Productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farmsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farms in Ghana. The study found that the value of output for watermelon was higher than for tomato, due to differences in output prices and input costs. Analysis of factors affecting output value found that for tomato, land, labor and experience were significant, while for watermelon, land, non-agricultural activity and training were significant. Marginal values for land and labor were higher than market prices, indicating inefficient use of those resources for both crops. Fertilizer use for tomato and capital use for watermelon did not significantly impact output values, showing underutilization of those inputs. The results have implications for
11.productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farmsAlexander Decker
This study examines productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farms in Ghana. The value of output for watermelon farms was higher than for tomato farms, due to differences in output prices and input costs. It cost more to produce a hectare of tomato (GH¢704.59) than watermelon (GH¢509.03), but tomato yields per hectare were lower (GH¢480.37 vs GH¢1738.68 for watermelon). Factors like land, labor, and experience influenced tomato output value, while land, non-farm activity, and training impacted watermelon output. Marginal values for land and labor exceeded market prices, indicating inefficient resource use for both crops
Impact of the Adoption of Improved Varieties of Household Income of Farmers i...BRNSS Publication Hub
In Benin, maize occupies a strategic place in the agricultural sector due to its growing importance in national consumption and trade with neighboring countries. This study aims to analyze the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties on the income and expenditure of maize farmers in the South Atlantic Department of Benin. The data used were collected from 144 maize growers in the Atlantic Department. Maize farmers with or without improved varieties were selected randomly. The average treatment effect method with propensity score matching was used to estimate the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties on household income and expenditure. Maize growers using four impact indicators: (i) Netincome; (ii) school expenses; (iii) health expenditure; and (iv) food expenditures. The results showed that the adoption of improved maize varieties led to an improvement in annual netincome (a relative effect of 8.78%), health expenditure (a relative effect of 15.88%), and expenditure on education (a relative effect of 16.08%). On the other hand, the adoption of improved varieties of maize has no significant influence on the expenditure invested in the dietof household members. It shows that the adoption of improved varieties of maize by which has a positive impact on the netincome, health expenditure, and household education expenditure.
An analysis of economic efficiency in bean production evidence from eastern u...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed economic efficiency among bean farmers in Eastern Uganda. The study used a stochastic frontier cost function and Tobit regression model based on a survey of 580 households. The key findings were:
1) The mean economic efficiency level among bean farmers was 59.94%, indicating room for improvement.
2) Economic efficiency was positively influenced by factors such as value of assets, off-farm income, access to credit, and farming as the primary occupation.
3) To increase efficiency and productivity, the study recommends training farmers in business skills, and improving access to affordable credit through group lending models.
This study analyzes the impact of liberalization and agricultural policies in India on agricultural output and factors of production. It finds that pre-liberalization, area and fertilizer positively impacted output, while pesticides had low impact. Post-liberalization, fertilizer continued to positively impact output while pesticides negatively impacted it. The National Agricultural Policy aimed to increase agricultural exports and decrease imports, but exports declined more than expected post-policy while imports declined slightly less than expected. Overall, the study finds that factors contributing to output have changed over time, and agricultural policies have not fully achieved their goals.
Farm Diversification for Strengthening Small Farms in KentuckyBijesh Mishra
This document summarizes a survey of 1000 farmers in Kentucky regarding farm sustainability, diversification, and succession. The average age of farmers was 62.85 years old, with a majority having a high school education or some college. Most farmers owned small plots of land and earned less than $50,000 annually from farming. While some sustainable practices had been adopted, a lack of knowledge was a barrier to adopting more. Farmers were highly concerned about input costs and keeping farms in the family. Only about half of farmers expected future generations to be interested in farming. The survey findings can help support small farmers in Kentucky through strategies like education, diversification, and succession planning.
Productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farmsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farms in Ghana. The study found that the value of output for watermelon was higher than for tomato, due to differences in output prices and input costs. Analysis of factors affecting output value found that for tomato, land, labor and experience were significant, while for watermelon, land, non-agricultural activity and training were significant. Marginal values for land and labor were higher than market prices, indicating inefficient use of those resources for both crops. Fertilizer use for tomato and capital use for watermelon did not significantly impact output values, showing underutilization of those inputs. The results have implications for
11.productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farmsAlexander Decker
This study examines productivity and resource use efficiency in tomato and watermelon farms in Ghana. The value of output for watermelon farms was higher than for tomato farms, due to differences in output prices and input costs. It cost more to produce a hectare of tomato (GH¢704.59) than watermelon (GH¢509.03), but tomato yields per hectare were lower (GH¢480.37 vs GH¢1738.68 for watermelon). Factors like land, labor, and experience influenced tomato output value, while land, non-farm activity, and training impacted watermelon output. Marginal values for land and labor exceeded market prices, indicating inefficient resource use for both crops
Impact of the Adoption of Improved Varieties of Household Income of Farmers i...BRNSS Publication Hub
In Benin, maize occupies a strategic place in the agricultural sector due to its growing importance in national consumption and trade with neighboring countries. This study aims to analyze the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties on the income and expenditure of maize farmers in the South Atlantic Department of Benin. The data used were collected from 144 maize growers in the Atlantic Department. Maize farmers with or without improved varieties were selected randomly. The average treatment effect method with propensity score matching was used to estimate the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties on household income and expenditure. Maize growers using four impact indicators: (i) Netincome; (ii) school expenses; (iii) health expenditure; and (iv) food expenditures. The results showed that the adoption of improved maize varieties led to an improvement in annual netincome (a relative effect of 8.78%), health expenditure (a relative effect of 15.88%), and expenditure on education (a relative effect of 16.08%). On the other hand, the adoption of improved varieties of maize has no significant influence on the expenditure invested in the dietof household members. It shows that the adoption of improved varieties of maize by which has a positive impact on the netincome, health expenditure, and household education expenditure.
An analysis of economic efficiency in bean production evidence from eastern u...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed economic efficiency among bean farmers in Eastern Uganda. The study used a stochastic frontier cost function and Tobit regression model based on a survey of 580 households. The key findings were:
1) The mean economic efficiency level among bean farmers was 59.94%, indicating room for improvement.
2) Economic efficiency was positively influenced by factors such as value of assets, off-farm income, access to credit, and farming as the primary occupation.
3) To increase efficiency and productivity, the study recommends training farmers in business skills, and improving access to affordable credit through group lending models.
This study analyzes the impact of liberalization and agricultural policies in India on agricultural output and factors of production. It finds that pre-liberalization, area and fertilizer positively impacted output, while pesticides had low impact. Post-liberalization, fertilizer continued to positively impact output while pesticides negatively impacted it. The National Agricultural Policy aimed to increase agricultural exports and decrease imports, but exports declined more than expected post-policy while imports declined slightly less than expected. Overall, the study finds that factors contributing to output have changed over time, and agricultural policies have not fully achieved their goals.
Farm Diversification for Strengthening Small Farms in KentuckyBijesh Mishra
This document summarizes a survey of 1000 farmers in Kentucky regarding farm sustainability, diversification, and succession. The average age of farmers was 62.85 years old, with a majority having a high school education or some college. Most farmers owned small plots of land and earned less than $50,000 annually from farming. While some sustainable practices had been adopted, a lack of knowledge was a barrier to adopting more. Farmers were highly concerned about input costs and keeping farms in the family. Only about half of farmers expected future generations to be interested in farming. The survey findings can help support small farmers in Kentucky through strategies like education, diversification, and succession planning.
11. nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
The document discusses a study that examines the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. The study uses survey data from 151 households. A probit model is used to analyze factors influencing participation in nonfarm employment. The study finds that land size, age, family size, special skills, electricity access, credit access, distance to market, and irrigation access are key determinants. A Heckman selection model is then used to examine the impact of nonfarm employment on food security. The results indicate that nonfarm income enables households to spend more on basic needs like food, education, clothing, and healthcare, and thus nonfarm employment plays a significant role in maintaining household food security.
Nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. It begins with an abstract that summarizes the study's objectives and methods.
The introduction provides context on Ethiopia's dependence on agriculture and food insecurity problems. It describes Eastern Tigrai zone as particularly food insecure due to environmental and agricultural challenges. The study aims to investigate if nonfarm employment can help address this issue.
The literature review discusses research showing nonfarm income contributes substantially to rural livelihoods and can reduce poverty and improve food security. However, participation is often constrained by lack of assets. The study will examine nonfarm income's role in household food security in Eastern T
Precision agriculture in Pakistan faces several issues including:
1) Small landholdings and scattered plots make use of modern machinery difficult.
2) Limited arable land and problems like waterlogging and salinity reduce crop area.
3) Traditional farming methods and lack of infrastructure, inputs, and irrigation facilities constrain production.
4) Socioeconomic challenges include consumption-focused farmers, joint family systems, illiteracy, and political instability.
Overcoming these issues requires measures like expanding credit, controlling waterlogging, improving seeds, mechanization, and research. Overall, Pakistan's agricultural sector remains backward due to insufficient use of technology and infrastructure support.
Agriculture in Ethiopia yet bases on small scale farming is experiencing frequent drought. The study examines, does improved wheat seed adoption benefit farmer’s wheat yield or not in Ofla woreda, Tigrai? A primary data sources from a survey of random sample 300 small scale farm households were gathered. Of which 100 were certified wheat seed adoptor farmers and the remaining 200 were non users. In dealing with propensity score matching (PSM) was applied. The average treatment effects on the treated (ATT) result revealed that improved wheat seed adoptor household’s earn 35 to 54 quintal of wheat yield per hectare at a cost of plowing 9,400 Birr larger in a single production year compared to non adoptors earn below 18 quintal at a cost of Birr 7,000. Adoption of certified wheat seed complementary with other packages is more recommendable to enhance wheat yield at small scale level.
The long run impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops in the districts of Punjab is analyzed for the time period of 1970 to 2010. This study used deviations from average maximum annual temperature and deviations from average rainfall are used as indicators for climate change. While other variables include sale price, fertilizer use and number of tube wells. In order to incorporate long timer periods, this study used Panel ARDL model. The results show that cotton productivity is more positively sensitive to price changes; an increase in temperature, tube wells and fertilizers while wheat productivity is more positively sensitive to the rainfall in the long run. Consequently, in the short run, wheat productivity equilibrium is faster converging. Hence deviations from average rainfall are harmful to cotton crop in the long run and cotton & wheat in the short run, while deviations in maximum temperature is only harmful for cotton crop in the short run.
Rural Development Issues in Bangladesh: focus on agriculture sectorRokonZaman14
Bangladesh has a population of 163 million and agriculture is an important sector, contributing 14.23% to GDP and employing 40% of the working population. 71.67% of Bangladeshis live in rural areas where 51.7% of employment is in agriculture. Rice is the major crop but wheat, maize, fruits and vegetables are also important. Cash crops include jute and tobacco. Key issues facing Bangladeshi agriculture include underemployment and labor shortages due to seasonality, price uncertainties and low returns, natural disasters from climate change, deteriorating soil quality, and a lack of quality seeds.
The document discusses the impact of COVID-19 on Indian agriculture. It outlines how the pandemic has affected agricultural supply chains and the agriculture sector through issues with seed accessibility, food production and distribution, fertilizer shortages, and impacts on livestock. The government implemented schemes to support farmers during this time like Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, PM-KISAN, and Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana. While some changes have been proposed to improve the agriculture sector, uniform implementation of policies is still needed.
Macro-Policy, Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction in Ethiopia: Maintai...essp2
This document summarizes an analysis of macro-policy, agricultural growth, and poverty reduction in Ethiopia. It finds that Ethiopia has achieved substantial progress in reducing poverty and increasing food security through agricultural investments and reforms. Agricultural growth averaged over 8% annually from 2004-2016 due to increased yields driven by improved seeds, fertilizer, and total factor productivity. However, macroeconomic imbalances including real exchange rate appreciation and rising public debt pose risks. Future scenarios project that land and water constraints may slow agricultural growth, while urbanization and changing diets will shape demand. Sustaining success will depend on balanced investments and managing macroeconomic stability.
This study evaluated people's perceptions of pine tree plantations and food security in the Kigezi Highlands region of Uganda. A mixed-methods approach was used, including questionnaires and group discussions with 384 participants.
The findings indicate that most respondents had a negative perception of pine tree plantations, believing they contributed to issues like land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and competition with crops. However, some benefits were also acknowledged, such as increased income and fuel wood. Overall, the study found that pine tree plantations had a negative effect on food security in the region due to the amount of land occupied. The null hypothesis that pine tree plantations had no significant effect on food security was rejected. The study recommends adopting ag
This document provides a review of literature related to food security and insecurity. It discusses several studies that have examined issues like chronic and transient food insecurity, the evolution of the concept of food security, the buffer stock policy, impact of population growth and income on food demand, food demand projections, causes of food insecurity at national and household levels, and the relationship between liberalization, trade, agriculture, and food security. The review covers topics such as food availability and accessibility in the context of economic reforms, and the role of the Public Distribution System in providing food security.
Role of agriculture in economic development of the ssaMulenge Peter
Sub-Saharan countries include the 48 independent countries that lie south of the Sahara desert, excluding South Africa, because its agriculture system reflects that of developed countries.
The economic impact of agricultural development on poverty reduction and welf...Caroline Chenqi Zhou
This study employs quantitative and qualitative methods to identify the relationship between agricultural development, poverty reduction, and income inequality. Building upon the World Bank’s Enabling the Business of Agriculture study (2016) and data from the World Development Indicators (2015) for the years 2000 to 2014, we test two hypotheses. The first pertains to agricultural development and poverty reduction to assess to what extent agricultural development reduces poverty. The second, in a similar fashion, addresses the relationship between agricultural development and income inequality. To supplement our quantitative analysis of these questions, we include a case study of agricultural development, agricultural policy reforms, and their impact in Vietnam and Tanzania. We find evidence that agricultural development reduces poverty.
Even though Ethiopia had undertaken different policy measures since 1991 to boost agricultural production and increase the spillover effects of agriculture, there is no available study done to know the effects of such policies. This study aimed to fill this gap by analyzing the supply response of the commodity chosen haricot bean in Sidama Zone of Southern Ethiopia. The study applies the modified Nerlovian model and uses price data and non price data from 1991-2012.The result of the estimates of the time series data shows that acreage is positively and significantly influenced by change in its own price in the long run. Acreage and yield are highly influenced by price and non price factors both in the long run and short run. Generally farmers respond to price incentives by reallocating land and increase yield. The error correction term shows that deviation of acreage from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and it takes less than five years to come to the equilibrium. On the other hand any deviation of yield from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and takes less than two years to come to the equilibrium. The empirical results illustrate that there is still great potential to increase production through improvement of price and non price inputs. Hence the ongoing measures should be directed towards assuring appropriate remunerative prices and increase investment and supply of other non price factors like, increase investment in irrigation.
1 ijhaf aug-2017-3-long run analysis of the carryingAI Publications
This study examines the long run response of Agricultural land use indices to population growth in Nigeria. The study made use of 35 year time series data collected from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) annual reports, FAOSTAT and World Bank Statistical reports (1980-2015). Collected data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The result shows that agricultural land productivity in terms of cereal (rice, sorghum, millet & maize) yield exhibited a negative and significant response to population growth rate. Agricultural land use intensity showed a positive and significant response to population growth ratein Nigeria. Agricultural value added to GDP demonstrated a negative and significant response to population growth rate. Population growth and cereal yield yearly forecasts were 8.9% and 7.5% respectively.The study provided sufficient empirical evidence on relatively weak capacity of agricultural land to cereal productivity under population pressure and the need for policy on land enhancement technologies in Nigeria.
This research work examined the impact of Agriculture output on Economic Growth in Nigeria, with the objective of determining the relationship between the Agricultural sector and the Economic Growth rates in Nigeria. Thus, the research was aimed at examining the contributions of agriculture (value added) to the growth of the national economy, investigating government expenditure on agriculture in Nigeria, and determining the contributions of crop production from agriculture on the Nigerian economy. Data were collected from the World Bank Data base and CBN statistical bulletin. Co-Integration and Vector Error correction model techniques were employed as well as the Granger Causality test to determine the causality relationship between Agriculture and Economic Growth. As a result of the data collected, analyzed and interpreted, the research found that Agriculture has positive and long run impact on Economic Growth in Nigeria. The paper recommends amongst many other things that the Government of Nigeria should put in more efforts to diversify the Nigerian economy as the Nigerian agricultural sector currently suffers a lot of marginalization which has not enabled it to contribute more significantly as it should.
Cost and returns of paddy rice production in Kaduna State of NigeriaPremier Publishers
As a result of increasing population growth and urbanization, there is a high and increasing demand for rice, this necessitates the high attention for its production. This research was conducted to determine the profitability of paddy rice production in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Data were collected from 60 randomly selected paddy rice farmers using a well structured questionnaire and analyzed using the descriptive statistics, net income and multiple regression models. The result showed that 97% were male, 88% married and had an average household size of 10 people. All respondents had one form of education and their average farm size was 15ha producing about 3.2tonnes of paddy per hectare. Paddy rice production in the area was estimated to have a profit $902.51 (N179,600) and a net returns of $766.83 (N152,600). Farm size, system of rice cultivation and household size accounted for 78% of the observe variation in the farmer’s income. The study however concluded that paddy rice production in the study area is a profitable enterprise and it also recommended that consistent government policies that would favour increase in paddy production, market information, extension service delivery, input subsidization and credit facilities be implemented.
Influence of farmer characteristics on the production of groundnuts, a case o...paperpublications3
Abstract: Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) is a major annual oilseed crop and its economic and nutritive quality makes the crop a beneficial enterprise for rural farmers in Ndhiwa Sub-County. Researchers have recommended adoption of technology and increased contact with extension agents as one way of increasing production but productivity remains low. Crop productivity or yield is a function of environment, plant, management and socio-economic factors that interact at optimum levels to give maximum yields. The study focused on farmer characteristics which are part of socio-economic factors using the ex-post facto research design. The objective was to determine the influence of farmer characteristics on the production of groundnuts in Ndhiwa Sub County, Kenya. Purposive, multistage and simple random sampling was used in the study. Data on famer characteristics was obtained from 323 farmers out of the population of 21,820 farmers involved in groundnut production during the 2014 main cropping season. Document analysis was used to collate and analyze secondary data. Cobb-Douglas production function model and multiple regression analysis were used to study the behaviour and effects of independent variables on the dependent variable and test hypotheses. The results of the study showed that majority of the farmers were in households that were male headed with an average of seven persons. The household heads were middle aged, experienced in groundnut farming and had low levels of formal education. Age, gender of head of household, household size, level of formal education and experience in farming all had a positive relationship with groundnut production. However, only gender and experience in farming were significant at p <0.05 level of significance. Based on the findings the study recommended that interventions that target female headed households and improvement of farmers’ traditional knowledge on production should be put in place to improve production.
This document discusses farmers' suicide in India. It provides statistics showing that over 296,466 farmer suicides occurred from 2003-2014, with the highest rates in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Bihar. Common factors for suicide include financial indebtedness, climate change impacts, and being small-scale farmers with low incomes. Major causes identified are bankruptcy (39%), family problems (12%), farming issues (19%), and illness (10%). Preventive measures proposed include agricultural extensions, financial literacy, alternative livelihoods, and various stakeholder roles in support of farmers.
Impact of the Adoption of Improved Varieties of Household Income of Farmers i...BRNSS Publication Hub
In Benin, maize occupies a strategic place in the agricultural sector due to its growing importance in national
consumption and trade with neighboring countries. This study aims to analyze the impact of the adoption of
improved maize varieties on the income and expenditure of maize farmers in the South Atlantic Department
of Benin. The data used were collected from 144 maize growers in the Atlantic Department. Maize farmers
with or without improved varieties were selected randomly. The average treatment effect method with
propensity score matching was used to estimate the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties
on household income and expenditure. Maize growers using four impact indicators: (i) Netincome; (ii)
school expenses; (iii) health expenditure; and (iv) food expenditures. The results showed that the adoption
of improved maize varieties led to an improvement in annual netincome (a relative effect of 8.78%), health
expenditure (a relative effect of 15.88%), and expenditure on education (a relative effect of 16.08%). On
the other hand, the adoption of improved varieties of maize has no significant influence on the expenditure
invested in the dietof household members. It shows that the adoption of improved varieties of maize by
which has a positive impact on the netincome, health expenditure, and household education expenditure.
Effects of foreign direct investment inflows into agriculture on food securit...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that investigated the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into agriculture on food security in Ghana. The study found that:
1) Daily energy and protein consumption (indicators of hunger and nutrition) were negatively related to agricultural FDI inflows and statistically significant in both the short and long run, indicating that agricultural FDI had a detrimental effect on food security.
2) While increased FDI inflows and economic growth in Ghana did not necessarily promote food security, directed government expenditures and interventions are needed to support smallholders and ensure appropriate technologies are available.
3) The study contributes relevant information on the relationship between agricultural FDI and food security for Ghana, which can
11. nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
The document discusses a study that examines the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. The study uses survey data from 151 households. A probit model is used to analyze factors influencing participation in nonfarm employment. The study finds that land size, age, family size, special skills, electricity access, credit access, distance to market, and irrigation access are key determinants. A Heckman selection model is then used to examine the impact of nonfarm employment on food security. The results indicate that nonfarm income enables households to spend more on basic needs like food, education, clothing, and healthcare, and thus nonfarm employment plays a significant role in maintaining household food security.
Nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. It begins with an abstract that summarizes the study's objectives and methods.
The introduction provides context on Ethiopia's dependence on agriculture and food insecurity problems. It describes Eastern Tigrai zone as particularly food insecure due to environmental and agricultural challenges. The study aims to investigate if nonfarm employment can help address this issue.
The literature review discusses research showing nonfarm income contributes substantially to rural livelihoods and can reduce poverty and improve food security. However, participation is often constrained by lack of assets. The study will examine nonfarm income's role in household food security in Eastern T
Precision agriculture in Pakistan faces several issues including:
1) Small landholdings and scattered plots make use of modern machinery difficult.
2) Limited arable land and problems like waterlogging and salinity reduce crop area.
3) Traditional farming methods and lack of infrastructure, inputs, and irrigation facilities constrain production.
4) Socioeconomic challenges include consumption-focused farmers, joint family systems, illiteracy, and political instability.
Overcoming these issues requires measures like expanding credit, controlling waterlogging, improving seeds, mechanization, and research. Overall, Pakistan's agricultural sector remains backward due to insufficient use of technology and infrastructure support.
Agriculture in Ethiopia yet bases on small scale farming is experiencing frequent drought. The study examines, does improved wheat seed adoption benefit farmer’s wheat yield or not in Ofla woreda, Tigrai? A primary data sources from a survey of random sample 300 small scale farm households were gathered. Of which 100 were certified wheat seed adoptor farmers and the remaining 200 were non users. In dealing with propensity score matching (PSM) was applied. The average treatment effects on the treated (ATT) result revealed that improved wheat seed adoptor household’s earn 35 to 54 quintal of wheat yield per hectare at a cost of plowing 9,400 Birr larger in a single production year compared to non adoptors earn below 18 quintal at a cost of Birr 7,000. Adoption of certified wheat seed complementary with other packages is more recommendable to enhance wheat yield at small scale level.
The long run impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops in the districts of Punjab is analyzed for the time period of 1970 to 2010. This study used deviations from average maximum annual temperature and deviations from average rainfall are used as indicators for climate change. While other variables include sale price, fertilizer use and number of tube wells. In order to incorporate long timer periods, this study used Panel ARDL model. The results show that cotton productivity is more positively sensitive to price changes; an increase in temperature, tube wells and fertilizers while wheat productivity is more positively sensitive to the rainfall in the long run. Consequently, in the short run, wheat productivity equilibrium is faster converging. Hence deviations from average rainfall are harmful to cotton crop in the long run and cotton & wheat in the short run, while deviations in maximum temperature is only harmful for cotton crop in the short run.
Rural Development Issues in Bangladesh: focus on agriculture sectorRokonZaman14
Bangladesh has a population of 163 million and agriculture is an important sector, contributing 14.23% to GDP and employing 40% of the working population. 71.67% of Bangladeshis live in rural areas where 51.7% of employment is in agriculture. Rice is the major crop but wheat, maize, fruits and vegetables are also important. Cash crops include jute and tobacco. Key issues facing Bangladeshi agriculture include underemployment and labor shortages due to seasonality, price uncertainties and low returns, natural disasters from climate change, deteriorating soil quality, and a lack of quality seeds.
The document discusses the impact of COVID-19 on Indian agriculture. It outlines how the pandemic has affected agricultural supply chains and the agriculture sector through issues with seed accessibility, food production and distribution, fertilizer shortages, and impacts on livestock. The government implemented schemes to support farmers during this time like Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, PM-KISAN, and Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana. While some changes have been proposed to improve the agriculture sector, uniform implementation of policies is still needed.
Macro-Policy, Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction in Ethiopia: Maintai...essp2
This document summarizes an analysis of macro-policy, agricultural growth, and poverty reduction in Ethiopia. It finds that Ethiopia has achieved substantial progress in reducing poverty and increasing food security through agricultural investments and reforms. Agricultural growth averaged over 8% annually from 2004-2016 due to increased yields driven by improved seeds, fertilizer, and total factor productivity. However, macroeconomic imbalances including real exchange rate appreciation and rising public debt pose risks. Future scenarios project that land and water constraints may slow agricultural growth, while urbanization and changing diets will shape demand. Sustaining success will depend on balanced investments and managing macroeconomic stability.
This study evaluated people's perceptions of pine tree plantations and food security in the Kigezi Highlands region of Uganda. A mixed-methods approach was used, including questionnaires and group discussions with 384 participants.
The findings indicate that most respondents had a negative perception of pine tree plantations, believing they contributed to issues like land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and competition with crops. However, some benefits were also acknowledged, such as increased income and fuel wood. Overall, the study found that pine tree plantations had a negative effect on food security in the region due to the amount of land occupied. The null hypothesis that pine tree plantations had no significant effect on food security was rejected. The study recommends adopting ag
This document provides a review of literature related to food security and insecurity. It discusses several studies that have examined issues like chronic and transient food insecurity, the evolution of the concept of food security, the buffer stock policy, impact of population growth and income on food demand, food demand projections, causes of food insecurity at national and household levels, and the relationship between liberalization, trade, agriculture, and food security. The review covers topics such as food availability and accessibility in the context of economic reforms, and the role of the Public Distribution System in providing food security.
Role of agriculture in economic development of the ssaMulenge Peter
Sub-Saharan countries include the 48 independent countries that lie south of the Sahara desert, excluding South Africa, because its agriculture system reflects that of developed countries.
The economic impact of agricultural development on poverty reduction and welf...Caroline Chenqi Zhou
This study employs quantitative and qualitative methods to identify the relationship between agricultural development, poverty reduction, and income inequality. Building upon the World Bank’s Enabling the Business of Agriculture study (2016) and data from the World Development Indicators (2015) for the years 2000 to 2014, we test two hypotheses. The first pertains to agricultural development and poverty reduction to assess to what extent agricultural development reduces poverty. The second, in a similar fashion, addresses the relationship between agricultural development and income inequality. To supplement our quantitative analysis of these questions, we include a case study of agricultural development, agricultural policy reforms, and their impact in Vietnam and Tanzania. We find evidence that agricultural development reduces poverty.
Even though Ethiopia had undertaken different policy measures since 1991 to boost agricultural production and increase the spillover effects of agriculture, there is no available study done to know the effects of such policies. This study aimed to fill this gap by analyzing the supply response of the commodity chosen haricot bean in Sidama Zone of Southern Ethiopia. The study applies the modified Nerlovian model and uses price data and non price data from 1991-2012.The result of the estimates of the time series data shows that acreage is positively and significantly influenced by change in its own price in the long run. Acreage and yield are highly influenced by price and non price factors both in the long run and short run. Generally farmers respond to price incentives by reallocating land and increase yield. The error correction term shows that deviation of acreage from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and it takes less than five years to come to the equilibrium. On the other hand any deviation of yield from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and takes less than two years to come to the equilibrium. The empirical results illustrate that there is still great potential to increase production through improvement of price and non price inputs. Hence the ongoing measures should be directed towards assuring appropriate remunerative prices and increase investment and supply of other non price factors like, increase investment in irrigation.
1 ijhaf aug-2017-3-long run analysis of the carryingAI Publications
This study examines the long run response of Agricultural land use indices to population growth in Nigeria. The study made use of 35 year time series data collected from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) annual reports, FAOSTAT and World Bank Statistical reports (1980-2015). Collected data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The result shows that agricultural land productivity in terms of cereal (rice, sorghum, millet & maize) yield exhibited a negative and significant response to population growth rate. Agricultural land use intensity showed a positive and significant response to population growth ratein Nigeria. Agricultural value added to GDP demonstrated a negative and significant response to population growth rate. Population growth and cereal yield yearly forecasts were 8.9% and 7.5% respectively.The study provided sufficient empirical evidence on relatively weak capacity of agricultural land to cereal productivity under population pressure and the need for policy on land enhancement technologies in Nigeria.
This research work examined the impact of Agriculture output on Economic Growth in Nigeria, with the objective of determining the relationship between the Agricultural sector and the Economic Growth rates in Nigeria. Thus, the research was aimed at examining the contributions of agriculture (value added) to the growth of the national economy, investigating government expenditure on agriculture in Nigeria, and determining the contributions of crop production from agriculture on the Nigerian economy. Data were collected from the World Bank Data base and CBN statistical bulletin. Co-Integration and Vector Error correction model techniques were employed as well as the Granger Causality test to determine the causality relationship between Agriculture and Economic Growth. As a result of the data collected, analyzed and interpreted, the research found that Agriculture has positive and long run impact on Economic Growth in Nigeria. The paper recommends amongst many other things that the Government of Nigeria should put in more efforts to diversify the Nigerian economy as the Nigerian agricultural sector currently suffers a lot of marginalization which has not enabled it to contribute more significantly as it should.
Cost and returns of paddy rice production in Kaduna State of NigeriaPremier Publishers
As a result of increasing population growth and urbanization, there is a high and increasing demand for rice, this necessitates the high attention for its production. This research was conducted to determine the profitability of paddy rice production in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Data were collected from 60 randomly selected paddy rice farmers using a well structured questionnaire and analyzed using the descriptive statistics, net income and multiple regression models. The result showed that 97% were male, 88% married and had an average household size of 10 people. All respondents had one form of education and their average farm size was 15ha producing about 3.2tonnes of paddy per hectare. Paddy rice production in the area was estimated to have a profit $902.51 (N179,600) and a net returns of $766.83 (N152,600). Farm size, system of rice cultivation and household size accounted for 78% of the observe variation in the farmer’s income. The study however concluded that paddy rice production in the study area is a profitable enterprise and it also recommended that consistent government policies that would favour increase in paddy production, market information, extension service delivery, input subsidization and credit facilities be implemented.
Influence of farmer characteristics on the production of groundnuts, a case o...paperpublications3
Abstract: Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) is a major annual oilseed crop and its economic and nutritive quality makes the crop a beneficial enterprise for rural farmers in Ndhiwa Sub-County. Researchers have recommended adoption of technology and increased contact with extension agents as one way of increasing production but productivity remains low. Crop productivity or yield is a function of environment, plant, management and socio-economic factors that interact at optimum levels to give maximum yields. The study focused on farmer characteristics which are part of socio-economic factors using the ex-post facto research design. The objective was to determine the influence of farmer characteristics on the production of groundnuts in Ndhiwa Sub County, Kenya. Purposive, multistage and simple random sampling was used in the study. Data on famer characteristics was obtained from 323 farmers out of the population of 21,820 farmers involved in groundnut production during the 2014 main cropping season. Document analysis was used to collate and analyze secondary data. Cobb-Douglas production function model and multiple regression analysis were used to study the behaviour and effects of independent variables on the dependent variable and test hypotheses. The results of the study showed that majority of the farmers were in households that were male headed with an average of seven persons. The household heads were middle aged, experienced in groundnut farming and had low levels of formal education. Age, gender of head of household, household size, level of formal education and experience in farming all had a positive relationship with groundnut production. However, only gender and experience in farming were significant at p <0.05 level of significance. Based on the findings the study recommended that interventions that target female headed households and improvement of farmers’ traditional knowledge on production should be put in place to improve production.
This document discusses farmers' suicide in India. It provides statistics showing that over 296,466 farmer suicides occurred from 2003-2014, with the highest rates in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Bihar. Common factors for suicide include financial indebtedness, climate change impacts, and being small-scale farmers with low incomes. Major causes identified are bankruptcy (39%), family problems (12%), farming issues (19%), and illness (10%). Preventive measures proposed include agricultural extensions, financial literacy, alternative livelihoods, and various stakeholder roles in support of farmers.
Impact of the Adoption of Improved Varieties of Household Income of Farmers i...BRNSS Publication Hub
In Benin, maize occupies a strategic place in the agricultural sector due to its growing importance in national
consumption and trade with neighboring countries. This study aims to analyze the impact of the adoption of
improved maize varieties on the income and expenditure of maize farmers in the South Atlantic Department
of Benin. The data used were collected from 144 maize growers in the Atlantic Department. Maize farmers
with or without improved varieties were selected randomly. The average treatment effect method with
propensity score matching was used to estimate the impact of the adoption of improved maize varieties
on household income and expenditure. Maize growers using four impact indicators: (i) Netincome; (ii)
school expenses; (iii) health expenditure; and (iv) food expenditures. The results showed that the adoption
of improved maize varieties led to an improvement in annual netincome (a relative effect of 8.78%), health
expenditure (a relative effect of 15.88%), and expenditure on education (a relative effect of 16.08%). On
the other hand, the adoption of improved varieties of maize has no significant influence on the expenditure
invested in the dietof household members. It shows that the adoption of improved varieties of maize by
which has a positive impact on the netincome, health expenditure, and household education expenditure.
Effects of foreign direct investment inflows into agriculture on food securit...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that investigated the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into agriculture on food security in Ghana. The study found that:
1) Daily energy and protein consumption (indicators of hunger and nutrition) were negatively related to agricultural FDI inflows and statistically significant in both the short and long run, indicating that agricultural FDI had a detrimental effect on food security.
2) While increased FDI inflows and economic growth in Ghana did not necessarily promote food security, directed government expenditures and interventions are needed to support smallholders and ensure appropriate technologies are available.
3) The study contributes relevant information on the relationship between agricultural FDI and food security for Ghana, which can
11.effects of foreign direct investment inflows into agriculture on food secu...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigated the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) on food security in Ghana. The study found that daily energy and protein consumption, which are indicators of food security, were negatively related to agricultural FDI in both the short and long run. This suggests that agricultural FDI has had a detrimental impact on food security in Ghana. However, FDI can also potentially promote economic growth, job creation, and technology transfer in host countries. The document reviews both the potential positive and negative effects of FDI on development and food security.
Effects of Rice Liberalization Law on Rice Production, Farmers’ Wages and Gov...IJAEMSJORNAL
- The document analyzes the effects of the Rice Liberalization Law on rice production, farmers' wages, and government budgets in Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
- Quantitative analysis using time series data from 2010-2019 finds that government budgets have a significant positive effect on rice production, while low production negatively impacts farmers' wages and income.
- The study aims to determine if liberalizing rice trade through the Rice Liberalization Law significantly impacted the current rice market situation in Nueva Ecija.
Effects Of Khat Production On Rural Household’s Income In.pdfNadhi2
This document summarizes a study on the effects of khat production on rural household incomes in Kenya. Khat is a cash crop grown and exported from parts of Kenya. The study used surveys of 125 households, both khat producers and non-producers, to analyze factors influencing participation in khat through logistic regression and to assess the contribution of khat to incomes through propensity score matching. The analysis found that access to extension services, land size, income, and occupation of household head promoted participation, while age, distance to market, and credit access hindered it. The study also found that khat production positively contributed to rural household incomes.
This document discusses key issues and policies related to Indian agriculture. It outlines three main goals: 1) achieving 4% agricultural growth to raise incomes through productivity increases and diversification, 2) promoting inclusive growth for small farmers and lagging regions, and 3) maintaining sustainability. Several challenges are also discussed, including low productivity, declining farm sizes, and climate change impacts. The document then examines seven policy topics in depth: macroeconomic policies, transforming agriculture through links to industry, ensuring sustainable food production, improving agricultural markets and trade, building resilience, developing healthy food systems, and strengthening institutions and governance. Throughout, the document emphasizes the importance of sensible policies and innovations to address the needs of small farmers and achieve the three overarching goals
This study examined the effectiveness of agricultural protection policy and other macroeconomic variables on food supply, agricultural export, and farmers welfare in Nigeria, from 1980-2016 with a special interest in their relationship with the political economy. The specific objectives were to (i) estimate the degrees of agricultural protection, domestic agricultural food supply and economic welfare to farmers in Nigeria, (ii) determine the effectiveness of agricultural protection on food self-supply, agricultural export; and farmer-welfare. Data were obtained from secondary sources. Descriptive statistics and generalized method of moment (GMM) were used. Nigeria’s self-food supply was slightly above 50% while the rest of the consumption depended on importation. The welfare measure to farmers was relatively poor and not good enough to motivate them. There was a positive and significant relationship between export and agricultural protection. A significant and positive relationship also exists between farmer-welfare and protection in the sector.
Assessing the determinants of agricultural commercialization and challenges c...Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
This study assesses the agricultural commercialization levels, determinants, and challenges confronting smallholder cassava farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. This study was conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria using cross-sectional data from 211 smallholder cassava farmers and employing multi-stage sampling procedures. Descriptive statistics, Crop Commercialization Index (CCI), and Ordered Logit Model (OLM) were used to analyze the data collected. The results revealed that 83.9% of the cassava farmers participated in the commercialization of their cassava roots while the remaining farmers were non-participants. The greatest challenge faced by the cassava farmers in the study area was the incessant attacks by the Fulani herdsmen (destroying growing cassava on the farm) while other challenges included cassava cyclical gluts and poor access road. Moreover, OLM revealed that age, farm size, cassava marketing experience and distance to market had significant influence on commercialization levels of cassava farmers. However, in order to enhance increased commercialization levels of cassava farmers and peaceful coexistence in the study area, policies and intervention programmes that will facilitate rural infrastructure development and proffer lasting solution to the farmers-herders crisis should be given upmost priority.
Measurement of Technical Efficiency of Small Scale Farmers under the Growth E...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study investigated the technical efficiency of small-scale farmers under the growth enhancement scheme in Egbeda and Surulere Local Government Areas of Oyo State. Multistage sampling technique was used in the random selection of 250 respondents using copies of a structured questionnaire. The result of average input used of respondents was farm size (1.59ha), labor used (23 man-days), seed (30 kg), years of education (6.23 years), fertilizer (259.69 kg), and seasonal extension contact (7) while the average input per farm was 4,162.89 kg. Efficiency of farmers was influenced by the significant input variables such as farm size (3.3749), fertilizer (0.2094), and experience were significant at 1% while years of education (0.6038) and agrochemicals (0.0846) were significant at 1% and 10%, respectively. The distribution of efficiency score showed that farms within the range of 0.81–0.90 were highest with 62.4%. It was, therefore, recommended that policy that will stimulate more extension services and labor availability to improve on output.
A presentation from the 13th Poverty Environment Partnership meeting held in Manila, Philippines, June 2008.
Download this presentation and more from the meeting here: http://www.povertyenvironment.net/pep13
This document discusses a study that used a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to analyze the potential impacts of adopting hydroponics technology in Pakistan's fruit and vegetable sector and on global trade. The study adapted the GTAP global CGE model with separate sectors for fruits and vegetables among 15 aggregated sectors and 30 aggregated regions including Pakistan. Simulations were run to quantify the effects of increasing hydroponics production of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan and reducing import tariffs on chemicals used as inputs. The results showed overall positive impacts on Pakistan's real GDP, sectoral exports and imports, terms of trade, and domestic prices of fruits and vegetables, indicating that adopting hydroponics technology could benefit Pakistan's macroeconomic indicators and consumer welfare.
IFPRI works to address major trends impacting global food security and nutrition through research and partnerships. The document outlines several mega-trends including rapid population growth and urbanization, conflict and risk of famine, environmental degradation, and technological innovations. It discusses how IFPRI conducts research on these issues and partners with other organizations to build more resilient food systems and improve nutrition through approaches like social safety nets, strengthening value chains, and promoting crops with higher nutrient levels. Partnerships are seen as critical to addressing the complex challenges facing global food security.
Urbanization and pattern of urban food consumption in ashanti region, ghana ...Alexander Decker
Urbanization is rapidly increasing food insecurity in Ghana's Ashanti region. A study of 116 urban households found:
1) Yam, cassava, and rice have become more important in urban diets, comprising 64.3% of consumption on average.
2) Urban households spend 74.6% of their budget on food, indicating rising urban food prices are a challenge.
3) The estimated food security index was 0.66, meaning urban households do not meet the minimum daily calorie requirement on average and are food insecure.
4) Specifically, 78.5% of respondents were food insecure, and 34.2% experienced severe food insecurity.
This document discusses agriculture's role in inclusive growth in Uganda. It makes the following key points:
1) Agriculture is critical for poverty reduction and inclusive growth in developing countries like Uganda. Successful countries have raised agricultural productivity and transitioned farmers from subsistence to commercial agriculture.
2) Uganda has had mixed success promoting smallholder commercialization. Exports of high-value crops did well but staple foods faced challenges due to transaction costs. More public goods are needed to improve conditions.
3) National accounts likely underestimated recent agricultural growth. Poverty declined significantly while inflation remained lower than neighbors reporting higher agricultural growth. More targeted interventions are still needed but the focus on private goods over facilitating the private sector is
Determinants of Adoption of Improved Agricultural Technology and Its Impact o...Premier Publishers
The importance of agricultural technology in enhancing production and productivity can be realized when yield increasing and technologies are widely been used and diffused. Standing from this logical ground, this paper aimed at identifying the factors affecting agricultural technology adoption decision and examining the impact of adoption on household’s income in chiro district west Hararghe zone, Oromia national regional state, Ethiopia. Both primary and secondary data was used; primary data was collected through structured questionnaire administered on 97 randomly selected smallholder farmers and secondary data was collected from published and unpublished document related to this topic. For data analysis purpose both Probit and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression models were employed. From the total 97 respondents 80 of them were adopted improved agricultural Technology while the left were not adopted improved agricultural technology in the study area. The regression result revealed that agricultural technology adoption has a positive and significant effect on household income by which adopters are better-offs than non-adopters. The probit regression result revealed that gender of the household head; access to irrigation, credit service; extension service and income of the household head significantly affect adoption of improved agricultural technology in the study area. From these finding researchers recommend that government should encourage small scale irrigation, credit service and extension service in the study area.
The document discusses India's agriculture sector. It notes that agriculture is important to the Indian economy, employing over half of India's workforce and contributing 15% to GDP, despite a majority of farmers being small-scale or marginal. Key crops include rice, wheat, and fruits/vegetables. Agricultural growth has fluctuated over time periods. New policies are needed to support small farms, rainfed areas, and rural development for sustainable growth in the sector. The government has implemented various schemes to boost agriculture. Food processing and use of technology also present opportunities in Indian agriculture.
Drivers of Improved Cassava Variety Adoption among Farmers in Oyo State, NigeriaPremier Publishers
Low cassava productivity in Nigeria has been linked to low adoption of modern technologies amongst farmers, creating a large gap between the current and the potential yield of cassava. Therefore, this study examined the level of adoption of improved cassava variety (TME 419) and its drivers among cassava farmers in Oyo state, Nigeria. Data collected from 236 cassava farmers with the aid of structured questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics, adoption index and logit regression model. Results showed that cassava farmers in Oyo state were 49 years of age with farming experience of 21 years and farm size of 4 ha. About 69% of surveyed farmers adopted the improved cassava variety while the adoption coefficient was 0.66. The likelihood of adopting improved cassava varieties was significantly influenced by education, household size, primary occupation, farming experience, farm size, land ownership and age. Therefore, increasing the years of farmers’ education, farm size, ownership of land, entry of younger farmers, household size and non-farm occupation will increase the likelihood of adopting improved cassava variety among farmers.
Stability criterion of periodic oscillations in a (5)Alexander Decker
This document discusses using exponential smoothing models to forecast food crop prices in Ghana's Upper East Region. It compares the Holt-Winters multiplicative method to double exponential smoothing. Results found that double exponential smoothing performed better for crops with a trend, while Holt-Winters was better for groundnuts which had both trend and seasonality. The study recommends using double exponential smoothing for cereals with a trend and Holt-Winters for legumes with trend and seasonality. It analyzes food crop price data from 1992-2000 to test the models and examine price trends in the region.
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses synthesizing Taylor's scientific management approach and Fayol's process management approach to identify an effective way to manage marketing executives in Nigerian banks.
2) It reviews Taylor's emphasis on efficiency and breaking tasks into small parts, and Fayol's focus on developing general management principles.
3) The study administered a survey to 303 marketing executives in Nigerian banks to test if combining elements of Taylor and Fayol's approaches would help manage their performance through clear roles, accountability, and motivation. Statistical analysis supported combining the two approaches.
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
This document summarizes four algorithms for sequential pattern mining: GSP, ISM, FreeSpan, and PrefixSpan. GSP is an Apriori-based algorithm that incorporates time constraints. ISM extends SPADE to incrementally update patterns after database changes. FreeSpan uses frequent items to recursively project databases and grow subsequences. PrefixSpan also uses projection but claims to not require candidate generation. It recursively projects databases based on short prefix patterns. The document concludes by stating the goal was to find an efficient scheme for extracting sequential patterns from transactional datasets.
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes several techniques for live virtual machine migration in cloud computing. It discusses works that have proposed affinity-aware migration models to improve resource utilization, energy efficient migration approaches using storage migration and live VM migration, and a dynamic consolidation technique using migration control to avoid unnecessary migrations. The document also summarizes works that have designed methods to minimize migration downtime and network traffic, proposed a resource reservation framework for efficient migration of multiple VMs, and addressed real-time issues in live migration. Finally, it provides a table summarizing the techniques, tools used, and potential future work or gaps identified for each discussed work.
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
This document discusses data mining of big data using Hadoop and MongoDB. It provides an overview of Hadoop and MongoDB and their uses in big data analysis. Specifically, it proposes using Hadoop for distributed processing and MongoDB for data storage and input. The document reviews several related works that discuss big data analysis using these tools, as well as their capabilities for scalable data storage and mining. It aims to improve computational time and fault tolerance for big data analysis by mining data stored in Hadoop using MongoDB and MapReduce.
1. The document discusses several challenges for integrating media with cloud computing including media content convergence, scalability and expandability, finding appropriate applications, and reliability.
2. Media content convergence challenges include dealing with the heterogeneity of media types, services, networks, devices, and quality of service requirements as well as integrating technologies used by media providers and consumers.
3. Scalability and expandability challenges involve adapting to the increasing volume of media content and being able to support new media formats and outlets over time.
This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
HOW TO START UP A COMPANY A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE.pdf46adnanshahzad
How to Start Up a Company: A Step-by-Step Guide Starting a company is an exciting adventure that combines creativity, strategy, and hard work. It can seem overwhelming at first, but with the right guidance, anyone can transform a great idea into a successful business. Let's dive into how to start up a company, from the initial spark of an idea to securing funding and launching your startup.
Introduction
Have you ever dreamed of turning your innovative idea into a thriving business? Starting a company involves numerous steps and decisions, but don't worry—we're here to help. Whether you're exploring how to start a startup company or wondering how to start up a small business, this guide will walk you through the process, step by step.
Starting a business is like embarking on an unpredictable adventure. It’s a journey filled with highs and lows, victories and defeats. But what if I told you that those setbacks and failures could be the very stepping stones that lead you to fortune? Let’s explore how resilience, adaptability, and strategic thinking can transform adversity into opportunity.
Top mailing list providers in the USA.pptxJeremyPeirce1
Discover the top mailing list providers in the USA, offering targeted lists, segmentation, and analytics to optimize your marketing campaigns and drive engagement.
[To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
This PowerPoint compilation offers a comprehensive overview of 20 leading innovation management frameworks and methodologies, selected for their broad applicability across various industries and organizational contexts. These frameworks are valuable resources for a wide range of users, including business professionals, educators, and consultants.
Each framework is presented with visually engaging diagrams and templates, ensuring the content is both informative and appealing. While this compilation is thorough, please note that the slides are intended as supplementary resources and may not be sufficient for standalone instructional purposes.
This compilation is ideal for anyone looking to enhance their understanding of innovation management and drive meaningful change within their organization. Whether you aim to improve product development processes, enhance customer experiences, or drive digital transformation, these frameworks offer valuable insights and tools to help you achieve your goals.
INCLUDED FRAMEWORKS/MODELS:
1. Stanford’s Design Thinking
2. IDEO’s Human-Centered Design
3. Strategyzer’s Business Model Innovation
4. Lean Startup Methodology
5. Agile Innovation Framework
6. Doblin’s Ten Types of Innovation
7. McKinsey’s Three Horizons of Growth
8. Customer Journey Map
9. Christensen’s Disruptive Innovation Theory
10. Blue Ocean Strategy
11. Strategyn’s Jobs-To-Be-Done (JTBD) Framework with Job Map
12. Design Sprint Framework
13. The Double Diamond
14. Lean Six Sigma DMAIC
15. TRIZ Problem-Solving Framework
16. Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats
17. Stage-Gate Model
18. Toyota’s Six Steps of Kaizen
19. Microsoft’s Digital Transformation Framework
20. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)
To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
Best practices for project execution and deliveryCLIVE MINCHIN
A select set of project management best practices to keep your project on-track, on-cost and aligned to scope. Many firms have don't have the necessary skills, diligence, methods and oversight of their projects; this leads to slippage, higher costs and longer timeframes. Often firms have a history of projects that simply failed to move the needle. These best practices will help your firm avoid these pitfalls but they require fortitude to apply.
The Genesis of BriansClub.cm Famous Dark WEb PlatformSabaaSudozai
BriansClub.cm, a famous platform on the dark web, has become one of the most infamous carding marketplaces, specializing in the sale of stolen credit card data.
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The APCO Geopolitical Radar - Q3 2024 The Global Operating Environment for Bu...APCO
The Radar reflects input from APCO’s teams located around the world. It distils a host of interconnected events and trends into insights to inform operational and strategic decisions. Issues covered in this edition include:
[To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
This presentation is a curated compilation of PowerPoint diagrams and templates designed to illustrate 20 different digital transformation frameworks and models. These frameworks are based on recent industry trends and best practices, ensuring that the content remains relevant and up-to-date.
Key highlights include Microsoft's Digital Transformation Framework, which focuses on driving innovation and efficiency, and McKinsey's Ten Guiding Principles, which provide strategic insights for successful digital transformation. Additionally, Forrester's framework emphasizes enhancing customer experiences and modernizing IT infrastructure, while IDC's MaturityScape helps assess and develop organizational digital maturity. MIT's framework explores cutting-edge strategies for achieving digital success.
These materials are perfect for enhancing your business or classroom presentations, offering visual aids to supplement your insights. Please note that while comprehensive, these slides are intended as supplementary resources and may not be complete for standalone instructional purposes.
Frameworks/Models included:
Microsoft’s Digital Transformation Framework
McKinsey’s Ten Guiding Principles of Digital Transformation
Forrester’s Digital Transformation Framework
IDC’s Digital Transformation MaturityScape
MIT’s Digital Transformation Framework
Gartner’s Digital Transformation Framework
Accenture’s Digital Strategy & Enterprise Frameworks
Deloitte’s Digital Industrial Transformation Framework
Capgemini’s Digital Transformation Framework
PwC’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cisco’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cognizant’s Digital Transformation Framework
DXC Technology’s Digital Transformation Framework
The BCG Strategy Palette
McKinsey’s Digital Transformation Framework
Digital Transformation Compass
Four Levels of Digital Maturity
Design Thinking Framework
Business Model Canvas
Customer Journey Map
The Steadfast and Reliable Bull: Taurus Zodiac Signmy Pandit
Explore the steadfast and reliable nature of the Taurus Zodiac Sign. Discover the personality traits, key dates, and horoscope insights that define the determined and practical Taurus, and learn how their grounded nature makes them the anchor of the zodiac.
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1. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.6, 2011
Supply Response of Rice in Ghana: A Co-integration Analysis
John K.M. Kuwornu (Corresponding author)
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, P. O. Box LG 68,
University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana
Tel: +233 245 131 807 E-mail: jkuwornu@ug.edu.gh / jkuwornu@gmail.com
Maanikuu P. M. Izideen
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, P. O. Box LG 68,
University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana
Tel: +233 241 913 985 E-mail: maanikuu@yahoo.com
Yaw B. Osei-Asare
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, P. O. Box LG 68,
University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana
Tel: +233 209 543 766 E-mail: yosei@ug.edu.gh
Received: October 1st, 2011
Accepted: October 11th, 2011
Published: October 30th, 2011
Abstract
This study presents an analysis of the responsiveness of rice production in Ghana over the period
1970-2008. Annual time series data of aggregate output, total land area cultivated, yield, real prices of rice
and maize, and rainfall were used for the analysis. The Augmented-Dickey Fuller test was used to test the
stationarity of the individual series, and Johansen maximum likelihood criterion was used to estimate the
short-run and long-run elasticities. The land area cultivated of rice was significantly dependent on output,
rainfall, real price of maize and real price of rice. The elasticity of lagged output (12.8) in the short run was
significant at 1%, but the long run elasticity (4.6) was not significant. Rainfall had an elasticity of 0.004 and
significant at 10%. Real price of maize had negative coefficient of -0.011 and significant at 10%
significance level. This is consistent with theory since a rise in maize price will pull resources away from
rice production into maize production. The real price of rice had an elasticity of 2.01 and significant at 5%
in the short run and an elasticity of 3.11 in the long run. The error correction term had the expected negative
coefficient of -0.434 which is significant at 1%. It was found that in the long run only real prices of maize
and rice were significant with elasticities of -0.46 and 3.11 respectively. The empirical results also revealed
that the aggregate output of rice in the short run was found to be dependent on the acreage cultivated, the
real prices of rice, rainfall and previous output with elasticities of 0.018, 0.01, 0.003 and 0.52 respectively.
Real price of rice and area cultivated are significant 10% level of significance while rainfall and lagged
output are significant 5%. In the long run aggregate output was found to be dependent on acreage cultivated,
real price of rice, and real price maize with elasticities of 0.218, 0.242 and -0.01 respectively at the 1%
significance level. The analysis showed that short-run responses in rice production are lower than long-run
response as indicated by the higher long-run elasticities. These results have Agricultural policy implications
for Ghana.
Key Words: Supply response, Rice, Error Correction Model, Co-integration Analysis, Ghana
1. Introduction
One of the most influential policy prescriptions for low-income countries ever given by development
economists has been to foster industrialization by withdrawing resources from agriculture (e.g., Lewis,
1954). There is robust evidence that the majority of policy makers followed this prescription at least until
the mid-1980s. The results of a comprehensive World Bank study (Krueger et al., 1992), for example, show
for the period 1960 –1985 that in most countries examined, agriculture was taxed both directly via
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interventions in agricultural markets and indirectly via overvalued exchange rates and import substitution
policies. It is not obvious whether the disincentives for agricultural production have continued to exist since
the mid-1980s. On the one hand, most developing countries have adopted structural adjustment programs
which explicitly aim at a removal of the direct and indirect discrimination against agriculture. But, on the
other hand, it is known that many of these programs were not fully implemented, especially in Sub-Saharan
Africa (Kherallah et al., 2000; Thiele and Wiebelt 2000; World Bank, 1997). Hence it can be concluded that
a certain degree of discrimination still prevails.
One of the most important issues in agricultural development economics is supply response of crops. This
is because the responsiveness of farmers to economic incentives determines agricultures’ contribution to the
economy especially where the sector is the largest employer of the labour force. This is often the case in
third world low income countries. Agricultural pricing policy plays a key role in increasing farm production.
Supply response is fundamental to an understanding of this price mechanism (Nerlove and Bachman,
1960).
There is a notion that farmers in less developed countries respond slowly to economic incentives such as
price and income. Reasons cited for poor response vary from factors such as constraints on irrigation and
infrastructure to a lack of complementary agricultural policies. The importance of non-price factors drew
adequate attention in the literature: rainfall, irrigation, market access for both inputs and output, and literacy.
The reason cited for a low response to prices in less developed economies is the limited access to input and
product markets or high transaction costs associated with their use. Limited market access may be either
due to physical constraints such as absence of proper road links or the distances involved between the roads
and the markets, or institutional constraints like the presence of intermediaries (Mythili, 2008).
In Ghana, the goals of agricultural price policy are among others fair incomes for farmers, low food prices
for urban consumers, cheap raw materials for manufacturing (Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA),
2005). Price support was one policy that was used by government in targeting these goals. Price support has
been used in many countries across the world. The prices of major commodities have been set below world
prices using subsidies and trade barriers, guaranteed prices (act as floors) and domestic market forces
determining actual prices (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1996). The effect of liberalization on
the growth of agriculture crucially depends on how the farmers respond to various price incentives.
For many low-income countries, the impact of structural reforms on economic growth and poverty
alleviation crucially depends on the response of aggregate agricultural supply to changing incentives.
Despite its policy relevance, the size of this parameter is still largely unknown (Thiele, 2000).
Rice is a very important crop especially for those areas where it is produced. Rice is gradually taking the
position as the main staple food for the majority of families in Ghana especially in the urban centres. The
growth in consumption of rice has been not been matched with a corresponding growth in local production
of the crop. Per capita consumption of rice has steadily increased over the years since the 1980s from about
12.4kg/person /year in 1984 to about 20kg/person /year (Statistical Research and Information Division
(SRID), 2005). It continued to rise to 38kg/person/year in 2008 (National Rice Development Policy
(NRDP), 2009). Over the last decade rice per capita consumption has increased by more than 35%. This is
attributed mainly to the rapid urbanization and changes in food consumption patterns. It is estimated based
on population and demand growth rates that per capita consumption will reach 41.1kg by 2010 and 63.0kg
by 2015 giving an aggregate demand of 1,680,000tons/year (Statistical Research and Information Division
(SRID), 2005). Changes in population dynamics and the taste or preference for foreign products is
contributing to this trend. These changes are significant considering the rate of population growth. Ghana’s
population has grown by about 70% from 12.3 million in 1984 to about 21 million in 2004. The population
is now 24 million (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2011).
The growing quantum of rice imports into the country has also been triggered partly by the fall in world
market price. This is largely due to increased output levels in India and South Asia. Massive subsidies in
rice exporting countries have also contributed to this phenomenon. Despite all these developments there
seem to be a lack of coherent and comprehensive national policy for rice in Ghana. From the period of
economic recovery and structural adjustment, the country has had to embark on trade liberalization and the
removal of all forms of subsidies on agriculture. These policies no doubt have adversely affected rice
production in the country. The smallholder rural farmer is faced with unfair competition from abroad. The
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role of incentives to farmers has generally been sidelined or ignored in most developing countries due to
conditions of trade liberalization and global trade integration. However, a number of empirical studies in
other developing economies addressed the question of farmers’ response to economic incentives and
efficient allocation of resources (e.g. Chinyere, 2009). The agricultural sector in Ghana has undergone
various policy regimes which has affected both the factor and product market resulting in changes in the
structure of market incentives (prices) faced by farmers. Most of these policies have, however, not been
crop specific and therefore has wide variations in the quantum of changes in the incentives. This study
therefore follows the supply response framework of analysis to examine the dynamics of the supply of rice
in Ghana. Effort in this direction will have to be preceded by a thorough analysis of the factors that affects
the supply of rice. These teething problems lead to the following research questions;
How responsive is rice production to price and non-price factors? What are the long run and short run
elasticities of rice production? What are the trends in area cultivated, output and real prices of output?
Therefore, objective of the study is threefold: (a) Examine the acreage and output response of rice
production in Ghana. (b) Estimate and compare the long run and short run elasticities of rice production.
(c) Analyze the trends in output, area cultivated and real prices.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 outlines the methodology. In section 3 we present
the empirical applications and the results. Section 4 provides the conclusions.
2.0 Methodology
This section presents the methodology of the study.
2.1 Linear Regression
Linear regression was conducted to determine the growth rates of the variables over the study period. Time
in years was regressed on acreage cultivated, aggregate output, real price of rice separately.
2.2 Time series analysis
In empirical analysis using time series data it is important that the presence or absence of unit root is
established. This is because contemporary econometrics has indicated that regression analysis using time
series data with unit root produce spurious or invalid regression results (e.g. Townsend, 2001). Most time
series are trended over time and regressions between trended series may produce significant parameters
with high R2s, but may be spurious or meaningless (Granger and Newbold, 1974). When using the classical
statistical inference to analyze time series data, the results are only stationary when the series are stationary.
The solution to this problem was initially provided by Box and Jenkins (1976), by formulating regressions
in which the variables were expressed in first difference. Their approach simply assumed that
non-stationary data can be made stationary by repeated differencing until stationarity is achieved and then
to perform the regression using these differenced variables. However, according to Davidson et al., (1978),
this process of repeated differencing even though leads to stationarity of the series; it is achieved at the
expense of losing valuable long run information. This posed a new challenge to time series econometrics.
The concept of cointegration was introduced to solve these problems (Granger, 1981; Engle and Granger,
1987). By using the method of cointegration an equation can be specified in which all terms are stationary
and so allow the use of classical statistical inference. It also retains information about the long run
relationship between the levels of variables, which is captured in the stationary co-integrating vector. This
vector will comprise the parameters of the long run equilibrium and corresponds to the parameters of the
error correction term in the second stage regression (Mohammed, 2005). The cointegration approach takes
into consideration the long-run information such that spurious results are avoided.
2.3 Stationarity Tests
A data series is said to be stationary if it has a constant mean and variance. That is the series fluctuates around
its mean value within a finite range and does not show any distinct trend over time. In a stationary series
displacement over time does not alter the characteristics of a series in the sense that the probability
distribution remains constant over time. A stationary series is thus a series in which the mean, variance and
covariance remain constant over time or in other words do not change or fluctuate over time. In a stationary
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series the mean always has the tendency to return to its mean value and to fluctuate around it in a more or less
constant range, while a non-stationary series has a changing mean at different points in time and its variance
change with the sample size (Mohammed, 2005). The conditions of stationarity can be illustrated by the
following:
Yt = ѳYt-1 + µ t t=1………T (1)
Where µ t is a random walk with mean zero and constant variance. If ѳ < 1, the series Yt stationary and if
ѳ = 1 then the series Yt is non-stationary and is known as random walk. In other words the mean, variance
and covariance of the series Yt changes with time or have an infinite range. However Yt can be made
stationary by differencing. Differencing can be done multiple times on a series depending on the number of
unit roots a series has. If a series becomes stationary after differencing d times, then the series contains d
unit roots and hence integrated of order d denoted as I (d). Thus, in equation (1) where ѳ = 1, Yt has a unit
root. A stationary series could also exhibit other properties such as when there are different kinds of time
trends in the variable.
The DF (Dickey-Fuller)-statistic used in testing for unit root is based on the assumption that µ t is white
noise. If this assumption does not hold, it leads to autocorrelation in the residuals of the OLS regressions
and this can make invalid the use of the DF-statistic for testing unit root. There are two approaches to solve
this problem (Towsend, 2001). In the first instance the equations to be tested can be generalized. Secondly
the DF-statistics can be adjusted. The most commonly used is the first approach which is the Augmented
Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test. µ t is made white noise by adding lagged values of the dependent variable to the
equations being tested, thus:
∆Yt = (ѳ1 – 1) Yt-1 + IYt-I + µ t (2)
∆Yt = α2 + (ѳ2 – 1) Yt-1 + I ∆Yt-I + µ t (3)
∆Yt= α3+β3t(ѳ3–1)Yt-1+ I ∆Yt-I + µ t (4)
The ADF test uses the same critical values with DF. The results of the ADF test for unit roots for each of
the data series used in this study are presented in in the next section using equation (4) where Yt is the
series under investigation, t is the time trend, α3 is the constant term and µ t are white noise residuals.
Eviews was used in the analysis, all the data series was tested for stationarity and the results are presented
in section three.
2.4 Cointegration
Cointegration is founded on the principle of identifying equilibrium or long run relationships between
variables. If two data series have a long run equilibrium relationship it implies their divergence from the
equilibrium are bounded, that is they move together and are cointegrated. Generally for two or more series
to be co-integrated two conditions have to be met. One is that the series must all be integrated to the same
order and secondly a linear combination of the variables exist which is integrated to an order lower than
that of the individual series. If in a regression equation the variables become stationary after first
differencing, that is I (1), then the error term from the cointegration regression is stationary, I (0)
(Hansen and Juselius, 1995). If the cointegration regression is presented as:
Yt = α + βXt + µ t (5)
where Yt and Xt are both I (1) and the error term is I (0), then the series are co-integrated of order I (1,0 )
and β measures the equilibrium relationship between the series Yt and Xt and µ t is the deviation from the
long-run equilibrium path. An equilibrium relationship between the variables implies that even though Yt
and Xt series may have trends, or cyclical seasonal variations, the movement in one are matched by
movements in the other. The concept of cointegration has implications for economists. The economic
interpretation that is accepted is that if in the long-run two or more series Yt and Xt themselves are
non-stationary, they will move together closely over time and the difference between them is constant
(stationary) (Mohammed 2005).
2.4.1 Testing for Cointegration
There are two most commonly used methods for testing cointegration. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller
residual based test by Engle and Granger (1987), and the Johansen Full Information Maximum Likelihood
(FIML) test (Johansen and Juselius, 1990). For the purpose of this study the Johansen Full Information
Maximum Likelihood test is used due to its advantages. The major disadvantage of the residual based test is
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that it assumes a single co-integrating vector. But if the regression has more than one co-integrating vector
this method becomes inappropriate (Johansen and Juselius, 1990). The Johansen method allows for all
possible co-integrating relationships and allows the number of co-integrating vectors to be determined
empirically.
2.4.2 Johansen Full Information Maximum Likelihood Approach
The Johansen approach is based on the following Vector Autoregression
Zt = AtZt-1 + … + AkZt-k + µ t (6)
Where Zt is an (n×1) vector of I(1) variables (containing both endogenous and exogenous variables), At is
(n×n) matrix of parameters and µ t is (n×1) vector of white noise errors. Zt is assumed to be nonstationary
hence equation (6) can be rewritten in first difference or error correction form as;
∆Zt = Γ1∆Zt-1 + … + Γk-1∆Zt-k+1 + πZt-k + µ t (7)
where Γ1 = - ( 1- A1 - A2 - … -Ai), (i = 1, …, k-1) and π = - (1- A1-A2- …-Ak).
Γ1 gives the short run estimates while π gives the long run estimates. Information on the number of
co-integrating relationships among variables in Zt is given by the rank of the matrix π. If the rank of π
matrix r, is 0 < r > n, there are r linear combinations of the variables in Zt that are stationary. Thus π can be
decomposed into two matrices α and β where α is the error correction term and measures the speed of
adjustment in ∆Zt and β contains r co-integrating vectors, that is the cointegration relationship between
non-stationary variables. If there are variables which are I(0) and are significant in the long run
co-integrating space but affect the short run model then equation (7) can be rewritten as:
∆Zt = Γ1∆Zt-1 + πZt-k + vDt + µ t (8)
where Dt represents the I(0) variables.
To test for co-integrating vector two likelihood ratio (LR) tests are used. The first is the trace test statistic;
Λtrace = -2lnQ = -T i) (9)
Which test the null hypothesis of r co-integrating vectors against the alternative that it is greater than r. The
second test is known as the maximal-eigen value test:
Λmax = -2 ln(Q: r 1 r + 1 = -T ln(1-λr+1 ) (10)
which test the null hypothesis of r co-integrating vectors against the alternative of r+1 co-integrating
vectors. The trace test shows more robustness to both skewness and excess kurtosis in the residuals than the
maximal eigen value test (Harris, 1995). The error correction formulation in (7) includes both the difference
and level of the series hence there is no loss of long run relationship between variables which is a
characteristic feature of error correction modeling.
It should be noted that in using this method, the endogenous variables included in the Vector
Autoregression (VAR) are all I(1), also the additional exogenous variables which explain the short run
effect are I(0). The choice of lag length is also important and the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), the
Scharz Bayesian Criterion (SBC) and the Hannan-Quin Information Criterion (HQ) are used for the
selection.
According to Hall (1991) since the process might be sensitive to lag length, different lag orders should be
used starting from an arbitrary high order. The correct order is where a restriction on the lag length is
rejected and the results are consistent with theory.
2.5 Error Correction Models (ECMs)
The idea behind the mechanism of error correction is that a proportion of disequilibrium from one period is
corrected in the next period in an economic system (Engle and Granger, 1987). The process of making a
data series stationary is either done by differencing or inclusion of a trend. A series that is made stationary
by including a trend is trend stationary and a series that is made stationary by differencing is difference
stationary. The process of transforming a data series into stationary series leads to loss of valuable long run
information (Engle and Granger, 1987). Error correction models helps to solve this problem.
The Granger representation theorem is the basis for the error correction model which indicates that if the
variables are cointegrated, there is a long-run relationship between them and can be described by the error
correction model. The following equation shows an ECM of agricultural supply response involving the
variables Y and X in its simplest form:
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∆Yt = α∆Xt – ѳ(Yt-1 – γXt-1)+µ t (11)
Where µ t is the disturbance term with zero mean, constant variance and zero covariance. Parameter α takes
into account the short run effect on Y of the changes in X, while γ measures the long-run equilibrium
relationship between Y and X that is:
Yt = γXt + µ t (12)
Where Yt-1 – γYt-1 + µ t-1 measures the divergence (errors) from long-run equilibrium. Also ѳ measures the
extent of error correction by adjustment in Y and its negative sign indicates that the adjustment is in the
direction which restores the long-run relationship (Hallam and Zanoli, 1993). In order to estimate equation
(5), Engle and Granger (1987) proposed a two stage process. Firstly the static long run cointegration
regression (6) is estimated to test cointegration between the two variables. If cointegration exists the lagged
residuals from equation (5) are used as error correction term in the Error Correction Model (in equation 6)
to estimate the short run equilibrium relationship between the variables in the second stage. The validity of
the Error Correction Models (ECMs) depends upon the existence of a long-run or equilibrium relationship
among the variables (Mohammed, 2005).
The Error Correction Model (ECM) has several advantages. It contains a well-behaved error term and
avoids the problem of autocorrelation. It allows consistent estimation of the parameters by incorporating
both short-run and long-run effects. Most importantly all terms in the ECM are stationary. It ensures that no
information on the levels of the variables is lost or ignored by the inclusion of the disequilibrium terms
(Mohammed, 2005). ECM solves the problems of spurious correlation because ECMs are formulated in
terms of first difference which eliminates trends from the variables (Ganger and Newbold, 1974). It avoids
the unrealistic assumption of fixed supply based on stationary expectations in the partial adjustment model.
2.6 Supply Response Models
This study estimated the total area cultivated and aggregate output of rice in Ghana using double
logarithmic regression models.
Area cultivated of rice (lgarea) is a function of own price (Lrp), rainfall (lgrain), aggregate output (lgoutput)
and price of maize (lmp). The equation used for the regression is:
Lgarea = f1 (Lgoutput, Lrp, Lgrain, Lmp) (13)
Aggregate output of rice (lgoutput) is a function of the area cultivated (lgarea), the price of rice (Lrp), price
of maize (Lmp), rainfall (lgrain). The estimating equation is:
Lgoutput = f2 (lgrain, Lrp, Lmp, Lgarea)1. (14)
3. Empirical Application and Results
3.1 Results for linear regression
Table 1: The results of the regression analysis for the trend of the variables against time
Variable Coefficient Std error t-statistic R2 F-statistic Prob
Lgarea 1.334274 1.149167 1.61079 0.035154 0.253046 0.2530
Lgoutput -13.86625 68.09380 -0.20364 0.005889 0.844432 0.8444
lgyield -25.99348 35.51112 -0.73198 0.071100 0.487957 0.4880
Lrp 2.588941 5.221601 4.956136 0.399186 24.58311 0.0000
As can be seen from table 1 the results indicated that the regression for area, output and yield turned out
insignificant. Only the trend of real price of rice was significant at 1% significance level. Real rice price
yielded a positive coefficient of 2.589 which implies that for each year the real price of rice grew by 2.589
units.
3.2 Unit Root Test Results
As a requirement for cointegration analysis the data was tested for series stationarity and to determine the
order of integration of the individual variables. For cointegration analysis to be valid all series must be
integrated of the same order usually of order one (Towsend, 2001). Eviews was used to perform these tests.
1
Price of maize is included because we assume that the same resources (land type, fertilizer etc.) can be used to
produce both maize and rice. Hence, a rise in the price of maize will pull resources away from rice production to maize
production.
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The data series on annual acreage cultivated (Lgarea), aggregate output (Lgoutput), aggregate yield
(Lgyield), real price of rice (Lrp), real price of maize (Lmp), rainfall (Lgrain) was tested for unit root for
the study period 1970 - 2008. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller test was used for this test. The results are
presented below.
Table 2: Results of unit root test at levels
Series ADF test Mackinnon Lag-length Prob Conclusion
statistic critical value
Lgarea 2.221125 3.615588 2 0.2024 Non-stationary
Lgoutput 1.519278 5.119808 2 0.4582 Non-stationary
Lgyield 0.103318 4.580648 2 0.9419 Non-stationary
Lmp 0.378290 3.621023 2 0.9026 Non-stationary
Lrp 1.429037 3.615588 2 0.5579 Non-stationary
Lgrain 3.006033 2.963972 7 0.0457 Stationary
The results of the unit root test after first differencing are presented in table 3.
Table 3: Results of unit root test at first differences
Series ADF test Mackinnon Lag-length Prob Conclusion
statistic critical value
Lgarea 7.517047 3.621023 2 0.0000 I(1)
Lgoutput 9.577098 3.621023 2 0.0000 I(1)
Lgyield 7.517047 3.621023 2 0.0000 I(1)
Lmp 10.02189 3.621023 2 0.0000 I(1)
Lrp 6.346392 3.626784 2 0.0000 I(1)
Note; All variables are in log form. The ADF method test the hypothesis that H0 : X ~ I(1), that is, has unit
root (non-stationary) against H1 : X ~ I(0), that is, no unit root (stationary). The Mackinnon critical values
for the rejection of the null hypothesis of unit root are all significant at 1%. Lgarea denotes log of area
cultivated, Lgoutput denotes log total output, Lgyield denotes log of yield, Lmp denotes log of maize price,
Lrp denotes log of rice price and Lgrain denotes log of rainfall.
The results of the unit root tests showed that all the series are non-stationary at levels except for rainfall
which is stationary at levels as shown in table 2 above. However as expected all the non-stationary series
became stationary after first differencing. From table 2 the null hypothesis of unit root could not be rejected
at levels since none except rainfall of the ADF test statistics was greater than the relevant Mackinnon
Critical values. Hence the null of the presence of unit root is accepted.
However the hypothesis of unit root in all series was rejected at 1% level of significance for all series after
first difference since the ADF test statistics are greater than the respective Mackinnon critical values as
shown in table 3 above.
3.3 Cointegration Results
When the order of integration of the data series have been established, the next step in the process of
analysis is to determine the existence or otherwise of cointegration in the series. This is to establish the
existence of valid long-run relationships between variables. Basically there are two most commonly used
methods to test for cointegration. These were suggested by Engle and Granger (1987) and Johansen and
Juselius (1990). This study applies the Johansen approach which provides likelihood ratio tests for the
presence of number of co-integrating vectors among the series and produces long-run elasticities. The Error
correction model was then used to estimate short-run elasticities.
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3.3.1 Supply Response of Rice Output
Firstly, the Vector Error Correction Modeling (VECM) procedure using the Johansen method involves
defining an unrestricted Vector Autoregression (VAR) using the following equation.
Zt=AtZt-1+…+AkZt-1+µ t (15)
Likelihood Ratio (LR) tests were conducted with maximum of three lags due to the short time series. The
results are shown in table 4.
Table 4: Results for lag selection output model
VAR Lag Order Selection Criteria
Endogenous variables: OUTPUT AREA MP RP
Exogenous variables: C RAIN
Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ
0 -1208.968 NA 6.64e+32 86.92626 87.30689* 87.04262
1 -1184.928 37.77692 3.84e+32 86.35198 87.49387 86.70107
2 -1174.563 13.32579 6.37e+32 86.75452 88.65766 87.33633
3 -1138.068 36.49514* 1.92e+32* 85.29058* 87.95499 86.10511*
* indicates lag order selected by the criterion
LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level)
FPE: Final prediction error
AIC: Akaike information criterion
SC: Schwarz information criterion
HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion
LogL: Log-likelihood
The results indicate that the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and the Hannan-Quin information criterion
(HQ) selected lag order three while the Scharz Bayesian Criterion (SBC) selected the lag order zero. Thus,
this study selects the lag order three as the order for the VAR models. The next step in the Johansen method
is to test for the number of co-integrating vectors among the series in the model.
The results for the cointegration test imply that both the trace test and the maximum eigen value test selects
the presence of one co-integrating vector, thus it can be concluded that the variables in the model are
co-integrated. The Johansen model is a form of Error Correction Model. When only one co-integrating
vector is established its parameters can be interpreted as estimates of long run co-integrating relationship
between the variables (Hallam and Zanoli, 1993). This implies that the estimated parameter values from
this equation when normalized on output are the long run elasticities for the model. Eviews automatically
produces the normalized estimates. These coefficients represent estimates of long-run elasticities with
respect to area cultivated, real price of rice and real price of maize. The normalized cointegration equation
for rice output is given below;
Output=0.216748area+0.241522rp-0.009975mp-12841.69 (16)
Since cointegration has been established among the variables, then the dynamic ECM can be used for
supply response analysis since it provides information about the speed of adjustment to long run
equilibrium and avoids the spurious regression problem between the variables (Engle and Granger, 1987).
The ECM for rice output is presented as;
∆output = α0+ 1i∆outputt-i + 2i∆areat-i + 3i∆rpt-I + 4i∆mpt-I + 5rain – θECt-I (17)
Where θECt-I = α (β1outputt-I – β2areat-I – β3rpt-I – β4mpt-I)
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In the ECM model above, the α’s explain the short run effect of changes in the explanatory variables on the
dependent variable whereas β’s represent the long run equilibrium effect. θECt-I is the error correction term
and correspond to the residuals of the long run cointegration relationship, that is the normalized equation
(16). The negative sign on the error correction term indicates that adjustments are made towards restoring
long run equilibrium. This representation ensures that short run adjustments are guided by and consistent
with the long run equilibrium relationship. This method provides estimates for the short run elasticities, that
is the coefficients of the difference terms and, whereas the parameters from the Johansen cointegration
regression are estimates of the long run elasticities (Townsend and Thirtle, 1994). In selecting the best ECM
estimates, models with lag lengths are estimated and those with insignificant parameters are eliminated.
Note that the estimates presented above represent the short run effect of the explanatory variables on the
dependent variable. The long run effect is captured by the estimates of the normalised Johansen regression
results presented in equation (16). The diagnostic tests are the t-ratio test of the coefficients, LM test for
autocorrelation and the Jarque Berra test for normality of residuals.
Table 5: ECM results for rice output
Variable Coefficient t-statistic Prob
∆lgarea 0.017611 0.668907 0.0510
∆lgoutput(-1) 0.523393 2.283959 0.0319
lgRain 0.003740 0.997918 0.0328
∆lgmp -0.001107 -0.298174 0.7683
∆lgrp 0.009922 0.307758 0.0761
Residual -0.174253 -1.321005 0.0043
R2 (0.754242) F-statistic (2.523411) Prob(F-stat) 0.058261
It indicates that aggregate rice output is dependent on area cultivated, previous year’s output, and previous
year’s price of rice. The coefficient of maize price was not significant.
An R2 of 0.754 indicates that 75% of the variation in the dependent variable can be accounted for by
variation in the explanatory variables. The results indicate that area cultivated was significant at 10%, with
elasticity of 0.0176, which implies that a one percent increase in area cultivated of rice will lead to a
0.018 % increase in output in the short run. This is rather on the low side. This can be attributed to the fact
that an increase in the land cultivated without a necessary increase in the resources of the farmer will
increase adverse effect on the minimal resources available to the farmer hence resulting in this marginal
increase in output. This result also indicates that the productivity of the farmer reduces with increase in
farm size. The long run elasticity of area cultivated is 0.2167 (in equation (16)) is higher than the 0.0176 for
the short run. This indicates that over the long run farmers adjust their farm sizes more to output than in the
short run. That is, a 1% increase in area cultivated will lead to 0.217% increase in output in the long run.
Lagged output has elasticity of 0.523393 in the short run and is significant at the 5% significance level
implying that a one percent increase in output in a year will lead to a 0.52% increase in output the
subsequent year. This simply means that an increase in output will make capital available for the farmer to
invest in the subsequent year’s rice production activities. This is only true if the additional resource is
invested into the following year’s rice production activities.
Rainfall is significant at 5%. An elasticity of 0.003740 for rainfall indicates that a 1% increase in rainfall
will result in a 0.004% rise in output. This low impact of rainfall can be explained by the fact that a large
proportion of total rice output is produced under the irrigation projects across the country. This makes the
response of output to rainfall highly inelastic.
A coefficient of 0.009922 which is significant at 10% for real price of rice indicates that a 1% rise in real
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prices will lead to 0.01% increase in output the subsequent year in the short run. This makes prices also
inelastic. This low rice price elasticity suggests that farmers do not always necessarily benefit from
increasing prices due to the structure of the marketing system. Middlemen and other marketing channel
members purchase the rice from farmers at the farm gate and thereafter transport it to market centres to be
sold. Hence when there is a rise in prices a little fraction of it is transmitted to the famer. The low price
elasticity could also be attributed to the fact that farmers are hindered by an array of constraints such as
land tenure issues, rainfall variability, lack of capital resources and credit facilities which limits their
capacity to respond to price incentives. The long run coefficient of 0.2415 indicates that 1% percent
increase in real prices will lead to a 0.24% increase in output. The long run elasticity far exceeds the short
run. This is because over the long run when prices show a continual rise, farmers are able to accumulate
capital enough to enhance production.
The residual which is the error correction term is significant at 1% and has the expected negative sign. It
measures the adjustment to equilibrium. Its coefficient of -0.174 indicates that the 17.4% deviation of rice
output from long run equilibrium is corrected for in the current period. This slow adjustment can be
attributed to the fact that famers in the short run are constrained by technical factors as mentioned earlier
which limits their ability to adjust immediately to price incentives.
In the long run maize price is significant at 1%. With a negative coefficient of 0.009975 it implies that a 1%
increase in the price of maize will lead to 0.01% reduction in the output of rice. This is to say that resources
will be diverted to maize production relative to rice production leading to the fall in rice output. However,
Maize price was not significant in the short run. The results of the LM test of serial correlation for up to
fifth order show that there is no serial correlation in the data set.
3.3.2 Supply Response of Area Cultivated
Testing for the selection of lag length yielded the same results for both the acreage and output models.
Hence the same lag order three is therefore used for the Vector Error Correction model (VEC).
The trace test selects one co-integrating vector while the eigen value test selects two co-integrating vectors.
But since the trace test is the more powerful test (Mohammed, 2005), the result from the trace test is used
here. Thus the acreage model has one co-integrating vector. The normalised cointegration equation for area
cultivated is given as;
lgarea =4.613649lgoutput+3.11429lrp–0.46020lmp–59247 (18)
The ECM for area cultivated is presented as;
∆lgarea = α0 + 1i ∆lgoutputt-i + 2i ∆lgareat-i + 3i ∆lgrpt-I + 4i ∆lgmpt-I + 5l lgrain –
θECt-I (19)
Where θECt-I = α (β1areat-I – β2outputt-I – β3rpt-I – β4mpt-I)
The result of the estimated ECM is given in table 6 below.
Table 6: ECM results for area cultivated
Variable Coefficient t-statistic Prob
∆lgarea(-1) 0.169747 1.343021 0.1192
∆lgoutput(-1) 12.80810 1.816372 0.0824
lgRain 0.003984 0.138622 0.0891
∆lmp(-1) -0.011350 -0.401819 0.0691
∆lrp(-1) 2.016747 1.440683 0.0265
Residual -0.435411 -1.043641 0.0047
R2 (0.770669) F-statistic Prob(F-stat) 0.017301
(1.707148)
An R2 of 0.77067 indicates that 77% 0f the variation in the dependent variable is accounted for by variation
in the explanatory variables. Output is significant at 10% with an elasticity of 12.80 indicating that a 1%
increase in output this year will increase land cultivated in the subsequent year by 12.8% in the short run.
Thus acreage cultivated is highly elastic with respect to output. An increase output level gives the farmers
an opportunity to acquire necessary resources and equipment to put more land under cultivation. Output
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elasticity is even higher than that for real prices. This can be attributed to the fact that a large proportion of
output is for household consumption and thus is independent of prices. Increased output alone is enough
motivation to increase acreage under cultivation. In the long run output is insignificant. This because in the
long run land will get exhausted and output will be dependent on productivity (and not the area of land
cultivated).
Rainfall is significant at 10% with a coefficient of 0.003984; this implies a 1% increase in rainfall leads to
0.004% increase in area cultivated. This low response to rain can be attributed to the fact that large areas
under rice cultivation are in irrigated fields which depends less on rainfall for cultivation. Rainfall is an
exogenous variable (I(0)), hence it measures short run effect.
Maize price is significant at 10% with a negative coefficient of -0.011350 in the short run and -0.460 in the
long run. This means over the long run if maize prices are continually increasing farmers will commit more
resources into maize farming relative to rice farming. Thus as the price of maize rises area under rice
cultivation reduces both in the short and long run. In the short run a 1% increase in maize price reduces area
cultivated of rice by 0.0114% and by 0.46% in the long run.
Real price of rice was significant at 5% with elasticities of 2.017 and 3.11 in the short run and long run
respectively, thus price is elastic. This implies a 1% percent increase in real price of rice will result 2.017%
and 3.11% increase in acreage cultivated in the short run and long run respectively. This is expected since
in the long run farmers are able to adjust to overcome some the major challenges of production and hence
are able to adjust more to price incentives.
The error correction term has the expected negative sign and with a coefficient of 0.4354 indicating that
43.54% of the deviation from long run equilibrium is corrected for in the current period.
The results of the test for serial correlation show that is no autocorrelation in the series. The Jarque-Berra
test statistic of 10.18 with probability value of 0.25 implies that the residuals are normally distributed.
4. Conclusions
Economic theory in the past had been based on the assumption that time series data is stationary and hence
standard statistical techniques (Ordinary Least Squares regression (OLS)) designed for stationary series was
used. However, it is now known that many time series data are non-stationary and therefore using
traditional OLS methods will lead to invalid or spurious results. To address this problem, the method of
differencing was introduced. Differencing according to Granger however leads to loss of valuable long-run
information. Granger and Newbold (1974) introduced the technique of cointegration which takes into
account long-run information therefore avoiding spurious results while maintaining long-run information.
This study presents an analysis of the responsiveness of rice production in Ghana over the period
1970-2008. Annual time series data of aggregate output, total land area cultivated, yield, real prices of rice
and maize, and rainfall were used for the analysis.
The Augmented-Dickey Fuller test was used to test the stationarity of the individual series. The Johansen
maximum likelihood criterion is used to estimate the short-run and long-run elasticities.
The trend analysis for rice output, rice price, acreage cultivated, and yield revealed that only rice price is
significant at 1% significance level. The results imply that for each year, the price of rice will increase by
2.589 units.
All the time series data that was used were tested for unit root. They were found to be non-stationary at
levels but stationary after first differencing at the one percent significance level except for rainfall which
was stationary at levels at the 5% significance level. The Likelihood Ratio tests selection of lag order
selected order three by the AIC and HQ criteria for both models. The Johansen cointegration test selected
one cointegration vector (in both rice output and rice price models) indicating that the variables are
co-integrated. The diagnostic tests of serial correlation and normality test was done using the Lagrange
Multiplier test for autocorrelation and the Jarque-Berra test for normality of residuals. The results indicate
no serial correlation and normally distributed residuals.
The land area cultivated of rice was significantly dependent on output, rainfall, real price of maize and real
price of rice. The elasticity of lagged output was 12.8 in the short run and was significant at 1%. However,
this elasticity was not significant in the long run.
Rainfall had an elasticity of 0.004 and significant at 10%. Also real price of maize had negative coefficient
of -0.011 which was significant at 10%. This is consistent with theory since a rise in maize price will pull
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resources away from rice production into maize production. The coefficient of the real price of maize
estimated by Chinere (2009) was -0.066 for rice farming in Nigeria. This is higher than the -0.011 estimated
for Ghana (in this study).
The real price of rice had an elasticity of 2.01 and significant at 5% in the short run and an elasticity of 3.11
in the long run. The error correction term had the expected negative coefficient of -0.434 which is
significant at 1%. It was found that in the long run only real prices of maize and rice were significant with
elasticities of -0.46 and 3.11 respectively. The error correction estimated by Chinere (2009) was -0.575.
This indicates that adjustment to long run equilibrium is faster in Nigeria. This could be attributed to better
agricultural infrastructure in Nigeria compared to Ghana. The error correction for Indian rice in the rice
zone as estimated by Mohammed (2005) was -0.415. This could be attributed to the fact that Indian
agriculture was highly constrained by land problems hence leaving room for little adjustments in terms of
increasing acreage cultivated.
The aggregate output of rice in the short run was found to be dependent on the acreage cultivated, the real
prices of rice, rainfall and previous output with elasticities of 0.018, 0.01, 0.004 and 0.52 respectively. Real
price of rice and area cultivated are significant 10% level of significance while rainfall and lagged output
are significant 5%. In the long run aggregate output was found to be dependent on acreage cultivated and
the real price of rice and real price maize with elasticities of 0.218, 0.242 and -0.01 respectively at the 1%
significance level.
Mythili (2008) used panel data to estimate the supply response of Indian farmers. His findings also support
the view that farmers’ response to price is low in the short-run and their adjustment to reaching desired
levels is low for food grains.
The analysis showed that short-run response in rice production is lower than long-run response as indicated
by the higher long-run elasticities. This is because in the short run the farmers are constrained by the lack of
resources needed to respond appropriately to incentives. In the short-run inputs such as land, labour, and
capital are fixed. To address these concerns government should devise policies to make land available to
farmers so that prospective farmers could increase acreage cultivated. More irrigation facilities should be
constructed to put more land under cultivation.
It was also observed that the acreage model had higher elasticities than the output model. Thus farmers tend
to increase acreage cultivated in response to incentives. This implies that farmers have more control over
land than the other factors that influence output.
Efforts should be put in place to make the acquisition of inputs such as tractors and fertilizer more
accessible and affordable to farmers, and to improve the road network linking farming communities and the
urban centres.
Price control policy should be introduced and enforced to address the problem of frequent price fluctuation
which is the main reason for the low response to prices. Since farmers are aware of these price fluctuations
they are reluctant to immediately respond positively to price rises.
Though there is a market for rice in Ghana, recent developments have shown that consumers prefer foreign
polished rice; therefore, government should put in place the needed infrastructure to process the locally
produced rice to ensure the sustainability of local rice production.
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