Anatomical & physiological changes in pregnancy & their clinical implications...alka mukherjee
• Women undergo several changes during pregnancy, including cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal, and respiratory changes that provide adequate nutrition and gas exchange for the developing fetus.
• Progesterone and estrogen levels rise continually through pregnancy, together with blood sugar, breathing rate, and cardiac output.
• The body’s posture changes during pregnancy to accommodate the growing fetus and the mother will experience weight gain.
• Breasts grow and change in preparation for lactation once the infant is born. Once lactation begins, the woman’s breasts swell significantly and can feel achy, lumpy, and
heavy (engorgement). This is relieved by nursing the infant.
• Plasma and blood volume increase over the course of the pregnancy and lead to changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Women may also have a higher risk of blood clots, especially in the weeks following labor.
• During pregnancy, both protein metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are affected. One kilogram of extra protein is deposited, with half going to the fetus and placenta, and another half going to uterine contractile proteins, breast glandular tissue, plasma protein, and hemoglobin.
• Circulatory Changes
• Plasma and blood volume slowly increase by 40–50% over the course of the pregnancy (due to increased aldosterone) to accommodate the changes, resulting in an increase in heart rate (15 beats/min more than usual), stroke volume, and cardiac output. Cardiac output increases by about 50%, primarily during the first trimester.
• The systemic vascular resistance also drops due to the smooth muscle relaxation and overall vasodilation caused by elevated progesterone, leading to a fall in blood pressure. Diastolic blood pressure consequently decreases between 12–26 weeks, and increases again to pre-pregnancy levels by 36 weeks.
• Edema (swelling) of the feet is common during pregnancy, partly because the enlarging uterus compresses veins and lymphatic drainage from the legs.
• The platelet count tends to fall progressively during normal pregnancy, although it usually remains within normal limits. In a proportion of women (5–10%), the count will reach levels of 100–150 × 109 cells/l by term and this occurs in the absence of any pathological process. In practice, therefore, a woman is not considered to be thrombocytopenic in pregnancy until the platelet count is less than 100 × 109 cells/l.
• Pregnancy causes a two- to three-fold increase in the requirement for iron, not only for haemoglobin synthesis but also for for the foetus and the production of certain enzymes. There is a 10- to 20-fold increase in folate requirements and a two-fold increase in the requirement for vitamin B12.
Changes in the coagulation system during pregnancy produce a physiological hypercoagulable state (in preparation for haemostasis following delivery).
obstetric and gyneacology; Changes in pregnancy, cardiovascular changes, respiratory changes, endocrine changes, gastrointestinal changes, related organ changes in pregnancy. hormonal changes during pregnancy.
Detailed account of the various changes that occur in maternal anatomy, physiology, and metabolism of pregnant women. These physiological changes are often very precise, and deviations of physiological responses can be a prelude to possible disease/infectious states. In this second part of Labor, we will examine the various systems of the human body,its altered states during pregnancy, and how those changes affect the woman preparing for delivery. Special care is imperative in properly determining the needs of an expecting mother, so developing an intimate, trusting relationship between the mother and fully understanding her physiological output will lead to the best chances of a successful delivery.
Anatomical & physiological changes in pregnancy & their clinical implications...alka mukherjee
• Women undergo several changes during pregnancy, including cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal, and respiratory changes that provide adequate nutrition and gas exchange for the developing fetus.
• Progesterone and estrogen levels rise continually through pregnancy, together with blood sugar, breathing rate, and cardiac output.
• The body’s posture changes during pregnancy to accommodate the growing fetus and the mother will experience weight gain.
• Breasts grow and change in preparation for lactation once the infant is born. Once lactation begins, the woman’s breasts swell significantly and can feel achy, lumpy, and
heavy (engorgement). This is relieved by nursing the infant.
• Plasma and blood volume increase over the course of the pregnancy and lead to changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Women may also have a higher risk of blood clots, especially in the weeks following labor.
• During pregnancy, both protein metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are affected. One kilogram of extra protein is deposited, with half going to the fetus and placenta, and another half going to uterine contractile proteins, breast glandular tissue, plasma protein, and hemoglobin.
• Circulatory Changes
• Plasma and blood volume slowly increase by 40–50% over the course of the pregnancy (due to increased aldosterone) to accommodate the changes, resulting in an increase in heart rate (15 beats/min more than usual), stroke volume, and cardiac output. Cardiac output increases by about 50%, primarily during the first trimester.
• The systemic vascular resistance also drops due to the smooth muscle relaxation and overall vasodilation caused by elevated progesterone, leading to a fall in blood pressure. Diastolic blood pressure consequently decreases between 12–26 weeks, and increases again to pre-pregnancy levels by 36 weeks.
• Edema (swelling) of the feet is common during pregnancy, partly because the enlarging uterus compresses veins and lymphatic drainage from the legs.
• The platelet count tends to fall progressively during normal pregnancy, although it usually remains within normal limits. In a proportion of women (5–10%), the count will reach levels of 100–150 × 109 cells/l by term and this occurs in the absence of any pathological process. In practice, therefore, a woman is not considered to be thrombocytopenic in pregnancy until the platelet count is less than 100 × 109 cells/l.
• Pregnancy causes a two- to three-fold increase in the requirement for iron, not only for haemoglobin synthesis but also for for the foetus and the production of certain enzymes. There is a 10- to 20-fold increase in folate requirements and a two-fold increase in the requirement for vitamin B12.
Changes in the coagulation system during pregnancy produce a physiological hypercoagulable state (in preparation for haemostasis following delivery).
obstetric and gyneacology; Changes in pregnancy, cardiovascular changes, respiratory changes, endocrine changes, gastrointestinal changes, related organ changes in pregnancy. hormonal changes during pregnancy.
Detailed account of the various changes that occur in maternal anatomy, physiology, and metabolism of pregnant women. These physiological changes are often very precise, and deviations of physiological responses can be a prelude to possible disease/infectious states. In this second part of Labor, we will examine the various systems of the human body,its altered states during pregnancy, and how those changes affect the woman preparing for delivery. Special care is imperative in properly determining the needs of an expecting mother, so developing an intimate, trusting relationship between the mother and fully understanding her physiological output will lead to the best chances of a successful delivery.
Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy are the adaptations during pregnancy that a woman's body undergoes to accommodate the growing embryo or fetus. ... The pregnant woman and the placenta also produce many other hormones that have a broad range of effects during the pregnancy.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
2. Learning Objectives
• To decribes the process of implantation.
• To enumerate hormones related to pregnancy
and its function.
• To explain physiological changes during
pregnancy.
3. Scenario
• Laura, a 34-year-old woman now in pregnancy. Laura come for
prenatal care visit to a physician.
• Laura's prepregnancy weight was 79kg and today her weight is 91kg
• At the beginning of her pregnancies Laura experienced
considerable nausea and occasional vomiting as well as
overwhelming fatigue. Today Laura complains of the onset of
several pregnancy discomforts. These include heartburn,
intermittent diarrhea and constipation, fatigue, and edema in her
ankles.
• Laura's hematocrit today is 31%.
4. Early Stages of Development from
Fertilization to Implantation
6. Placenta
• Deliver nutrient and o2 to
fetus and remove co2 and
waste from fetus.
• Secrete placental hormone.
7. Hormones of Pregnancy
• hCG can be detected in urine as early as the first month of pregnancy- about
2 weeks after first missed menstrual period.
Secreted by
blastocyst and
placenta
Fall due to placenta
start to secrete
estrogen &
progesterone that
inhibit hCG
8. Placental hormones
Hormone Function
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) Maintain the corpus luteum of pregnancy
Estrogen Stimulate growth of myometrium
Promotes development of mammary gland ducts
Promote synthesis of connexons within uterine
smooth muscle
Increase the concentration of myometrial receptors
for oxytocin
Progesterone Suppress myometrium contraction
Formation of thick mucus plug in the cervical canal
Stimulate development of milk glands
Human chorionic somatomammotropin Reduces maternal use of glucose and promotes
breakdown of stored fat
Help prepare mammary gland for lactation.
Relaxin Soften cervix in preparation for cervical dilation at
parturition
Loosen the connective tissue between pelvic bones
for parturition
Placental PTHrp (parathyroid hormone related peptide) Increased maternal plasma calcium level
If necessary, promotes localized dissolution of
maternal bones
10. Reproductive System
• Uterus increases from
50 grams to 1100 grams
– estrogen.
• Breast approximately
double in size- estrogen.
• Vagina enlarges and the
introitus open more
widely.
11. Metabolism during pregnancy
• Basal metabolic rate increases about 15%
during latter half of pregnancy.
• Causes include – increase secretion of
thyroxine, adrenocorticol and sex hormones
12. Nutrition
Normal maternal storage depot and placenta stores
nutrients in early gestation and releases them in the last
trimester due to fetal high demand.
Demand especially high for protein, iron, calcium, and
phosphates
Appetite may be strongly stimulated
13. Weight gain during pregnant
• Average gain 11.3-15.8 Kilogram, most occur
during last two trimester.
Fetus 3.6 kg
Amniotic fluid, placenta, fetal
membranes
1.8 kg
Uterus 1.4 kg
Breast 0.9 kg
Extra fluid in blood and ECF 2.3 kg
Fat accumulation 1.4-5.9 kg
14. Digestive system changes
Morning sickness – nausea especially arising from bed in
the first few months of gestation
• Morning sickness usually appears shortly after implantation coincides with the
peak of hCG.
• hCG may trigger this symptom by acting on the chemoreceptor trigger zone next
to the vomiting center.
Constipation and heartburn
• Reduced intestinal motility
• Pressure on stomach causing reflux of gastric contents into
the esophagus
15. Hematological changes
• Increase maternal blood volume. 30% above normal before term.
• Physiological anemia - increase in plasma volume is greater than
increase in RBC mass.
• Causes -increased in aldosterone
Non pregnant
female
1st trimester 2nd trimester 3rd trimester
Hematocrit 35 – 44% 31 – 41% 30 – 39% 28 – 40%
Hemoglobin 12 -15.8 g/dL 11.6 - 13.9 g/dL 9.7 - 14.8 g/dL 9.5 -15 g/dL
16. Cardiovascular changes
• Mother’s cardiac output is 30%-40% above normal by the 27th
week of pregnancy.
• Cause – increase in blood flow through placenta.
• Cardiac output then falls to only a little above normal during 8
weeks of pregnancy.
• Pregnant uterus puts pressure on large pelvic blood vessels
that interferes with venous return from the legs-hemorrhoids,
varicose veins, and edema of the feet
17. Respiratory changes
1. Maternal respiration increases during pregnancy.
- Causes – increased basal metabolic rate.
-Commensurate amount of carbon dioxide formed
which cause minute ventilation to increase by 40-
50%.
2. Diaphragmatic elevation in late pregnancy
-respiratory rate is increased to maintain the extra
ventilation.
18. Renal and urinary system changes
• Rate of urine excretion increases.
• Special alteration-
1. Renal tubules reabsorptive capacity for
sodium, chloride and water is increased by
50% due to increase aldosterone
2. Renal blood flow & GFR increase up to 50%
due to renal vasodilatation. So only 5
pound od extra water and salt
accumulated.
• Pregnant uterus compresses the bladder and
reduces its capacity-frequent urination and
urinary incontinence
19. Integumentary system
Skin grows to accommodate
expansion of the abdomen and
breasts
Added fat deposition in hips and
thighs
Striae or stretch marks can result
from tearing the stretched
connective tissue
Melanocyte activity increases in
some areas
• darkening of the areolae and
linea alba (linea nigra)
Temporary blotchy darkening of the
skin over the nose and cheeks
• ‘mask of pregnancy’ or chloasma