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The presentation includes the topic of reservoirs, sources, and various modes of transmission of disease and their epidemiological significance in the prevention and control of diseases.
the topic also includes various examples to know the natural history of a given disease and how it will be applicable in a given epidemic situation
CM7.2 enumerate ,discuss and describe modes of transmission in disease preven...Anjali Singh
The presentation includes the topic of reservoirs, sources, and various modes of transmission of disease and their epidemiological significance in the prevention and control of diseases.
the topic also includes various examples to know the natural history of a given disease and how it will be applicable in a given epidemic situation
2nd year BSc Nursing - Unit- 3 BSc CHN_-Epidemiology.pptxthiru murugan
2nd Year B.Sc Nursing Community Health Nursing – IEPIDEMIOLOGY
By,
M. Thiru Murugan
UNIT-III: EPIDEMIOLOGY:
Definition, concept, aims, scope, uses and terminology used in epidemiology
Dynamics of disease transmission : epidemiological triad
Morbidity and mortality : measurements
Levels of prevention
Methods of epidemiology:
Descriptive
Analytical: Epidemic investigation
Experimental
Epidemiology
INTRODUCTION: Epidemiology is derived from Greek word “epidemic”
EPI – up on, DEMOS – people; LOGOS – study. Epidemiology means the study of disease in human population.
DEFINITION: “epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to control the health problems”.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Host, Agent, and Environment Model:
Host: The host is a susceptible human or animal who harbors and nourishes a disease causing agent. Many physical, psychological, and lifestyle factors influence the host's susceptibility and response to an agent.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Agent: An agent is a factor that causes to a health problem or condition.
Causative agents can be Biological, Physical, Psychological, Economical, Nutritional, Environmental etc..
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Environment: The environment refers to all the external factors surrounding the host that might influence vulnerability or resistance.
The physical environment
The psychosocial environment
AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Aims:
to describe the distribution and size of disease problems in human population.
to identify the etiological factors.
to provide the data essential to the planning, implementation and evaluation.
SCOPE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
I. According To Disease Group:
Infectious Disease Epidemiology
Cardio Vascular Epidemiology
Cancer Epidemiology
II. According To Group Of Factors
Nutritive Epidemiology
Reproductive Epidemiology
Environmental Epidemiology
Clinical Epidemiology
Molecular Epidemiology
Genetic Epidemiology
Computational Epidemiology
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Identify the causes of diseases.
Helps to describe the health status of the population.
Control the disease transmission.
Planning, implementing and evaluating health programmes on evidence basis.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
INFECTION: The entry and development or multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animal.
ENDEMIC: The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographical area or population group, without importation from outside.
EPIDEMIC: an out break of disease in a community in excess of normal expectation and derived from a common or propagated source.
SPORADIC: The cases occurs irregularly, haphazardly from time to time and generally infrequently.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
PANDEMIC: An epidemic which spreads from country to country or over the whole world.
ZOONOSES: Diseases or infections which are natu
INFECTION
INFECTION CYCLE
An infection is a disease state that results from the presence of pathogens in or on the body. An infection occurs as a result of a cyclic process, consisting of six components. These are:
• Infectious agent
• Reservoir
• Portal of exist
• Means of transmission
• Portal of entry
• Susceptible host
STAGES OF INFECTION
An understanding of the stages in the development of an infection is necessary to intervene and disrupt the infection cycle.An infection progresses through the following phases:
• Incubation period
• Prodromal stage
• Full stage of illness
• Convalescent period
THE BODY’S DEFENSE AGAINST INFECTION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RISK FOR INFECTION
HOSPITAL OR NOSOCOMIAL INFECTION
-TRANSMISSION BARRIERS
-Sterilization and Disinfection
-PPE
A detailed view of the transmission of various microbial diseases via pathogens and their infectious disease cycle. Along with a list of various diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. This Slideshare will be helpful for the students in the field of biotechnology, microbiology, bioscience, and various other fields of biology.
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4. 2nd
: Source or Reservoir
• The starting point for the occurrence of a communicable
disease
• Source of infection
Source of infection :
• the person, animal, object or substance from which an
the person, animal, object or substance from which an
infectious agent passes or is disseminated to the host
infectious agent passes or is disseminated to the host
(immediate source)
(immediate source)
• RESERVOIR
RESERVOIR:
:
• “
“any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or
any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or
substance, or a combination of these, in which
substance, or a combination of these, in which
an infectious agent normally
an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies
lives and multiplies,
,
on which it
on which it depends primarily for survival
depends primarily for survival, and
, and
where it
where it reproduces
reproduces itself in such a manner that
itself in such a manner that
it can be transmitted to a susceptible host.
it can be transmitted to a susceptible host.
It is the natural habitat of the infectious agent.”
It is the natural habitat of the infectious agent.” 4
7. “A person in the population or
study group
Identified as having particular
disease, health disorder or
condition
Under investigation”
7
8. The clinical illness maybe mild or moderate,
typical or atypical, severe or fatal.
Epidemiologically, mild cases may be
more important sources of
infection than severe cases because they
are ambulant and spread the infection
wherever they go, whereas severe cases
usually confined to bed.
8
9. Subclinical cases
Subclinical cases
Inapparent, Covert, Missed or Abortive Cases
Inapparent, Covert, Missed or Abortive Cases
• disease agent multiply
multiply in the host but does
not manifest by S/S.
• But contaminates the environment in the
same way as clinical cases.
• Subclinical cases play a dominant role in maintaining the
chain of infection in the community.
9
10. subclinical cases
detected only by
detected only by
laboratory
laboratory
tests
tests
occurs in most
infectious disease.
Eg
Rubella,
Mumps,
Polio,
Hepatitis A and B,
Influenza,
Diphtheria
10
11. Latent infection
• infectious agent lies in a
in a non-infectious
non-infectious form-
form-
dormant
dormant within the host without symptoms
symptoms with
no shedding
shedding (and often without demonstrable
presence in blood, tissues or bodily secretions
of the host)
eg.
eg.
HSV and VZV: nerve ganglia cells,
CMV: kidney and salivary glands cells,
EBV: lymphocytes
11
12. Index Case
◦ Person that comes to the
attention of public health
authorities
Primary Case
◦ First case of a communicable
disease introduced into the
population unit bring studied
◦ Attack rate
Secondary Case
◦ Person who acquires the disease
from an exposure to the primary
case
◦ Secondary attack rate
12
13. Carriers
Carriers
An
An infected person or animal
infected person or animal that
that harbors
harbors a
a
specific infectious agent in the
specific infectious agent in the absence
absence of
of
discernible (visible) clinical disease and
discernible (visible) clinical disease and
serves as a
serves as a potential source
potential source of infection to
of infection to
others
others
13
Reason :
due to inadequate treatment or immune response
the disease agent is not completely eliminated
leading to a carrier state.
14. Three elements in a carrier state:
Three elements in a carrier state:
14
15. CARRIERS
CARRIERS
As a rule carriers are less infectious than cases,
As a rule carriers are less infectious than cases,
but epidemiologically, they are more
but epidemiologically, they are more
dangerous than cases
dangerous than cases
because
◦ escape recognition
◦ continuing to live a normal life among population
or community
◦ readily infect the susceptible individuals
◦ over a wider area and longer period of time under
favorable conditions.
15
16. Incubatory Carriers:
Incubatory Carriers: those who shed the
infectious agent during the incubation period.
This usually occurs during last few days of IP
Measles- the period of communicability is 4 days before the rash.
Mumps- usually 4-6 days before onset of symptoms
Polio- 7-10 days before onset of symptoms
Hepatitis B- for a month before jaundice
Pertusis
Influenza
Diphtheria 16
Classification of Carrier
Classification of Carrier
17. Carrier May Be Classified :
Carrier May Be Classified :
By Type
By Type
Convalescent Carriers:
Convalescent Carriers:
those who continue to shed the disease agent during the
period of convalescence
In the disease, clinical recovery does not coincide with
bacteriological recovery.
Serious threat to HH members
Highlights importance of bacteriological surveillance of
carriere state after recovery
◦ typhoid fever
◦ cholera,
◦ diphtheria,
◦ bacillary dysentery
◦ pertusis
17
18. Carrier may be classified :
Carrier may be classified :
BY TYPE
BY TYPE
Healthy Carriers:
Healthy Carriers:
victims of subclinical infection who have
developed carrier state without suffering from
overt disease, but are nevertheless shedding the
disease agent
◦ poliomyelitis,
◦ cholera,
◦ meningococcal meningitis,
◦ salmonellosis,
◦ diphtheria.
18
Note:- Person whose infection remains subclinical may or may not act as
carrier (eg.- in polio inf may remain subclinical but person act as temp carrier
due to shedding of virus in stool..while TB most of us with +ve Mt, do not
disseminate bacillie- so not labelled as carrier.
19. Temporary carriers
Temporary carriers are those who shed the
infectious agent for short period of time.
Chronic carriers
Chronic carriers are those who excretes the
infectious agent for indefinite periods
19
20. Chronic carriers
Chronic carriers
Chronic carriers are far more important sources of
infection than cases.
The longer the carrier state, the greater the risk of
community-- reintroduce disease into areas which
are otherwise free of infection
The duration of the carrier state varies with the
disease.
In typhoid fever and hepatitis B, the chronic
carrier state may last for several years.
In chronic dysentery it may last for year or longer.
In diphtheria, the carrier state is associated with
infected tonsils, in typhoid fever with gall bladder
disease.
20
21. Mary Mallon (1869 –1938), better
known as Typhoid Mary, was the
first person in the US identified as
an asymptomatic carrier of the
pathogen associated with
typhoid fever.
She was presumed to have
infected some 50 people, three of
whom died, over the course of her
career as a cook.
She was forcibly isolated twice by
public health authorities and died
after a total of nearly three
decades in isolation.
21
22. Respiratory carrier: e.g. influenza
Fecal (intestinal) carrier: e.g. typhoid, cholera
Blood carrier: e.g. hepatitis B and HIV
Urinary : e.g.Typhoid
sexual Carrier: gonococcus and HIV
22
Carrier classified :
Carrier classified :
By Portal Of Exit of Infectious Agent
23. Animal reservoirs
Animal reservoirs
• infection that is transmissible under
natural conditions from animals to
man.
• e.g.
– Bacterial: Leptospira, plague from Rat.
– Viral : Rabies from dog.
– Protozoa: Leishmaniasis from dog.
– Helminths : Hydatid disease from dog
– Tape worms : Cattle , Pig.
•23
24. Reservoir in non-living
Reservoir in non-living
things
things
Some organisms are able to
Some organisms are able to
survive and multiply in
survive and multiply in
nonliving environments
nonliving environments
such as soil and water
such as soil and water
Clostridium that causes tetanus
Clostridium that causes tetanus
and botulism can survive many
and botulism can survive many
years in the soil
years in the soil
Hookworms deposit their eggs
Hookworms deposit their eggs
into the soil
into the soil
Water contaminated by human
Water contaminated by human
or animal feces cause GI tract
or animal feces cause GI tract
disease (list includes bacteria,
disease (list includes bacteria,
viruses, protozoa)
viruses, protozoa)
•24
25. 3rd - The Portal of Exit
3rd - The Portal of Exit
25
• Route of escape of the pathogen from
Route of escape of the pathogen from
the reservoir
the reservoir-IA enters into surrounding
env-transfer to host at their portal of entry
Examples:
respiratory secretions,
respiratory secretions,
GI
GI
blood exposure,
blood exposure,
breaks in skin
breaks in skin
26. 4th –Mode of Transmission
4th –Mode of Transmission
26
Direct
transmission
Indirect
transmission
Direct contact
Droplet infection
Contact with soil
Inoculation into skin or mucosa
vertical
Vehicle-borne
•
Vector-borne
:
Air-borne
Fomite-born
Unclean hands
and fingers
28. Direct Contact
•Inf spread by direct contact of
skin-skin, skin mucosa, mucosa-
mucosa of same or other person
•by touching, kissing,,
by touching, kissing,,
bites, or sexual intercourse
bites, or sexual intercourse
•Direct & immediate transfer of IA
from reserviour –host (no intermediate
agency)
•So it introduces larger dose of IA
•No time interval of survival in
environment..
•Overcrowded place or where
place with lack of ventilation
•28
Scabies
Pediculosis
STD’s
Skin/eye inf
leprosy
29. Droplet spread:
Droplet spread:
• Direct projection of
Direct projection of
droplets of
droplets of
saliva/nasopharynge
saliva/nasopharynge
al secretion by
al secretion by
Sneezing, Speaking,
Sneezing, Speaking,
Coughing
Coughing
• Droplets directly
Droplets directly
impinge on
impinge on
conjunctiva, nasal
conjunctiva, nasal
mucosa or skin
mucosa or skin
•29
34. Vehicle transmission
• Water: Cholera, H A V , H E V, Typhoid etc.
• FOOD:
FOOD: Staphylococci, Cl. Botulinum.
• Blood/serum-HIV, HBV,HCV
• Organ-cmv
34
Clustering of cases
Clustering of cases
Distance bw secondary cases more
Distance bw secondary cases more
Common source can be traced
Common source can be traced
36. Trans-ovarian transmission
Inf agent vertical transmitted from female
mosquito to her progeny
◦ Scrub typhus
◦ Rickettsial pox
◦ Indian tick typhus
◦ Q fever
◦ RMSF
Trans-stadial transmission-
Trans-stadial transmission-
Lyme disease, infects tick vector as a larva, and the
infection is maintained when it molts to a nymph and
later develops as an adult
36
37. host feeding preference
infectivity-ability to transmit disease agent
susceptibility – ability to become infected
survival rate of vectors in environment
Domesticity
Seasonal factors…
37
39. 5th - The Portal of Entry
5th - The Portal of Entry
•39
-route through which the
-route through which the
pathogen enters its new
pathogen enters its new
host
host
43. Breaks in Protective Skin
Barrier
•43
Percutaneous
Leptospirosis
Percutaneous
(bite of arthropod)
Yellow fever
44. 6th - The
6th - The Susceptible Host
Susceptible Host
44
A person or an animal that afford
A person or an animal that afford
lodgment to an infectious agent
lodgment to an infectious agent
under natural conditions.
under natural conditions.
•Accepts the pathogen
•The support of pathogen life & its
reproduction depend on the degree of the
host’s resistance.
46. HOST
HOST
Obligate hos
Obligate host : the only host
Eg: Man in measles & typhoid
Primary /definitive
Primary /definitive host: in which
parasite attains maturity or passes
its sexual stage
Secondary or intermediate
Secondary or intermediate hosts:
the parasite is in a larval or asexual
state
•46
47. Life cycle
Sporozoits Liver
Ring Trophozoits
Marozoits
RBC
Mature
Schizont
Mature
Gametocyte
Male / Female
Mosquito
Zygote
Ookinete
Oocyte
Salivary
Gland
Exflagellation
48. THE TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN INVASION BY
AN INFECTIOUS AGENT AND APPEARANCE OF
THE FIRST SIGN OR SYMPTOM OF THE
DISEASE IN QUESTION
52. Period From Disease Initiation To
Period From Disease Initiation To
Disease Detection
Disease Detection
For NCDs
For NCDs
53. 0
5
10
Zeit
No of cases
Generation
time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
GENERATION TIME
GENERATION TIME
INTERVAL OF TIME BETWEEN RECEIPT OF
INTERVAL OF TIME BETWEEN RECEIPT OF
INFECTION BY A HOST AND MAXIMAL
INFECTION BY A HOST AND MAXIMAL
INFECTIVITY OF THAT HOST
INFECTIVITY OF THAT HOST
54. THE GAP IN TIME BETWEEN
THE ONSET OF THE
PRIMARY CASE AND THE
SECONDARY CASE
55. It is defined as the time during which
an infectious agent may be transferred
directly or indirectly from an infected
person to another person, from an
infected animal to man , or from an
infected person to an animal, including
arthropods
57. It is defined as the number of exposed
It is defined as the number of exposed
persons developing the disease within the
persons developing the disease within the
range of the incubation period, following
range of the incubation period, following
exposure to the primary case
exposure to the primary case
58. Used to estimate to the spread of disease in a
Used to estimate to the spread of disease in a
family, household or other group environment.
family, household or other group environment.
Measures the infectivity of the agent and the
Measures the infectivity of the agent and the
effects of prophylactic agents (e.g. vaccine)
effects of prophylactic agents (e.g. vaccine)
58
SAR (%)
Total number of cases – initial case(s)
Number of susceptible persons in the group –
initial case(s)
= x 100