The document summarizes key aspects of Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic perspective and Carl Jung's analytical psychology approach. Freud believed that unconscious drives and desires from childhood shape adult personality and behavior. He proposed psychosexual stages of development and the structures of id, ego and superego. Jung agreed with Freud on the importance of the unconscious but emphasized universal archetypes from a collective unconscious and a broader life energy beyond just sexuality. Both theorists viewed dreams and symbols as revealing the unconscious.

1. Ch-3: Psychodynamic Perspective

2. Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician in the early
1900s whose ideas about unconscious
determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect
on 20th-century thinking, not just in psychology but
in related fields as well.
Behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts
about which we have little awareness or control.
They view dreams and slips of the tongue as
indications of what a person is truly feeling inside
the unconscious psychic activity.
Although some original Freudian principles have
been roundly criticized, the contemporary
psychodynamic perspective provides a means not
only to understand and treat some kinds of
psychological disorders but also to understand
everyday phenomena such as prejudice and
aggression.

3. The mind as an energy system
• Freud’s theory of personality is fundamentally a theory of mind—a
scientific model of the overall architecture of mental structures and
processes.
• In formulating a model of mind, Freud explicitly “[considers] mental
life from a biological point of view”. He recognizes the mind as part
of the body, asks what the body is like, and derives principles of
mental functioning from overall principles of physiological
functioning. According to Freud, the body is a mechanistic energy
system. It follows, then, that the mind, being part of the body, also
is a mechanistic energy system. The mind gets mental energies from
the overall physical energies of the body.

4. Instincts: the driving forces of personality
• Instincts are the basic elements of personality, the motivating forces
that drive behavior and determine its direction.
• Instincts are a form of energy—transformed physiological energy—
that connects the needs of the body with the wishes of the mind. The
stimuli for instincts—hunger and thirst, for example—are internal.
•
• Freud’s theory has a homeostatic approach, meaning that we are
motivated to restore and maintain a condition of physiological
equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of tension.
• Instincts are always influencing our behavior, in a cycle of need
leading to reduction of need. People may take different paths to satisfy
their needs. (e.g., the sex drive may be satisfied by heterosexual or
homosexual behavior, or the sex drive may be channeled into a totally
different form of activity).

5. Instincts: the driving forces of personality
• Freud believed that psychic energy could be displaced to substitute
objects, and this displacement was of primary importance in
determining an individual’s personality. Although the instincts are the
exclusive source of energy for human behavior, the resulting energy
can be invested in a variety of activities.
• This helps explain the diversity we see in human behavior. All the
interests, preferences, and attitudes we display as adults were
believed by Freud to be displacements of energy from the original
objects that satisfied the instinctual needs.

6. Two Types of Instincts
Instincts are grouped into two categories: life instincts and death instincts.
• The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic
energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached
to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called Cathexis.
• All living things decay and die, returning to their original inanimate state,
and he believed that people have an unconscious wish to die. One
component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, which he saw as
the wish to die turned against objects other than the self. The aggressive
drive compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill. Freud came to consider
aggression as compelling a part of human nature as sex.

7. Levels of Personality
Divided personality into three levels: the conscious, the preconscious, and the
unconscious.
• The conscious, includes all the sensations and experiences of which we are
aware at any given moment. Freud considered the conscious to be a limited
aspect of personality because only a small portion of our thoughts,
sensations, and memories exists in conscious awareness.
• The unconscious, that larger, invisible portion below the surface. This is the
focus of psychoanalytic theory. Its vast, dark depths are the home of the
instincts, those wishes and desires that direct our behavior. The unconscious
contains the major driving power behind all behaviors and is the repository of
forces we cannot see or control.
• Between these two levels is the preconscious. This is the storehouse of all
our memories, perceptions, and thoughts of which we are not consciously
aware at the moment but that we can easily summon into consciousness. We
often find our attention shifting back and forth from experiences of the
moment to events and memories in the preconscious.

8. The Structure of Personality
• Id: instinctual in nature―the source of psychic energy―operates according to
the pleasure principle. The only ways the id can attempt to satisfy its needs
are through reflex action and wish-fulfilling hallucinatory or fantasy
experience (child-like), which Freud labeled primary-process thought.
• Ego: rational aspect of the personality, responsible for directing and
controlling the instincts according to the reality principle. As a growing child is
taught to deal intelligently and rationally with other people and the outside
world and to develop the powers of perception, recognition, judgment, and
memory—the powers adults use to satisfy their needs. Freud called these
abilities secondary-process thought.
• Super Ego: the moral aspect of personality, the internalization of parental
and societal values and standards. Conscience is a component of the
superego that contains behaviors for which the child has been punished.
Ego-ideal is a component of the superego that contains the moral or ideal
behaviors for which a person should strive.
The ego is caught in the middle, pressured by these insistent and opposing
forces. Thus, the ego has a third master, the superego. To paraphrase Freud,
the poor ego has a hard time of it, pressured on three sides, threatened by
three dangers: the id, reality, and the superego. The inevitable result of this
friction, when the ego is too severely strained, is the development of anxiety.

9. The Levels & Structure of Personality

10. Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego
Freud made anxiety an important part of his personality theory, asserting it as
fundamental to the development of all neurotic and psychotic behavior. He
suggested that the prototype of all anxiety is the birth trauma.
• Reality anxiety: a fear of tangible dangers.
• Neurotic anxiety (involves a conflict between id and ego): has its basis in
childhood, in a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. Children
are often punished for overtly expressing sexual or aggressive impulses.
Therefore, the wish to gratify certain id impulses generates anxiety.
• Moral anxiety (involves a conflict between id and superego): When you are
motivated to express an instinctual impulse that is contrary to your moral
code, your superego retaliates by causing you to feel shame or guilt. Moral
anxiety is a function of how well developed the superego is. E.g., children are
punished for violating their parents’ moral codes, and adults are punished for
violating society’s moral code. The shame and guilt feelings in moral anxiety
arise from within; it is our conscience that causes the fear and the anxiety.

11. Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego
Anxiety induces tension in the organism and thus becomes a drive (much like
hunger or thirst) that the individual is motivated to satisfy. The tension must be
reduced.
Anxiety alerts the individual that the ego is being threatened and the ego
protect or defend itself.
There are a number of options: running away from the threatening situation,
inhibiting the impulsive need that is the source of the danger, or obeying the
dictates of the conscience. If none of these rational techniques works, the
person may resort to defense mechanisms—the non-rational strategies
designed to defend the ego.

12. Defenses against Anxiety
Defense mechanisms involve denials or distortions of reality and they all
operate unconsciously.

13. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
Freud argued that a person’s unique character type develops in childhood,
largely from parent–child interactions. Freud emphasized the importance of
childhood experiences that he said the adult personality was firmly shaped by
the age of 5.

14. The Importance of Childhood
Freud stressed the vital importance of the early childhood years in determining
the adult personality. According to Freud, the first 5 years are the crucial ones.
His personality theory pays less attention to later childhood and adolescence,
and he was little concerned with personality development in adulthood. To
Freud, what we are as adults—how we behave, think, and feel—is determined
by the conflicts to which we are exposed to in childhood.

15. Theory of Psychoanalysis
• Pessimistic view of self: anxiety or frustration of at least some of our
driving impulses, we experience continuing tension and conflict. We are
endlessly defending ourselves against the forces of the id, which stand ever
alert to topple us.
• Nature–Nurture Issue: Freud adopted a middle ground.
• Deterministic view: Everything we do, think, and even dream is
predetermined by the life and death instincts or childhood experiences, the
inaccessible and invisible forces within us.
Freud also argued, however, that people who undergo psychoanalysis could
achieve the ability to exercise increased free will and take responsibility for
their choices. “The more the individual is able to make conscious what had
been unconscious, the more he or she can take charge of his or her own life.”

16. Assessment in Freud’s Theory
Freud considered the unconscious to be the major motivating force in life. It
is the repository of all of our childhood conflicts which have been repressed
out of conscious awareness. The goal of Freud’s system of psychoanalysis was
to bring those repressed memories, fears, and thoughts back into conscious
awareness.
1. Free association: A technique in which the patient says whatever comes
to mind. In other words, it is a kind of daydreaming out loud.
Catharsis: The expression of emotions that is expected to lead to the
reduction of disturbing symptoms.
Resistance: In free association, a blockage or refusal to disclose
painful memories.
2. Dream Analysis: Freud believed that dreams represent, in symbolic form,
repressed desires, fears, and conflicts. So strongly have these feelings been
repressed that they can surface only in disguised fashion during sleep.
Manifest content of dreams
Latent content of dreams

17. Criticisms of Freud’s Research
Discussion

18. Extensions of Freudian Theory
Ego Psychology: Anna Freud
Freud had worked only with adults, attempting to reconstruct their childhoods
by eliciting their recollections and analyzing their fantasies and dreams, Anna
worked only with children.
Anna Freud substantially revised orthodox psychoanalysis by greatly
expanding the role of the ego, arguing that the ego operates independently of
the id. This was a major extension of the Freudian system that involved a
fundamental and radical change. She proposed those refinements in The Ego
and the Mechanisms of Defense, published in 1936 (while her father was still
alive), in which she clarified the operation of the defense mechanisms.
The standard defense mechanisms were developed and articulated by Anna
Freud. This is only one of her significant contributions to psychoanalytic theory.

19. The Neo-psychoanalytic Approach
The neo-psychoanalytic theorists
Carl Jung
Alfred Adler
Karen Horney
Erik Erikson
differ from
one another on a number of issues but they were equally opposed to Freud’s
emphasis on instincts as the primary motivators of human behavior, as well as
his deterministic view of personality. These neo-psychoanalytic theorists
presented more optimistic and flattering images of human nature than Freud
did.

20. Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

21. Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
Difference with Freudian Psychoanalysis:
• broadened Freud’s definition of libido by redefining it as a more generalized
psychic energy that included sex but was not restricted to it.
• the direction of the forces that influence personality: Jung argued that we are
shaped by our future as well as our past. We are affected not only by what
happened to us as children, but also by what we aspire to do in the future.
• greater emphasis on unconscious than Freud. added an entirely new
dimension: the inherited experiences of all human and even prehuman
species.
• Freud had recognized the influence of inherited primal experiences, Jung
made it the core of his system of personality. He brought together ideas from
history, mythology, anthropology, and religion to form his own image of human
nature.

22. Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
Libido: a broad, undifferentiated life energy.
Jung viewed the libido as a generalized life energy.
Although sexuality is a part of this basic energy, the libido also includes other
strivings for pleasure and creativity.

23. Aspects of Personality
The total personality, or psyche, is composed of several distinct systems or
aspects that can influence one another.
The Ego
The Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion
The Personal Unconscious
The Collective Unconscious
Archetypes

24. The Ego (the conscious aspect of personality)
the center of consciousness, the part of the psyche concerned with perceiving,
thinking, feeling, and remembering. It is our awareness of ourselves and is
responsible for carrying out all the normal everyday activities of life.
The Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion
Much of our conscious perception of our environment, and how we react to it, is
determined by the opposing mental attitudes of extraversion and introversion.
Jung believed that psychic energy could be channeled externally, toward the
outside world, or internally, toward the self.
Extraverts (open, sociable, and socially assertive, oriented toward other people
and the external world).
Introverts (withdrawn and often shy, and tend to focus on themselves, on their
own thoughts and feelings).
According to Jung, all of us have the capacity for both attitudes, but only one
becomes dominant in our personality. The dominant attitude then tends to
direct our behavior and consciousness.

25. The Personal Unconscious
similar to Freud’s concept of the preconscious. It is a reservoir of material that
was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed because it was
unimportant or disturbing. There is considerable two-way traffic back and forth
between the ego and the personal unconscious (For example, your attention
might wander away from this page to a memory of something you did
yesterday).
Little mental effort is required to take something out, examine it for a while, and
then put it back, where it will remain until the next time we want it or are
reminded of it.

26. The Collective Unconscious
• The deepest and least accessible level of the psyche, the collective
unconscious, is the most unusual and controversial aspect of Jung’s system.
• Jung believed that just as each of us accumulates and files all of our personal
experiences in the personal unconscious, so does humankind collectively, as
a species, store the experiences of all our human and pre-human ancestors
in the collective unconscious.
• This heritage is passed to each new generation.
• He believed that whatever experiences are universal—are repeated by each
generation—become part of our personality. Our primitive past thus becomes
the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing our present
behavior.
• We do not inherit these collective experiences directly. Rather, we inherit the
potential to it. We are predisposed to behave and feel the same ways people
have always behaved and felt (e.g., fears). Whether the predisposition
becomes reality depends on the specific experiences we encounter in life.
• certain basic experiences have characterized every generation throughout
human history (e.g., mother figure, birth, death, fear of the dark, worshipping
a supreme power, or fear of an evil being). The universality of these
experiences over countless evolving generations leaves an imprint on each of
us at birth and determines how we perceive and react to our world.

27. Archetypes
• Images of universal experiences contained in the collective unconscious.
• By being repeated in the lives of succeeding generations, archetypes have
become imprinted in our psyches and are expressed in our dreams and
fantasies.
• Among the archetypes Jung proposed are the hero, the mother, the child,
God, death, power, and the wise old man.
• A few of these are developed more fully than others and influence the psyche
more consistently. These major archetypes include the persona, the anima
and animus, the shadow, and the self.

28. Archetypes
• Persona Archetype The public face or role a person presents to others.
• The Anima and Animus archetypes refer to Jung’s recognition that humans
are essentially bisexual. On the biological level, each sex secretes the
hormones of the other sex as well as those of its own sex. On the
psychological level, each sex manifests characteristics, temperaments, and
attitudes of the other sex by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche
of the woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the
psyche of the man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype).

29. Archetypes
• Shadow Archetype The dark side of the personality; the archetype that
contains primitive animal instincts.
• Behaviors that society considers evil and immoral reside in the shadow, and
this dark side of human nature must be tamed if people are to live in
harmony. We must at all times restrain, overcome, and defend against these
primitive impulses. If not, society will very likely punish us. But that presents
us with a dilemma because not only is the shadow the source of evil, it is also
the source of vitality, spontaneity, creativity, and emotion. Therefore, if the
shadow is totally suppressed, the psyche will be dull and lifeless. It’s the job
of the ego to repress the animal instincts enough so that we are considered
civilized while allowing sufficient expression of the instincts to provide
creativity and vigor.

30. Archetypes
• The Self Archetype represents the unity, integration, and harmony of the total
personality. To Jung, the striving toward that wholeness is the ultimate goal of
life.
• This archetype involves bringing together and balancing all parts of the
personality. In the self archetype, the opposites of conscious and
unconscious processes must become assimilated so that the self, which is
the center of the personality, shifts from the ego to a point of equilibrium
midway between the opposing forces of the conscious and the unconscious.
As a result, material from the unconscious comes to have a greater influence
on the personality.
• The full realization of the self lies in the future. It is a goal—something to
always strive for but which is rarely achieved. The self serves as a motivating
force.
• The self cannot begin to emerge until all the other systems of the psyche
have developed. This occurs around middle age, a crucial period of transition
in Jung’s system.

31. The Development of the Personality
Jung believed that personality is determined by what we hope to be as well as
by what we have been in the past and by what happened to us then. Jung
believed we develop and grow regardless of age and are always moving
toward a more complete level of self-realization.

32. The Development of the Personality
Jung’s image of human nature was more optimistic and less deterministic
than Freud’s view. Jung believed that part of personality is innate and part is
learned. The ultimate life goal is individuation (the realization of one’s
capabilities). Childhood experiences are important, but personality is more
affected by midlife experiences and hopes for the future. Personality is
unique in the first half of life but not in the second. Transcendence
(perfection) involves the unification of the personality.

33. Application of Jung’s Analytical Theory
Word Association: Time & physiological reactions to determine the
emotional effects of the stimulus words, to see the presence of a complex.
 Symptom Analysis: free association similar to Freud’s cathartic
method.
Dream Analysis: Jung was concerned with more than the causes of
dreams, and he believed that dreams were more than unconscious wishes.
First, dreams are prospective; that is, they help us prepare for experiences
and events we anticipate will occur. Second, dreams are compensatory;
they help bring about a balance between opposites in the psyche by
compensating for the overdevelopment of any one psychic structure.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): An assessment test based
on Jung’s psychological types and the attitudes of introversion and
extraversion

34. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

35. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
Differences with Freudian Psychoanalysis
• focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of
biological motives and goals ascribed by Sigmund Freud.
• In Adler’s view, each of us is primarily a social being. Our personalities are
shaped by our unique social environments and interactions rather than
biological needs.
• minimized the role of sex.
• To Adler, the conscious, not the unconscious, was at the core of personality.
Rather than being driven by forces we cannot see and control, we are actively
involved in creating our unique selves and directing our own futures.

36. Aspects of Personality
The Inferiority Complex
The Superiority Complex
Fictional Finalism
The Style of life
Social Interest
Birth Order

37. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
Inferiority Feelings: The source of all human striving Adler believed that
inferiority feelings are a constant motivating force in all behavior. Because this
condition is common to all of us, then, it is not a sign of weakness or
abnormality.
Compensation: A motivation to overcome inferiority, to strive for higher levels of
development. Throughout our lives, we are driven by the need to overcome
this sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of
development

38. The Inferiority Complex
An inability to overcome inferiority feelings intensifies them, leading to the
development of an inferiority complex. People with an inferiority complex have
a poor opinion of themselves and feel helpless and unable to cope with the
demands of life.
Causes of Inferiority Complexes
An inferiority complex can arise from three sources in childhood:
1. Organic inferiority: defective parts or organs of the body shape
personality through the person’s efforts to compensate for the defect or
weakness.
2. Spoiling: Spoiling/pampering a child can also bring about an inferiority
complex.
3. Neglect: neglected, unwanted, and rejected children can develop an
inferiority complex. Their infancy and childhood are characterized by a lack
of love and security because their parents are indifferent or hostile.

39. The Superiority Complex
Whatever the source of the complex, a person may attempt to overcompensate
and so develop a superiority complex. This involves an exaggerated opinion of
one’s abilities and accomplishments. Such persons may feel inwardly self-
satisfied and superior and show no need to demonstrate their superiority with
actual accomplishments. Or the person may feel such a need and work hard to
become extremely successful.
Striving for Superiority
This innate goal, the drive toward wholeness or perfection, is oriented toward
the future. Adler saw human motivation in terms of expectations and
aspirations for the future.

40. Fictional Finalism
• We strive for ideals that exist in us subjectively. Adler believed that our
goals are fictional or imagined ideals that cannot be tested against reality.
We live our lives around ideals such as the belief that all people are created
equal or that all people are basically good (e.g., becoming a physician to
overcome death).
• Fictional ideas guide our behavior as we strive toward a complete or whole
state of being. We direct the course of our lives by many such fictions, but
the most pervasive one is the ideal of perfection.
• to Adler, human beings perpetually strive for the fictional, ideal goal of
perfection operates at two levels. First, it increases rather than reduces
tension as striving for perfection requires great expenditures of energy and
effort. Secondly, we try to achieve the perfection of our culture. Because,
individuals and society are interrelated and interdependent, people must
function constructively with others for the good of all.

41. The Style of Life
• The ultimate goal for each of us is superiority or perfection, but we try to
attain that goal in many different ways. Each of us expresses the striving
differently. We develop a unique pattern of characteristics, behaviors, and
habits, which Adler called a distinctive character, or style of life.
• The style of life is learned from social interactions and is so firmly crystallized
by the age of 4 or 5 that it is difficult to change thereafter. Basic styles of life
include the dominant, getting, avoiding, and socially useful types.
• Adler believed that we create our selves, our personality, our character and
we have the ability to create an appropriate style of life.
• Our innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve personal
and societal goals, makes our social interest (role of parent-child
interaction and life experiences).

42. Birth Order
Birth order is a major social influence in childhood, one from which we
create our style of life. Even though siblings have the same parents and live
in the same house, they do not have identical social environments. Being
older or younger than one’s siblings and being exposed to differing parental
attitudes create different childhood conditions that help determine different
kinds of personalities.
• First Born
• Middle born
• Last Born
• Only Child

43. Birth Order

44. Application of Adler’s Individual Psychology
Adler’s influence within psychology has influenced the work of
many other personality theorists.
Specific Adlerian concepts of lasting importance to psychology
include the early work on organic inferiority, which has
influenced the study of psychosomatic disorders; the inferiority
complex; compensation; and order of birth.
Adler is also considered a forerunner of social psychology and
group therapy.