the cells via
simple and facilitated diffusion
➔ Action via intranuclear receptors, by
modulating the gene expression
➔ Overall effect: Changes in BMR
15
16. Actions (Cont.):
● BMR is increased in most areas of the body as indicated by increased O2
consumption and glucose uptake
● BMR is decreased in brain especially in pituitary
● OTHER EFFECTS:
● Brain: enhance brain development, affects mood and activity
● PNS: catecholamine effect
● Intestine: normal development of small intestines
● Skin: enhanced collagen breakdown, changes on keratin expression
● Retina, spleen and testes are not at all affected by these hormones
16
18. Hormone Secretion:
Classic negative feedback loop: Intrinsic Thyroid Autoregulatory Process:
➔ Iodine:
Decreases the response of thyroid to
TSH
Acute inhibition of its own oxidation
(Wolff-Chaikoff Effect)
After a delay, it reduces its trapping
(Adaptation to Wolf-Chaikoff Effect)
At high concentration, inhibits thyroid
hormone secretion
Decrease in hypervascularity and
hyperplasia
18
Effects of TSH:
• Iodine binding to
thyroglobulin
• Coupling of MIT and DIT
• Activation of exocytosis
• Transfer of proteins into
follicles
• Secretion of T3 and T4
• Major factor in growth of
thyroid
19. Regulation At Transport Level:
Hormone Binding proteins are the principal factors influencing the
total hormone concentration
Changes in TBG levels may alter the total hormone concentration,
irrespective of free hormone level and thus metabolic status
TBG estimation is a more accurate indicator of thyroid hormone
dependant metabolic state
19
20. Drugs that increase TBG:
Oral contraceptives
Tamoxifen
Clofibrate
Drugs that decrease TBG:
Glucocorticoids,Androgens
Salicylates
Phenytoin
Furosemide
Conditions that increase TBG:
Pregnancy
Chronic active hepatitis, Biliary cirrhosis
HIV infection
Acute intermittent porphyria
Conditions that decrease TBG:
Genetic factors
Acute and chronic illness
20