This document provides a review of literature related to food security and insecurity. It discusses several studies that have examined issues like chronic and transient food insecurity, the evolution of the concept of food security, the buffer stock policy, impact of population growth and income on food demand, food demand projections, causes of food insecurity at national and household levels, and the relationship between liberalization, trade, agriculture, and food security. The review covers topics such as food availability and accessibility in the context of economic reforms, and the role of the Public Distribution System in providing food security.
๏ต The law of demand expresses the functional relationship between price and quantity demanded.
๏ต Assumption of โ Ceteris Paribusโ. A hypothetical assumption
๏ต If price of a commodity falls, the quantity demanded of it will rise and vice versa.
๏ต Inverse relationship between price and quantity
๏ต Other factors also play an important role.
๏ต Real world variables.
๏ต The indifference curve analysis has also been used to explain producerโs equilibrium, the problems of exchange, rationing, taxation, supply of labour, welfare economics and a host of other problems. Some of the important problems are explained below with the help of this technique.
(1) The Problem of Exchange:
With the help of indifference curve technique the problem of exchange between two individuals can be discussed. We take two consumers A and ะ who possess two goods X and Y in fixed quantities respectively. The problem is how can they exchange the goods possessed by each other. This can be solved by constructing an Edgeworth-Bowley box diagram on the basis of their preference maps and the given supplies of goods.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
ย
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Food is life and the global food sustainability is essential to human being survival. The global food system is highly
complex and is driven by various factors including environment, cultural, social and economic drive. It is vital to understand
these drivers and their interaction in order to help to improve the public food sustainability policies. Global polices and projects
desperately required in order improving the global food sustainability. Food sustainability is one of the unsolved global issues
and great commitment is required starting from global policy makers, national governments, and every individual home. This
research paper includes analysis and study of various elements such as global change science, policy, food crisis, factor affecting
and challenging food security, data on status and future projection and potential ways of solving problems. The goal of food
sustainability is to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and have a reasonable quality of life without
compromising the quality of life of future generations. Agriculture sustainability is the best solution which can feed the world
without compromising the environment or threatening human health. Scientific evidence that global environment has changed
is overwhelming and indisputable. These phenomena have a direct impact on agriculture which in turn affects food
sustainability. The food price is always toward upward trend which is validated by the periodic average global food price
monitoring report released by the Food and agricultural organizations. The factors affecting and challenging the food security
are many including increased food consumption due to population increase, uneven distribution, changes in living styles, limited
resources, environmental problems, economic problems and others. The potential ways to solve food sustainability need to be
established and implemented effectively across the world.
role of agricultural policies in responding to food security in India8902714972
ย
Food security is achieved when โall people at all times have physical and economic access to food that is sufficient to meet dietary needs for a healthy and productive life.
The long run impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops in the districts of Punjab is analyzed for the time period of 1970 to 2010. This study used deviations from average maximum annual temperature and deviations from average rainfall are used as indicators for climate change. While other variables include sale price, fertilizer use and number of tube wells. In order to incorporate long timer periods, this study used Panel ARDL model. The results show that cotton productivity is more positively sensitive to price changes; an increase in temperature, tube wells and fertilizers while wheat productivity is more positively sensitive to the rainfall in the long run. Consequently, in the short run, wheat productivity equilibrium is faster converging. Hence deviations from average rainfall are harmful to cotton crop in the long run and cotton & wheat in the short run, while deviations in maximum temperature is only harmful for cotton crop in the short run.
๏ต The law of demand expresses the functional relationship between price and quantity demanded.
๏ต Assumption of โ Ceteris Paribusโ. A hypothetical assumption
๏ต If price of a commodity falls, the quantity demanded of it will rise and vice versa.
๏ต Inverse relationship between price and quantity
๏ต Other factors also play an important role.
๏ต Real world variables.
๏ต The indifference curve analysis has also been used to explain producerโs equilibrium, the problems of exchange, rationing, taxation, supply of labour, welfare economics and a host of other problems. Some of the important problems are explained below with the help of this technique.
(1) The Problem of Exchange:
With the help of indifference curve technique the problem of exchange between two individuals can be discussed. We take two consumers A and ะ who possess two goods X and Y in fixed quantities respectively. The problem is how can they exchange the goods possessed by each other. This can be solved by constructing an Edgeworth-Bowley box diagram on the basis of their preference maps and the given supplies of goods.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
ย
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Food is life and the global food sustainability is essential to human being survival. The global food system is highly
complex and is driven by various factors including environment, cultural, social and economic drive. It is vital to understand
these drivers and their interaction in order to help to improve the public food sustainability policies. Global polices and projects
desperately required in order improving the global food sustainability. Food sustainability is one of the unsolved global issues
and great commitment is required starting from global policy makers, national governments, and every individual home. This
research paper includes analysis and study of various elements such as global change science, policy, food crisis, factor affecting
and challenging food security, data on status and future projection and potential ways of solving problems. The goal of food
sustainability is to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and have a reasonable quality of life without
compromising the quality of life of future generations. Agriculture sustainability is the best solution which can feed the world
without compromising the environment or threatening human health. Scientific evidence that global environment has changed
is overwhelming and indisputable. These phenomena have a direct impact on agriculture which in turn affects food
sustainability. The food price is always toward upward trend which is validated by the periodic average global food price
monitoring report released by the Food and agricultural organizations. The factors affecting and challenging the food security
are many including increased food consumption due to population increase, uneven distribution, changes in living styles, limited
resources, environmental problems, economic problems and others. The potential ways to solve food sustainability need to be
established and implemented effectively across the world.
role of agricultural policies in responding to food security in India8902714972
ย
Food security is achieved when โall people at all times have physical and economic access to food that is sufficient to meet dietary needs for a healthy and productive life.
The long run impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops in the districts of Punjab is analyzed for the time period of 1970 to 2010. This study used deviations from average maximum annual temperature and deviations from average rainfall are used as indicators for climate change. While other variables include sale price, fertilizer use and number of tube wells. In order to incorporate long timer periods, this study used Panel ARDL model. The results show that cotton productivity is more positively sensitive to price changes; an increase in temperature, tube wells and fertilizers while wheat productivity is more positively sensitive to the rainfall in the long run. Consequently, in the short run, wheat productivity equilibrium is faster converging. Hence deviations from average rainfall are harmful to cotton crop in the long run and cotton & wheat in the short run, while deviations in maximum temperature is only harmful for cotton crop in the short run.
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
This study examined the effectiveness of agricultural protection policy and other macroeconomic variables on food supply, agricultural export, and farmers welfare in Nigeria, from 1980-2016 with a special interest in their relationship with the political economy. The specific objectives were to (i) estimate the degrees of agricultural protection, domestic agricultural food supply and economic welfare to farmers in Nigeria, (ii) determine the effectiveness of agricultural protection on food self-supply, agricultural export; and farmer-welfare. Data were obtained from secondary sources. Descriptive statistics and generalized method of moment (GMM) were used. Nigeriaโs self-food supply was slightly above 50% while the rest of the consumption depended on importation. The welfare measure to farmers was relatively poor and not good enough to motivate them. There was a positive and significant relationship between export and agricultural protection. A significant and positive relationship also exists between farmer-welfare and protection in the sector.
This presentation is all about highlighting present scenario of food security in India and the Issues and challenges it is facing. Furthermore, some of the pragmatic measures have been given so as to make India a food secure nation.
Analysis of Rural Households Food Security Status in Dibatie District, Wester...Premier Publishers
ย
This study examines the rural householdโs food security status and its determinants in the Dibatie district of Bebishangul Gumuz region. The simple random sampling technique was used to select respondents with proportionate sample size based on the number of households that exists in sampled kebele administrations. The data were collected using structured questionnaires and key informants interviews. Both descriptive statistics and econometric model (binary logit model) were used to analyze this data at household levels. Food Security Index is used to measure the food security status of sample households based on average kcal/day/adult equivalent. The results of this study revealed that households of 59.4% were found food secure and 46.6% food insecure. The mean calorie intake of all sampled households was 2431.68kcal/day/equivalent. Furthermore, estimated a binary logit model results show that the variables such as education level of household head, utilization of formal credit, cultivated land size, access to training, farm experience, household size and distance to nearest market were found significant influence on householdsโ food security status in the study area. However, the remaining variables were not found significant effect on householdsโ food security status. Finally, the study suggests that any interventions designed to promote farmers to increase food security status at household level in the study area are welcome.
By 2050 the worldโs population will reach 9.1 billion, 34 percent higher than today. Nearly all of this population increase will occur in developing countries. Urbanization will continue at an accelerated pace, and about 70 percent of the worldโs population will be urban (compared to 49 percent today). Income levels will be many multiples of what they are now. In order to feed this larger, more urban and richer population, food production (net of food used for biofuels) must increase by 70 percent.
Annual cereal production will need to rise to about 3 billion tonnes from 2.1 billion today and annual meat production will need to rise by over 200 million tonnes to reach 470 million tonnes. This report argues that the required increase in food production can be achieved if the necessary investment is undertaken and policies conducive to agricultural production are put in place.
But increasing production is not sufficient to achieve food security. It must be complemented by policies to enhance access by fighting poverty, especially in rural areas, as well as effective safety net programmes. Total average annual net investment in developing country agriculture required to deliver the necessary production increases would amount to USD 83 billion. The global gap in what is required vis-ร -vis current investment levels can be illustrated by comparing the required annual gross investment of US$209 billion (which includes the cost of renewing depreciating investments) with the result of a separate study that estimated that developing countries on average invested USD 142 billion (USD of 2009) annually in agriculture over the past decade.
The required increase is thus about 50 percent. These figures are totals for public and private investment, i.e. investments by farmers. Achieving them will require a major reallocation in developing country budgets as well as in donor programmes. It will also require policies that support farmers in developing countries and encourage them and other private participants in agriculture to increase their investment. In developing countries, 80 percent of the necessary production increases would come from increases in yields and cropping intensity and only 20 percent from expansion of arable land.
But the fact is that globally the rate of growth in yields of the major cereal crops has been steadily declining, it dropped from 3.2 percent per year in 1960 to 1.5 percent in 2000. The challenge for technology is to reverse this decline, since a continuous linear increase in yields at a global level following the pattern established over the past five decades will not be sufficient to meet food needs. Although investment in agricultural R&D continues to be one of the most productive investments, with rates of return between 30 and 75 percent, it has been neglected in most low income countries.
Food security in India and States: key challenges and policy option Premier Publishers
ย
Condition of food security in India is gloomy and is similar to African countries. Both the supply side and demand side factors have their roles in the present condition of food security and undernourishment in India. This study supports that if agriculture production grows; increasing food prices has less bearing on low food security. Problem of food security in India is very much related to low demand. If demand of people can be improved, food security can be achieved. Disaggregated trend of food security shows that problem of food insecurity is high in poor states. Considering disaggregated level of food security, government has passed Food Security Bill in India. Our analysis points out that food security cannot be achieved in India without improving the level of overall agriculture production. Improving agricultural production is essential for ensuring long term food security and promoting poverty reduction. State level condition of storage capacity of food grains also points out that how a state like Bihar with low storage facility will manage to implement this Bill. Without identifying role of market, success of Food Security Bill and reduction of poverty is distant dream.
A short presentation to accompany a lesson on global food and water security. Blog post with more information about the lesson can be found on eternalexploration.wordpress.com
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
This study examined the effectiveness of agricultural protection policy and other macroeconomic variables on food supply, agricultural export, and farmers welfare in Nigeria, from 1980-2016 with a special interest in their relationship with the political economy. The specific objectives were to (i) estimate the degrees of agricultural protection, domestic agricultural food supply and economic welfare to farmers in Nigeria, (ii) determine the effectiveness of agricultural protection on food self-supply, agricultural export; and farmer-welfare. Data were obtained from secondary sources. Descriptive statistics and generalized method of moment (GMM) were used. Nigeriaโs self-food supply was slightly above 50% while the rest of the consumption depended on importation. The welfare measure to farmers was relatively poor and not good enough to motivate them. There was a positive and significant relationship between export and agricultural protection. A significant and positive relationship also exists between farmer-welfare and protection in the sector.
This presentation is all about highlighting present scenario of food security in India and the Issues and challenges it is facing. Furthermore, some of the pragmatic measures have been given so as to make India a food secure nation.
Analysis of Rural Households Food Security Status in Dibatie District, Wester...Premier Publishers
ย
This study examines the rural householdโs food security status and its determinants in the Dibatie district of Bebishangul Gumuz region. The simple random sampling technique was used to select respondents with proportionate sample size based on the number of households that exists in sampled kebele administrations. The data were collected using structured questionnaires and key informants interviews. Both descriptive statistics and econometric model (binary logit model) were used to analyze this data at household levels. Food Security Index is used to measure the food security status of sample households based on average kcal/day/adult equivalent. The results of this study revealed that households of 59.4% were found food secure and 46.6% food insecure. The mean calorie intake of all sampled households was 2431.68kcal/day/equivalent. Furthermore, estimated a binary logit model results show that the variables such as education level of household head, utilization of formal credit, cultivated land size, access to training, farm experience, household size and distance to nearest market were found significant influence on householdsโ food security status in the study area. However, the remaining variables were not found significant effect on householdsโ food security status. Finally, the study suggests that any interventions designed to promote farmers to increase food security status at household level in the study area are welcome.
By 2050 the worldโs population will reach 9.1 billion, 34 percent higher than today. Nearly all of this population increase will occur in developing countries. Urbanization will continue at an accelerated pace, and about 70 percent of the worldโs population will be urban (compared to 49 percent today). Income levels will be many multiples of what they are now. In order to feed this larger, more urban and richer population, food production (net of food used for biofuels) must increase by 70 percent.
Annual cereal production will need to rise to about 3 billion tonnes from 2.1 billion today and annual meat production will need to rise by over 200 million tonnes to reach 470 million tonnes. This report argues that the required increase in food production can be achieved if the necessary investment is undertaken and policies conducive to agricultural production are put in place.
But increasing production is not sufficient to achieve food security. It must be complemented by policies to enhance access by fighting poverty, especially in rural areas, as well as effective safety net programmes. Total average annual net investment in developing country agriculture required to deliver the necessary production increases would amount to USD 83 billion. The global gap in what is required vis-ร -vis current investment levels can be illustrated by comparing the required annual gross investment of US$209 billion (which includes the cost of renewing depreciating investments) with the result of a separate study that estimated that developing countries on average invested USD 142 billion (USD of 2009) annually in agriculture over the past decade.
The required increase is thus about 50 percent. These figures are totals for public and private investment, i.e. investments by farmers. Achieving them will require a major reallocation in developing country budgets as well as in donor programmes. It will also require policies that support farmers in developing countries and encourage them and other private participants in agriculture to increase their investment. In developing countries, 80 percent of the necessary production increases would come from increases in yields and cropping intensity and only 20 percent from expansion of arable land.
But the fact is that globally the rate of growth in yields of the major cereal crops has been steadily declining, it dropped from 3.2 percent per year in 1960 to 1.5 percent in 2000. The challenge for technology is to reverse this decline, since a continuous linear increase in yields at a global level following the pattern established over the past five decades will not be sufficient to meet food needs. Although investment in agricultural R&D continues to be one of the most productive investments, with rates of return between 30 and 75 percent, it has been neglected in most low income countries.
Food security in India and States: key challenges and policy option Premier Publishers
ย
Condition of food security in India is gloomy and is similar to African countries. Both the supply side and demand side factors have their roles in the present condition of food security and undernourishment in India. This study supports that if agriculture production grows; increasing food prices has less bearing on low food security. Problem of food security in India is very much related to low demand. If demand of people can be improved, food security can be achieved. Disaggregated trend of food security shows that problem of food insecurity is high in poor states. Considering disaggregated level of food security, government has passed Food Security Bill in India. Our analysis points out that food security cannot be achieved in India without improving the level of overall agriculture production. Improving agricultural production is essential for ensuring long term food security and promoting poverty reduction. State level condition of storage capacity of food grains also points out that how a state like Bihar with low storage facility will manage to implement this Bill. Without identifying role of market, success of Food Security Bill and reduction of poverty is distant dream.
A short presentation to accompany a lesson on global food and water security. Blog post with more information about the lesson can be found on eternalexploration.wordpress.com
Role of agricultural policies in responding to food security in India8902714972
ย
Food security is achieved when โall people at all times have physical and economic access to food that is sufficient to meet dietary needs for a healthy and productive life.
RUNNING Head: IMPACTS ON FOOD SYSTEMS. 1
IMPACTS ON FOOD SYSTEMS 8
Impacts of Food Systems.
Students Name.
Institutional Affiliation.
Impacts on food systems.
Introduction
Sustainability in food systems entails the provision of the food security and nutrition which are essential to maintain and promote the living condition of the people under the earth (Ericksen, Ingram, & Liverman, 2009). The food system is according to the four pillar that defines its implication in any society. These four pillars are stability, availability, utilization and access. According to Food and Agriculture Organization, food security refers to โall people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy lifeโ(Source, FAO SOFI 2011).
When four pillars are conjoined together with the sustainability and nutrition, a desirable food system foundation is therefore achieved. With such food programs, they will mainly lead in making a multiple SDS (Sustainable Development Goals). Because of these to monitor and provide a desirable food system in any country, a Global Food System Index is crucial in tracking and monitoring progress. In the ultimate of the global food system, we address the six important dimensions by the GFSI which traces their progression. These critical dimensions are social sustainability, health and nutrition consumptions, environmental productivity, climate and ecological sustainability and market dynamics (Shown in Figure 1).
Therefore the ideal goal of a food system tries to effectively dialogue challenges to ecological and human welfare transversely in all of its phases. The dimension arrives from the theories and concepts involving food systems which will inform and guide the relevant managerial personnel in their decisions after the consideration of the report on the available dataโs provided in concern of the behaviors portrayed by the target group like tourists in any environment when food is involved for life sustenance.
Global economic growth in investments, trade, food and Market Dynamic
Food system synthesis propels the global financial increase in investment, trade and food prices โ they makeup all that happens and is the boundaries of the market dynamic as stated to be one of the critical dimensions guiding the food systems and its synthesis. To have a desirable food system, we require to have: an interaction in food supply chains which functions with all fundamental priors in the whole food system and also a well-operating trade and market dynamics (McCarthy, Lipper, & Branca, 2011). Using good trade and market strategies we can regulate and reduce the adverse effects caused by the market astonishment and hence drastically.
Study of Lifestyle Trends on Changing Food Habits of Indian Consumersiosrjce
ย
Global markets have increased the plethora of options available to Indian consumers. With the clear
shift in consumer tastes and preferences, food companies have also capitalized on the same. While Indian
consumers are still not as heavily impacted by the obesity epidemic like some other developed nations โ there is
a clear shift; one which does not augur well for the health of the average citizen. The objective of this paper was
to identify these key lifestyle trends that have emerged over the dozen years or so โ and understand the way they
are changing food habits. For this purpose, we talked to 600 respondents across 6 cities in India. The research
was conducted using a questionnaire administered online and through CATI. The results overwhelmingly show
that there is a shift from opting to eat at home to opting to eat out. Also interestingly awareness about harmful
effects of processed foods was high but the reason for consumption was attributed primarily to ease of purchase.
The implications of the research are an attempt to ensure that key steps are taken by public officials: such as a
tax on unhealthy foods, subsidies for healthy food, and promotion of healthy norms. Also FSSAI guidelines need
to strengthen to ensure that customer awareness increase and food companies opt for a more transparent
communication platform.
Food Security, Self-Sufficiency and Sustainable Agriculture in a Changing WorldFrancois Stepman
ย
26-27 September 2017. Lleida, Spain. Knowledge Management and Communication in Food Security and Agriculture discussed in Spain at the occasion of the Plant Inter Cluster meeting.
Keynote presentation:
Dr Joan Girona, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA, Spain), "Food Security, Self-Sufficiency and Sustainable Agriculture in a Changing World"
As a business owner in Delaware, staying on top of your tax obligations is paramount, especially with the annual deadline for Delaware Franchise Tax looming on March 1. One such obligation is the annual Delaware Franchise Tax, which serves as a crucial requirement for maintaining your companyโs legal standing within the state. While the prospect of handling tax matters may seem daunting, rest assured that the process can be straightforward with the right guidance. In this comprehensive guide, weโll walk you through the steps of filing your Delaware Franchise Tax and provide insights to help you navigate the process effectively.
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
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๐๐ ๐๐จ๐ฆ๐ฌ (๐๐ ๐๐จ๐ฆ๐ฆ๐ฎ๐ง๐ข๐๐๐ญ๐ข๐จ๐ง๐ฌ) is a professional event agency that includes experts in the event-organizing market in Vietnam, Korea, and ASEAN countries. We provide unlimited types of events from Music concerts, Fan meetings, and Culture festivals to Corporate events, Internal company events, Golf tournaments, MICE events, and Exhibitions.
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Accpac to QuickBooks Conversion Navigating the Transition with Online Account...PaulBryant58
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This article provides a comprehensive guide on how to
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What are the main advantages of using HR recruiter services.pdfHumanResourceDimensi1
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HR recruiter services offer top talents to companies according to their specific needs. They handle all recruitment tasks from job posting to onboarding and help companies concentrate on their business growth. With their expertise and years of experience, they streamline the hiring process and save time and resources for the company.
Attending a job Interview for B1 and B2 Englsih learnersErika906060
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It is a sample of an interview for a business english class for pre-intermediate and intermediate english students with emphasis on the speking ability.
Business Valuation Principles for EntrepreneursBen Wann
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This insightful presentation is designed to equip entrepreneurs with the essential knowledge and tools needed to accurately value their businesses. Understanding business valuation is crucial for making informed decisions, whether you're seeking investment, planning to sell, or simply want to gauge your company's worth.
Improving profitability for small businessBen Wann
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In this comprehensive presentation, we will explore strategies and practical tips for enhancing profitability in small businesses. Tailored to meet the unique challenges faced by small enterprises, this session covers various aspects that directly impact the bottom line. Attendees will learn how to optimize operational efficiency, manage expenses, and increase revenue through innovative marketing and customer engagement techniques.
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey throu...dylandmeas
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Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey throughย Full Sail University. Below, youโll find a collection of my work showcasing my skills and expertise in digital marketing, event planning, and media production.
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Buy Verified PayPal Account | Buy Google 5 Star Reviewsusawebmarket
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Unveiling the Secrets How Does Generative AI Work.pdfSam H
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At its core, generative artificial intelligence relies on the concept of generative models, which serve as engines that churn out entirely new data resembling their training data. It is like a sculptor who has studied so many forms found in nature and then uses this knowledge to create sculptures from his imagination that have never been seen before anywhere else. If taken to cyberspace, gans work almost the same way.
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1. CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter an attempt has been made to examine various studies relating
to food security and insecurity both chronic and transient. Increased food production
is considered to be a necessary, though not a sufficient, condition for improving food
security for the poorest segments of the population. If higher levels of production
lead to cheap food, it would be an effective instrument for food security particularly
when the poor have adequate entitlements. In the absence of such pre-conditions,
even with significant improvement in food supply, the market mechanism may not
always and automatically transfer food to the poor.
The concept of food security has undergone considerable modification in
recent years. Food availability and stability were considered good measures of food
security till the seventies and achievement of self-sufficiency was accorded high
priority in the food policies of developing countries. Energy intake of the vulnerable
groups is now given prominence in assessing food security. Historical Evolution of
food security and evaluation of the concept of buffer stock policy and it's
implications, have been by some studies (Acharya K.C.S. 1983) covered various
issues relating to provision of food security system in India. It was noted that price
stabilization was beyond the capability of the buffer stock policy, and suggested
therefore to include coarse grains in the buffer stocks. But it is not practicable of
their high preservation costs in the godowns.
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2. Impact of changes in population growth and percapita income on food
security have been studied by a number of scholars. Like most other densely
populated developing countries India faces a formidable challenge in providing food
security to its population. This is so, because India has a large population of 948
million 1997 and its growth rate is quite high. The percapita income is expected to
rise sharply during the next decade or so. The demand for food grains is estimated to
grow at a rate of 3.5 to 4 percent per annum compared to the food grains growth rate
of 2.9 percent per annum during the period, 1949-50 to 1989-90.
In the early stage of the development process people were poor with high
mortality rate, leading to moderate growth in population and slow growth in
percapita income (Mellor, J.W., 1983) Effective demand for food can grow at a rate
that can keep pace with population growth. As percapita income rises, population
growth also increases. Rising incomes combined with increasing population lead to
high demand for food grins, particularly demand for livestock product. In this
context food supply has to take a quantitative jump and in addition to increasing
domestic food supply, food imports may also become necessary. It is so because
only at a later stage of development when population growth rates decline sharply
and growth in income begins to have little effect on demand for food, then meeting
food demand can become manageable and even surpluses can emerge In the
process of development, it seems that increasing percapita income is the dynamic
factor underlying the growth in food demand in the third world countries.
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3. Food Demand Projections
Four alternative scenario based on four different assumptions about growth of
the GDP and the percapita income and further uses four alternative demand models
to derive demand elasticities and demand projections for food grains-for the year
2000 and 2010 was worked by Som Schlores (Kumar, Rosengrant, 1994, and Bouis).
Their results in term of quality projections for both household demand and for total
demand for rice is 87.2 million tonnes, wheat 70.8 m.t. course cereals 33.5 m.t.
However, the total demand for food grains is 286.6 m.t.
The impact of changes in percapita expenditure on food demand projections
for India includes by the method of estimating the total population and the expected
birth and death rates estimated by world bank (Radhakrishna, and Ravi, 1990) The
next exercise was to undertake a detailed analysis of the NSS data on expenditure of
different expenditure groups in the base year 1986-87 separately for the rural and
urban population The linear expenditure system was then used for analysing the
likely demand pattern of various expenditures groups. This is enabled the authors to
estimate the nutrition levels that would be attained by India's rural and Urban
population. In order to meet the total food demand in 2000, the country should be
producing 234.5 m.t. based on their food demand projections
27
4. At the national level food-insecurity exists due to fall in production or due to
instability, in stocks and imports. At the household level food insecurity exists due
to the low purchasing power this inturn depend on incomes of the people,
employment and prices of food grains. Food insecurity is of two types they are
transitory and chronic food insecurity. Who temporarily are subject to hunger during
off season, drought and inflationary years and so forth. In contrast, the problem of
chronic food insecurity is primarily associated with poverty.
The causes of short run food insecurity were divided into 'internal' and
'external' in a cross country analysis of nearly 50 countries including India
(Diakassavas, 1989). He concluded that although both the types of factors have
significant bearing on food consumption instability, but instability in domestic food
production is the most important single factor. Because variability in production
brings variability in net availability.
At the national level a measure of food security would be production, trade
and availability of food grains. (Parikh, 1997, pp.253-279,). The average percapita
availability of foodgrains is an indicator of food security at the national level At the
household level, food insecurity is mainly due to poverty and poverty is due to lack
of employment. He argues a national wide Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS)
with increased wages and easy access to all can provide individual level food
security against both chronic and transient hunger to the employable hungry. This
can be done at a cost of about Rs. 14775 crores per year. The long term solution is of
2S
5. core economic growth that can provide productive employment to all. To create
skills among the people to enable them to take up jobs more investment is required in
education. The short term measure used to reduce food insecurity are the various
schemes of subsidized food distribution, such as the public distribution system.
Food security in the context of Liberalisation of the Economy
Food security has two aspects, first, availability and the accessibility. The
basic ingredient of stabilization and structural adjustment programme is the
contraction of public expenditure to reduce fiscal deficit coupled with drastic
devaluation of local currency and general withdrawal of the state from economic
activities vacating the space for market (Bandyapadhyay, 1995). Immediate and
inevitable consequence of reduction of Government expenditure is the cut in public
investment in the agriculture. Capital formation in the agriculture sector has a
crucial role in agricultural development During 1985-90, the average annual
increase in public sector outlay in agriculture and irrigation was Rs.1.3 billion, this
went down to Rs.0.62 billion. There is a large scale shift from food crops to non-
food crops having serious implication for the systematic availability of food there by
putting in Jeopardy the first condition of food security. Removal of subsidies to
agriculture and allowing the free movement of agriculture products, for international
trade will cause the rise in prices. Thus in the process of implementation of the new
economic policy, there will be large scale alienation of land, fall in wages, rise in
food prices, loss of employment, people may not get access to food and starve.
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6. General poverty scenario in the post reform period is worse than in the pre-reform
era.
Because of the acute food shortages in the country and large dependence on
food imports, the policy makers sought to meet the challenge of providing food to a
rapidly rising population, through a two-pronged strategy (G.S. Bhalla, 1994,
pp. 133-174). It's first component was accelerating growth in food production
through substantial investments in rural infrastructure, including irrigation, power,
rise arch, extension and development of new technology. The second component of
food system of procurement, storage and public distribution of foodgrains with the
main objective of providing food to consumers at reasonable prices and keeping
prices of food at reasonable levels through open market operations or through
imports At present, procurement is undertaken by the Food Corporation of India at
minimum support procurement prices fixed by the government and is then
distributed through the PDS, which consists of a large chain of fair price shops
spread over rural and urban areas The final component of food management is food
stocks, which enable the functioning of PDS and help stabilize prices through open
market operations. The PDS has suffered from several limitations First it has not
been able to cover a large section of the poor, particularly in rural areas and has
failed to serve poor states like Bihar, and Orissa. Second, since the PDS has been
open-ended and is not targeted to the poor, the food subsidy has become excessively
large. It tends to become even larger because of the inefficiency of the via (a)
changes in the rate of growth and consequently employment (b) prices of wage
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7. goods and the general rate of inflation, and (c) Government policies affecting prices
of food grains and food subsidy.
There is a significant change in foodgrain scenario from a scarcity to a
surplus situation because of the acceleration in the production of food grains in the
1980's more significantly, food grains stocks held by the government have been
increasing despite a lower growth to it's historical growth rate (Radhakrishna, 1996,
pp. 1-15). The predictions are that the surplus situation will be sustained, that
agriculture will be diversified and that the exports of rice, wheat and agro products
will increase Domestic price is generally lower than the international price for
cereals and higher for other food items If liberalization has its sway and the cereal
price is allowed to increase and other prices are allowed to fall in order to Food
Corporation of India He argued that for a big country like India, with rapidly
increasing population a policy of near self-sufficiency is necessary not only to avoid
the high risks involved in international trade, but also because of the dependence of a
large proportion of its workforce on food production He, however cautioned that
while a pure market approach can be highly risky for food security in India. As
isolationist policy can be no less so, for it would deprive India of the opportunities to
derive benefits from world trade. But a necessary condition for this, however is
generation of large surpluses through a significant acceleration in agricultural
growth.
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8. Three major forms of social assistance to the unorganized sector, viz, food
security, employment security and health security, are discussed by (Parthasarathy,
1996, pp.73-79). The most important social security need of the poor is food
security. But, food security cannot be ensured without access to adequate purchasing
power for the wage earners. Since, the means of obtaining purchases is employment
at a minimum wage, employment security is essential for achieving food security.
According to him. In India, chronic food insecurity persists, it was found to be
strongly related to poverty. Though there is a moderate success in combating
transitory food insecurity. Structural adjustment is expected to have effect on food
security, integrate the domestic market with the international market, the poor may
be hurt in the transition since cereals are by far the major and cheapest source of
calories. Raising the real income of the poor to enable them to buy more food,
though an important instrument of improving nutrition would be a slow process.
Hence there is a need for better targeted Public distribution system and nutrition
support programs. Another study says that India has achieved some success in
combating transitory food insecurity caused by droughts or floods, it has failed to
make much dent on chronic food insecurity reflected in low energy intake
(Radhakrishna, 1998). The improvement in the nutritional status has also been very
low high growth sustained for more than a decade would significantly reduce income
poverty by 2010 but the chronic food insecurity is likely to persist. Moreover, with
the recent shift to a more market oriented and outward looking macro-policy, the
poor are likely to be exposed to the risk of market uncertainties more likely in the
future.
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9. Agriculture Trade Liberalization and Food Security
Since the prices of food and clothing are to increasing with agricultural trade
liberalization even without devaluation, and since further devaluation is likely to
become necessary to keep the current account deficit in the balance of payments
within manageable proportions, an increase in the degree of opens of economy
following liberalization is bound to increase domestic prices in absolute terms, and
also lead to relative price change, which hurt the poor more than the rich or even the
non-poor. If India was to operate in the world as a significant food exporter, size of
the market being what it is, world market prices would fall. However, the world
prices may fall below our domestic prices, creating a situation where India should be
importing rather than exporting food in her own interest. A recent study done for the
World Bank (Parikh, Narayana and other 1995) on agricultural trade liberalization
provides an empirical evidence for this assertion in respect of rice, where India is
said to have a comparative advantage, under certain assumptions about rice demand
elasticity (0.1) and supply elasticity (0.4) about the rest of the world, the study
concludes that anything beyond 4 million tonnes of rice export from India pushes
down world market prices below domestic prices
Based on the results of an exercise which calibrated the effects of agricultural
trade liberalization using a computable general equilibrium, concludes that there will
33
10. be no improvement in agricultural GDP in India, in the long run that the number of
hungry persons will increase (Kirit, Parikh, 1992). He argues that "the grains from
agricultural liberalization may not be as large or as unambiguous as some partial
equilibrium analysis suggest. It is therefore, not obvious that India should liberalize
it's agricultural trade.
Using a social accounting brought out the following results of the effects of
external trade liberalization, the effect of liberalizing India's agricultural trade on
agriculture would be small and comparatively more on non-agriculture
(Subramanian, Shankar, 1993). If the liberalization is extended to non-agriculture,
the impact on agriculture would be significant since industry was highly protected
and even if agriculture were to improve in the long-run due to liberalization, the rural
and urban poor may be adversely affected in the short run because of higher food
grain prices. Subramainan also argues that if global agriculture prices rise, and if
India liberalizes it's agriculture this price rise would be transmitted to Indian
agriculture and result will be decrease in rural income for the rural poor and all urban
classes but the real incomes of larger farmers would increase
It is undoubtedly true that liberalization would enable a large number of rich
farmers specially in the well endowed irrigated regions to diversify their production
structure and start producing for exports. The rich farmers could also fruitfully
negotiate with the trading organizations and could avert excessive risks (Bhalla G.S.,
1995, pp.7-24). But this may not happen in the case of the small and marginal
34
11. farmers, specially in the under developed regions. If agricultural exports are to be
treated as a vent for surplus, then the amount of food grains unless special efforts are
made to augment output.
The undeclared aim of liberalization policies appears to be the restricting of
domestic income growth and absorption of the products of development countries by
the populations of developing countries in order to release resources for growth of
the exportable products demanded by the developed world (Utsa Patnaik, 1996,
pp.2429-2449). She argues given the marked downward shift in the trend growth rate
of the economy over the last four years of the new economic policies, and the rise in
the rate of inflation which erodes the real incomes of the unorganized labour force
It lead to rise in poverty level sharply, with the rising agricultural exports food
availability will fall leading to food insecurity.
The impact of trade policy reform in the national context and multilateral
trade liberalization was analysed by some scholar (Deepak Nayyar and Abhijit Sen,
1994, pp.62-95). Accordingly, food and clothing prices are likely to increase with
agricultural trade liberalization even without devaluation, and the degree of openness
of the economy following liberalization is bound to increase domestic prices in
absolute terms, and also lead to relative price changes, which hurt the poor more than
the rich. Reduced self-sufficiency and reduced government procurement may erode,
the ability of the state to carry out the market intervention needed for an adequate
buffer-stock policy and to avoid or mitigate, through PDS, the possibility of sudden
35
12. rise in food price, inflation following unforeseen local shortage He suggests there
should be some tariff or non-tariff wedge between world prices and domestic prices
is retained
Public Distribution System (PDS) and Food Security
The public distribution system (PDS) in India represents a direct intervention
by the government of food market. It involves subsidized distribution of limited
quantities of essential food such as cereals, sugar, edible oil etc. Among them,
distribution of cereals assumes crucial importance it is supposed to provide food
security to the poor. Of late, however, PDS has come under severe criticism for its
urban bias, its ineffectiveness in reaching the poor and its inefficiency with reference
to cost of distribution.
Growth of the PDS, functioning, coverage and effect of the PDS on providing
food security was discussed by (Bapana, 1993, Bhatia, 1983). Bapana presented the
growth and functioning, coverage and other effects of the PDS in India. He says
several developing countries including India achieved food self-sufficiency but a
large section of the population still faces the risk of food insecurity There is food
security at the international level, at the country level for several countries and at the
regional level on the average, but there, is insecurity for individuals in the world
particularly in the developing countries. The main reason for this insecurity is lack
of purchasing power. The PDS makes food accessible and transfers income in the
form of subsidy. If the PDS could be managed properly, it has a direct impact on
36
13. nutrition, the PDS should be considered as a short term substitute for provision of
access to food by providing purchasing power through development and employment
schemes. The PDS is used as a device for buffer stock operations.
Evaluating the procurement and distribution policies, Bhatia suggested an
independent buffer stock policy which he claimed to have many advantages over the
present system for the better management of the PDS. (Bhatia, 1983).
Two important aspects of PDS are impact of PDS and the equity aspects of
distribution The database for most of these studies includes the National Sample
Survey Organisation (NSSO) data on PDS for the year 1986-87 and the reports and
records of food-supplies and civil supplies. The equity aspect of the PDS has been
examined in terms of the percentage of the poor covered under PDS, the share of
rural areas in the total and so on using the 42nd round of NSS data (Dev and
Suryanarayan, 1991, pp.2357-2366). It is found that PDS is pro-urban at the All
India level of rice and coarse cereals Their study also showed that the rural poor
depend on PDS for the meager 16 percent of their foodgrain consumption
requirements. This finding implies that the poor mainly draw their food
requirements from the open market
About 40-50 percent of the population buys subsidized rice and wheat and
about half of them are non poor (Jha 1991) It means that a substantial part of PDS
benefits accrues to the non-poor. However, welfare gains to the poor are substantial
37
14. wherever the PDS supplies are targeted well as in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh
(George 1979, Radha Krishna and Indrakant, 1988).
The issue of targeting, and the extent of leakages out of the programme was
examined by (Deepak Ahluwalia, 1993). The results show that there are no easily
identifiable criteria that determine central allocations of foodgrains across states in
'normal' years. There is however, evidence to suggest that during drought year some
consideration is given to the price environment and relative poverty levels across
states. There is no evidence of any serious urban bias. Use of the programme is, by
and large, fairly widespread in the rural areas of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and Gujarat. On targeting, the current practice of universal
eligibility has to change if the PDS is to act a viable safety net. Leakage are a major
problem in the PDS.
An important study regarding inter-variations has been done by (Geetha, and
Suryanarayana, 1993 pp.2207-2213). They have reviewed the objectives of food
policy pursued in different, five-year plans. Examined inter-state PDS disparities,
and their implications for the current ongoing PDS reform Their study confirms the
general impression that there have been significant disparities in the state-wise PDS
quantities, be it with respect to total population or population covered by the PDS.
This is largely in conformity with the objects of global coverage as enunciated in the
sixth plan. Part of the reason seems to be the lack of proper infrastructure for the
PDS in some states and hence their inability to lift their allotted quota, by the centre.
38
15. Thus PDS revamping is not merely a question of targeting but also involves the
creation of the necessary infrastructure.
District-wise requirements of PDS and comparison was made with
production and procurement potentials of rice and quantities actually distributed in
each district of A.P. (Subba Rao, 1980). He found that 10 out of 21 districts of A.P.
are deficit, therefore the entire state cannot be called as a surplus in rice as is claimed
by the government. He criticized the foodgrain movement restrictions which made
the prices of rice in deficit districts disproportionately high. The net impact of the
procurement cum-distribution in the state on the poor consumers will be nil or even
negative.
Procurement method of levy system was discussed by (Gulati and Krishnan,
1975). To improve the levy system they have suggested a proposal of graded
producers levy. In normal years, they emphasized the need for procurement of
foodgrains from all surplus producers irrespective of whether they belong to surplus
or deficit states. They quantifies the cereal requirements through PDS for all India
for the year 1973.
The consistency between share of PDS and the level of poverty among state
has been examined by (Tyagi, 1990, pp.55-83). He concluded that there was no
positive correlation between the poverty levels of a state and its share in PDS
supplies. His results show that during 1983-88, states with high incidence of poverty
39
16. such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and U.P. received a low share in the
distribution of food grains through the PDS and in percapita terms there states
received less than 10 kgs. Per annum. On the other hand, states with a moderate
incidence of poverty such as Kerala, A.P. Gujarat etc. received a high share in PDS
with the annual percapita PDS quantity distributed from central pool being about 26
kgs in Kerala and 22-23 kg. In A.P. and Gujarat. More recent data on the allocation
to states from the central pool also reveal the persistence of imbalance across states.
In 1993, around 20 percent of the population was estimated to be below the
poverty line (Sengupta, 1995) Total off-take of wheat and rice in 1993 was 13
million tonnes of which 4.2 million tonnes were consumed by the poor and 9.1
million tonnes were consumed by the relatively better-off sections. If we had a
schemes in 1993 to enable 51 million families of the poor to receive a ration of 20
kg. Of rice and wheat per month at 50 percent of market price the off-take of the
poor from PDS would have increased from 4.2 million tonnes to 12.1 m.t. this
according to him, will also reduce the maintenance loss of stocks by FCI. Further,
the problem of identification of the poor so that the scheme could be targeted only to
them is recognized to be not easy. The task of identification should be left to the
jurisdiction of local panchayats which should also supervise and estimate the total
cost of additional subsidy is less than Rs. 2,200 crores which is less than a quarter of
one percent of the Gross Domestic Production (GDP).
40
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