part3ExcursionsintoRussianandAmericanHistory.doc

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ
РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
____________________________
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ
ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ
ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
ДЛЯ ИНВАЛИДОВ С НАРУШЕНИЕМ ОПОРНО-ДВИГАТЕЛЬНОЙ СИСТЕМЫ
МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ
ГУМАНИТАРНО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ
Excursions into Russian and American History
in Writing and Stories
by Edward Fadeev and Svetlana Bogatyreva
Writing Skills
Moscow – 2015

Excursions into Russian and American History in Writing and Stories, Writing Skills, is a third part
of a comprehensive rhetoric and sentence structure textbook/workbook for high-intermediate English
language learners who are in college. This book teaches writing in a straightforward manner, using a step-
by-step approach. Clear, relevant models illustrate each step, and varied practices reinforce each lesson.
The first part of the book provides a quick review of importance of proper vocabulary activity. The
second unit shows some useful aspects and practices in describing people. The third unit informs on
descriptive composition and variety of proper ways to organize it. The following units 4 and 5 provide
students with necessary points regarding principles in paragraph structuring and types of writing. These
units offer comprehensive chapters on process, cause/effect, comparison/contrast, and argumentative
essays. Sentence structure, with special emphasis on subordinated structures, is taught in the third part of
tire book.
The course introduces students with varieties of personal and official letters, which can play a vital
role in improving writing skills.
Throughout the book, models and practices feature general academic and historic topics that are
timely and relevant to students living in a rapidly changing world. In addition, readings from current, real-
world publications conclude the chapters on different essay forms. Most chapters offer a variety of writing
assignments, and each chapter ends with a review of the main teaching points.
Appendices explain the writing process; give punctuation rules; show charts of connecting words,
transition signals, and editing symbols; and teach students basic research and documentation skills. Self-
editing and peer-editing worksheets and model scoring rubrics are also provided. References to the
appendices appear within the chapters where students are likely to benefit most from using this material.

To the Student
Writing is a very important part of your university study. Yon will write assignments that may range
from one paragraph to several pages long, and will write answers on tests and exams that may be a few
sentences long or a complete essay.
Academic writing in English may he different not only from academic writing in your own
language, but even from other writing in English. The purpose of this textbook is to help you recognise
and produce the sort of writing that you will do for your university courses.
During this course, you will have many opportunities to .study and discuss examples of English
academic writing. Naturally, you will also have many opportunities to discuss your own academic writing
and the writing of your classmates. You will learn how important the reader is to the writer, and how to
express clearly and directly what you mean to communicate. We hope that what you learn in this course
will help you throughout your academic studies and beyond.
You should come to your writing class every day with energy and a willingness to work and learn.
Your teacher and your classmates have a lot to share with you, and you have a lot to share with them. By
coming to class with your questions, taking chances and trying new ways, and expressing your ideas in
another language, you will add not only to your own English world but to the world of those around you.
Good luck!

CONTENTS
UNIT ONE. BUILDING YOUR VOCABULARY
UNIT TWO. DESCRIBING PEOPLE
2.1. Describing People Appearance
2.2. Describing People Character
UNIT THREE. DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION
UNIT FOUR. PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
UNIT FIVE. PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH
5.1. Describing of process
5.2. Cause and Effect in essays
5.3. Comparison and Contrast
5.4. Argumentative essays
UNIT SIX. TYPES OF WRITING
UNIT SEVEN. LETTER WRITING
VISUAL MATERIALS FOR DESCRIPTION
APPENDIX 1. PUNCTUATION
APPENDIX 2. SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC
APPENDIX 3. FILLING OUT FORMS AND PRACTICE IN VOICE PRESENTATIONS
APPENDIX 4. PERSONAL VIGNETTES
APPENDIX 5. FILLING OUT OF A FORM (APPLICATION)

INTRODUCTION
The six steps of the writing process
Read about the writing process. These are major steps, which you will practice in this book.
Process writing
When we write, we do more than just put words together to make sentences. Good writers go
through several steps to produce a piece of writing.
PRE-WRITING ACTIVITY: GETTING READY TO WRITE.
STEP ONE: Choose a topic.
STEP TWO: GATHER IDEAS ON TOPIC. When you have decided on a topic, take some time and
think over what exactly you will write about that topic.
STEP THREE: ORGANISE. Make up your mind on which ideas you want to use and where you want
to use them. Choose ideas to write about first, and what you will write next, and what
exactly you will write last.
DRAFTING YOUR WRITING
STEP FOUR: WRITE. Write your paragraph or essay from start to finish. Use your notes.
REVIEWING AND REVISING
STEP FIVE: Review structure and content of your writing. Check what you have written. Look at places
where you can add some more information.
REWRITING
STEP SIX: Revise structure and content. Rewrite your text making necessary improvements to the
structure and context. Make your writing more logical and coherent
What is pre-writing?
 Gather ideas you want to describe;
 Edit these ideas and putting them in logical or chronological order;
Before you begin writing, you must decide what exactly you are going to write about. Then you
plan what you will write. This process is called pre-writing.

CHOOSING AND NARROWING A TOPIC
How to choose a topic for aparagraph
A paragraph is a group of five to ten sentences that give in format on about a topic. Before you
write, you must choose a topic for your paragraph.
• Choose a topic that isn't too narrow (limited. brief). A narrow topic will not have enough
ideas to write about. The ages of my brothers and sisters is too narrow. You can not write
very much about it.
• Choose a topic that isn't too broad (genera)). A broad topic: will have too many ideas for
just one paragraph. Most paragraphs are five to ten sentences long. A topic Schools is too
general. There are thousands of things you can say about it. A narrower topic Specialized
English School in my neighborhood is general and more specific.
A student could narrow this topic bv choosing one aspect of schools to discuss. For
instance, secondary schools in my country, popular school, dubs university, entrance
exams and etc.
Choose three topics from this list. Narrow each of the three down. Then compare with apartner.
a. festivals
b. friends
c. my country
d. dancing
e. cars
Brainstorming
What is brainstorming?
Brainstorming is a way of gathering ideas about a topic. Think of a storm: thousands of drops
of rain, coming down together. Now. imagine thousands of ideas 'raining' down onto your paper!
When you brainstorm, write down every idea that comes to you. Don’t worry now about whether
the ideas are good or silly, useful or not. You can decide a draft later. Right now, you are gathering
as many ideas as you can.
You will learn three types of brainstorming in this unit. They are: making a list,free writing,
and mapping.
Making a list
Write single words, phrases, or sentences that are connected to your topic. Look at this list
and made when brainstorming ideas to write about her topic, 'What should I study at university?'
History — chronological facts about the past; mathematics (too difficult, not interesting?) What
job do I have later? English for work? Travel? Writing?
Work witha partner orsmall group. Choose one of these topics. List as many ideas as youcan in five minutes.
a. teenage fashions;

b. things to do on the beach;
c. driving a motorbike;
Free Writing
When you free write, you write whatever is in your head about your topic, without stopping.
Most free writing exercises are short—just five от ten minutes.
Free writing helps you practice fluency (writing quickly and easily). When you free write,
you do not need to worry about accuracy (having correct grammar and spelling). Do not check
your dictionary when you free write. Do not stop if you make a mistake. Just keep writing!
Here is an example of a student’s free writing:
There are so many subjects to study at university; it is difficult to choose just one. I have
always had A and B grades in math, but the problem is that I do not like it very much. I also do
not like physics or other exact subjects. Writing? Yes, I have always liked writing. Would
journalism be a good job for me in the future? Newspapers also have many pictures, so maybe
photography will be good for me.
Notice how the writer’s ideas jump around. When she makes a mistake, she
just crosses it out and continues writing. One thought leads to another (journalism)
and then to another {photography). There are some details that are not exactly
should be written about. However, that is OK in free writing. You want to get as
many ideas on paper as you can. You can take out all unnecessary words and
sentences later.
Choose one of the narrowed down topics you thought of for exercise 1 on page 5. Practice
in free writing for live minutes. Remember, do not stop, erase, or go back. Just write as
much as you can.
Mapping
То make а map, use a whole piece of paper, and write your topic: in the middle, with a circle
around it. Then put. next idea in a circle above or below your topic, and connect the circles
with lines. The lines show that the two ideas are related.
The example below shows а map of ‘What should I study at university?’ The writer
connected favorite subjects to the main idea. Art and English arc connected to favorite
subjects to show that they are related.
What should I study Favorite subject English It is good for a
job. It is also good for travels.
Editing
How to edit
After you have gathered plenty of ideas, you will need to go back and edit them. This is the
time to choose which ideas are the most interesting, and which are the most relevant to (important
or necessary for) your topic. Of course, you can still add some new ideas if you think of something
else while you are re-reading your list. For example, the student writing ‘What should I study in

college?' edited her list like this: English for work? Travel? Writing? It is important in many
subjects.
Not related.
If you believe that some of your ideas are not related, you can just cross out circles or add
new ones.
Unit One. Building Your Vocabulary
Working on your vocabulary is considered to be one of the most important aspects in
developing of your writing skills. First of all, a writer should determine an audience which will be
using your piece of writing and determine a kind of vocabulary which you need to use.
If you use formal language, it may be useful because you wish to show respect, politeness,
or to put yourself at a distance (for example, ‘official’ language). Informal language can show your
friendliness, equality or a feeling of closeness and solidarity with someone. You should never use
informal language just to sound fluent or clever.
There are basically three kinds of formality that can be seen as follows:
Very formal Neutral Very informal
Offspring
Residence
Children
A flat, a house
Kids
Place
Informal words are often short and monosyllabic, and they often include slang words. For
example: That black and white set (television) cost me ten quids (pounds). My junk (falling in
pieces) car is heavy on petrol. (much-petrol consuming).
On the other side, formal vocabulary is commonly used in official papers, notices,
instructions. for example, The Driver should not be addressed unless the bus is stationary.
Formal Words
The three passages below are written in formal English. They contain words and structures
which are often found in notices, regulations and formal letters but which are not common in
ordinary everyday conversation.
Exercise № 1. Put each of the following formal words in its correct place in the notice below.
Enquire, produce, facilitate, stating, seek, obligatory, attend , admitted ,
leave
ALL COLLEGE STUDENTS
If you wish to obtain a certificate of registration, you will be required to (a) … your admission
slip. A note from your teacher (b) …that you (c) … your class regularly is not (d) … but will
greatly (e) … matters. If you (f) … advice, please (g) … at the office. Overseas students should be
aware that students are (h) … to the college only on condition that they have obtained (i) … to
study from the Home Office.
Exercise № 2. Put each of the following words or phrases in its correct place in the passage below.

Provide, prior, notify, inpossessionof, additional, further, desire, in excess of, held ,
retain, locations , terminating
Conditions of Car Rental
Drivers must have (a)… a valid driving license for a minimum of three years. Overseas visitors
should be (b) …a British or International license. Cars rented from our London office may only
be returned to our other offices (Manchester, Bristol, and Oxford) by (c) … arrangement and on
payment of an (d) …charge. If a driver fails to return a car to us by one week after the agreed (e)
…date, we will be obliged to inform the police. Special rates are available for periods (f) … three
months. Drivers who (g) ….to (h) ….the car for a longer duration should (i) …. the company as
soon as possible. We also have offices at a number of (j)…. in Scotland. Our London office will
be pleased to (k) ….(l) ….details.
Exercise № 3. Instructions as above.
funds,commencement, ensure, induration, commences, departs, requested,
prior to, undertake, assist, attire, appropriate
Make the following phrases more formal by replacing each word or phrase in italics with a
word or phrase from one of the groups in the above three exercises. In some cases, it is necessary
to make a small change in, or addition to, the words or phrases, e.g., the train leaves at 07.15 or
the train departs at 07.15
A TOUR OF NORTHERN SHREWSBURY
The tour is fifteen days (a) … and (b) … on Saturday 12 June, when our luxurious coach (c) …
from our London office. The price, which should be paid at least 10 days (d) … the (e) … of the
tour, is inclusive of all transport, meals and accommodation, but travellers should (f) … that they
take with them adequate (g) … for extra expenses. In the event of the cancellation of the tour we
(h) … to refund the complete amount paid. The tour group will be accompanied by a courier, who
will (i) … members of the group at all times. Travelers are (j) … to wear (k) … (l) … for visits to
churches and other holy places.
Slang and Colloquial Words
Slang is vocabulary which is used in very informal spoken language but not considered good in
formal ‘correct’ English. For example, a slang word for ‘thank you’ is ‘ta’ and a slang word for
‘mad’ is ‘nuts’.
Exercise № 4. The slang words in the sentences below are printed in italics. Replace each slang
word with a word or phrase from the following list,
madefriend, television, policeman,discarded, nuisance, pound(s), cigarettes, alcohol,
prison, without money
1 He smokes 30 fags a day. Too many!
2 He drinks a lot. He must spend twenty quid a week on booze.
3 He thought his meal was overcooked. When the waiter brought his bill he kicked up a fuss

and would not pay.
4 I lost £500 at a casino last night. I’m absolutely skint.
5 My mate stole a car. Now he’s in the nick.
6 She got bored with her boyfriend and ditched him.
7 There’s a good film on the box tonight, but I've got to go out. What a dragI
8 I wouldn't like to be a copper directing traffic in the street in this bad weather.
Colloquial words are words, which are quite acceptable in spoken English but not in written
English (except in informal letters to friends etc.). For example, we might say, ‘He’s a nice chap,'
but we would probably write, 'He is a pleasant man.' (The line between slang and colloquial words
is not at all clear and many words considered colloquial by some people would be considered slang
by others.)
Exercise № 5. The colloquial words in the sentences below are printed in italics. Replace each
colloquial word with a word or phrase from the following list.
Drunk, verygood,child, shortsleep, bicycle dismiss, joking,withoutmoney, toilet,
possessions, newspaper, upper class
(a) Her boss said he would sack her if she was late again.
(b) There’s a super film on at the pictures this week.
(c) He made a lot of money and now he lives in a very posh district.
(d) When I was a kid I went everywhere by bike.
(e) My grandfather usually has a snooze after lunch.
(f) Did you really find £50, or are you kidding?
(g) She lives in just one room and has to share a kitchen, bathroom and loo with the other
people in the house.
(h) I’m broke. Can you lend me some money?
(i) I’m afraid I drank too much and got a bit merry.
(j) You can’t believe everything you read in the paper.
(k) She’s very untidy. She leaves her stuff lying all over the place.

American Words
Exercise № 6. The American words in the sentences below are printed in italics. Replace each
American word or phrase with a British word or phrase from the following list.
Fail,rise,chemist,caretaker,playingtruant,fiat,railwaytimetable, tap,nappies,holidays,
ordinaryuniformedpoliceman,bill,pavement,trousers, saloon car, postman, post
(a) His mother thought he was at school but in fact he was playing hookey. He’ll probably flunk
his exams.
(b) The kitchen faucet in my apartment isn’t working. I’ll tell the janitor. He’ll get it fixed.
(c) Blue-collar workers are asking for a pay-hike and longer paid vacations.
(d) The dog attacked the mailman and tore his pants.
(e) Do you have a railroad schedule? I want an early train for Chicago tomorrow.
(f) A patrolman reported a light-blue sedan parked right across the sidewalk on 3rd Street.
(g) She has a little baby so she has to make regular visits to the drugstore to buy diapers.
(h) When the waiter handed me the check after the meal, I found that I had no money!
(i) How much does it cost to mail a letter to Australia?
Exercise № 7. Replace cursive American words with common English words.
Petrol,jam,specialize(universitystudies),garden,windscreen,lift,underground,cinema,
university,queue, maths(mathematics),shopssweets, rubbish, note, petrol station,
autumn, secondary school, ground floor
(a) We had to stand in line at the movie-theater last night.
(b) Our back yard looks lovely in the fail. The leaves on the trees turn brown and red.
(c) He wants to major in math at college when he leaves high school.
(d) When you stop for gas at a gas station, they sometimes clean your windshield.
(e) We had to buy a lot at the stores, then we took the subway home.
(f) The elevator’s broken down again, but it doesn’t matter. We live on the first floor.
(g) She likes candy, and bread and butter with jelly on it. They’re bad for her teeth,
(h) The only money I have is a twenty dollar bill.
(i) in this district they only collect the garbage once a week.
Exercise № 8. Make up a list of most commonly used stores in your neighbouhood area. Then
define them by using proper adjectives and compound nouns like in the model.
Model: There’s just one ironmonger store in my neighbouhood. It’s rather close situated to my
block of flats, just four hundred yards south-east from my flat. I suppose it’s quite useful when I
need to buy some kinds of nails, screws or wall-plaster for renovation of my flat.
Exercise № 9. Make up a list of your kinsmen or friends and characterize them by using appropriate
adjectives and compound nouns as shown in the model.

Model: There’re just three close people of our family who are my uncle Andrew, an aunt Stephanie
and their only son Jacob. Andrew is a curly-haired, sun-tanned, blue-eyed and muscular
man in his early forties. He’s a well-educated and Moscow bred intelligent.
Unit 2. Describing People
Describing people is definitely required in all spheres of common and business life. Read
the following words, and study this vocabulary, which can be used in describing people. Finally,
use these words and describe persons.
1. Efficient = (industrious) эффективный, умелый, квалифицированный. She is very
efficient in reducing waste. A solution is said to be efficient in solving illegal immigration.
2. Diligent = прилежный, старательный, исполнительный. He was a diligent student,
working day and night.
3. Open-hearted = (frank) открытый, чистосердечный, откровенный.
4. Well-read = начитанный 2) (in) сведущий в (чём-л.) well-read in history. He is well-read
in English literature.
5. Thoughtful = (considerate) заботливый, чуткий, внимательный; thoughtful of his co-
workers It was very thoughtful of you to bring flowers.
6. Sophisticated = утончённый, рафинированный, изысканный a sophisticated lifestyle,
sophisticated modern tastes, sophisticated wines.
7. Decisive = (resolute) решающий, имеющий решающее значение, a decisive battle, a
decisive role, a decisive step.
8. Resilient = (elastic, cheerful) пружинистый, упругий, жизнерадостный, неунывающий
Exercise № 10. Give degrees of comparison of the following words if possible,
I. angry, brave, bad, convenient, dry, dead, final, good, heavy, narrow, perfect, Persian, right (left),
square, important, white, yellow, unique, little
II. absent-minded, easy-going, fine-looking, good-natured, high-flown, high-heeled, kind-hearted,
much-spoken, narrow-minded, old-fashioned, strong-willed, well-bred
Exercise № 11. Put the adjectives in the correct order.
1. Cycling is a(n).... activity, (useful, outdoor, popular) 2. Now I'm reading a.... novel, (depressing,
long, boring) 3. He had a.... alarm clock, (digital, new, useful) 4. Have you heard of this....
invention? (Japanese, fantastic, new) 5. This family rents a.... house, (furnished, large, old) 6. I've
just bought a(n).... table, (beautiful, coffee, glass, oval) 7. Robert's is the.... car. (red, Italian, big)
8. Our students are using .... dictionaries.(English, reliable, new, complete) 9. There was a ....
carpet on the floor, (soft, wonderful, woollen, Persian) 10. Andy gave Rosie a.... box. (jewellery,

velvet, small, square) 11. Stratford is a.... town, (nice, small, quiet) 12. There are a lot of........pans
in the shops, (frying, Tefal, non-stick, brand-new, French-made)
Exercise № 12. Translate these sentences in black and white.
1. Она самая решительная из всей своей компании, она легка на подъем. 2. Мы сожалеем о
том, что они были такими рассеянными. 3. Москва – довольно жизнерадостный город, хотя
и очень дорогой. 4. Наш вице-президент – очень ограниченный менеджер. 5. Мне бы
хотелось, чтобы вы были откровеннысо мной.6. Это важный момент в деятельности нашей
компании. Он широко обсуждается в прессе. 7. Московский государственный гуманитарно-
экономический университет является квалифицированным и достойным учебным
заведением России. 8. Наши преподаватели делают все возможное, чтобы развивать и
совершенствовать молодое и патриотичное поколение России. 9. Его мать была
удивительно чуткой и в тоже время решительной женщиной. 10. На деловых встречах он
был мастером давать задания, однако в семейной жизни он их постоянно исполнял по воле
своих несовершеннолетних детей.
Practice bank. Look at the following pictures and describe them in black and white. While
describing pictures, pay attention not only appearance and clothes, but put a
suitable title to your description. Be creative!
Now, you can present these descriptions verbally to your classmates!
2.1 Describing people - appearance
Most definitely, it is simply impossible to describe anyone without giving some portrait
characteristics and appearance. Let’s study proper vocabulary which we shall need to describe
people.
Chunky Muscular

Obese slim
Hair: straight hair, curly hair, wavy hair, a crew-cut, receding hair, bald
Face: thin-faced, round-faced, with a chubby face, with freckles, a few wrinkles, beard, moustache
Skin: dark skinned; pale-skinned
He used to have black hair but now its gone grey, almost white.
What sort of person would you like to go out with? Blonde, fair, dark or ginger-haired, red-haired?
She has such beautiful auburn hair. [red-brown] Fair and dark can be used for hair, complexion
or skin.
Height and build
A rather plump, or a slim woman, an obese person (negative), a stout man [positive]
Fat may sound impolite. Instead we often say a bit overweight. If someone is broad and solid, we
can say they are stocky. A person with good muscles can be well-built or muscular.
If someone is terribly thin and refuses to eat, they may be anorexic.
General appearance
She's a very smart and elegant woman, always well-dressed; her husband is quite the
opposite, very scruffy and untidy-looking. He’s very good-looking, but his friend's rather
unattractive.
Do you think beautiful women are always attracted to handsome men? I don't. I think first
impressions matter most.
The suffix -ish is useful for describing people: She's tallish. He has brownish hair. He must
be thirtyish.
Translate these expressions:
1. тучный мужчина и полная женщина, 2. Немного полноватый слесарь 3. Довольновысокая
секретарша 4. Хорошо сложенный жених 5. Коренастый пожарник 6. Страдающий
отсутствием аппетита инженер 7. Ей должно быть около сорока лет.
There is a great variety of suffixes, which can help to enlarge active vocabulary.
-er - is used for the person who does an activity, e.g. writer, worker, shopper, teacher. You can use
-er with a wide range of verbs to make them into nouns.
Sometimes, the suffix is written as -or instead of -er. It is worth making a special list of these as
you meet them, e.g. actor, operator, sailor, supervisor.

-er/-or are also used for things which do a particular job, e.g. pencil-sharpener, bottle- opener,
grater, projector.
-er and -ее can contrast with each other meaning ‘person who does something.’ (-er) and ‘person
who receives or experiences the action’ (-ее), e.g. employer/employee, sender/addressee, payee
(e.g. of a cheque).
-(t)ion - is used to make nouns from verbs: complication pollution reduction alteration donation
admission
-ist [person] and -ism [activity or ideology]: used for people’s politics, beliefs and ideologies, and
sometimes their profession (compare with -er/-or professions above), e.g. Marxism, Buddhism,
journalism, anarchist, physicist, terrorist.
-ist - is also often used for people who play musical instruments, e.g. pianist, violinist, cellist. -
ness is used to make nouns from adjectives. Note what happens to adjectives that end in -y:
goodness, readiness, forgetfulness, happiness, sadness, weakness.
Translate in English:
Скрипач, пианист, виолончелист, эскапист, аналитик, физиотерапевт, врач, регбист.
Adjective suffix
-able/-ible - with verbs, means ‘can be done’. Drinkable, washable, readable, recognizable,
countable. Examples with -ible: edible (can be eaten) flexible (can be bent)
Try to describe these pictures paying attention on general appearance and use one idiomatic
expression, which would specify the character best.
Some idiomatic expressions describing appearance:
1. wear the trousers = a partner in a couple who wears the trousers is the one who makes all the
important decisions. Eg. The salesman hesitated before the couple. It was difficult to see who wore
the trousers.
2. dressedto kill = somebody who is wearing very fashionable and glamorous clothes intended to
attract attention. Eg. She arrived at the reception dressed to kill.
3. Face only a mother could love = a humoristic way of saying that someone is ugly or
unattractive. Eg. The poor guy had a face only a mother could love.
4. look like a million dollars = you look extremely good. Eg. With a tan and a new hairstyle she
looked a million dollars.
5. (all) skin and bone = people who look very thin or too thin. Eg. After tracking in the Himalayas,
he was all skin and bone.
Exercise № 13. Use every idiomatic expression in 2 sentences of your own describing anyone you
want.
Exercise № 14. Answer these remarks with the opposite description.

Example: A: I thought you said he was the short, chubby one. B: No, quite the opposite, he's the
tall, thin-faced one
1 A: Was that his brother, the dark-skinned, wavy-haired one? B: No, quite the opposite, his
brother’s...
2 A: She's always quite well-dressed, so I’ve heard. B: What! Who told you that? Every time I
see her, she’s...
3 A: So Charlene's that rather plump fair-haired woman, is she? B: No, you’re looking at the
wrong one. Charlene's....
4 A: So, tell us about the new boss; good looking? B: No, I’m afraid not; rather...
5 A: I don't know why, but I expected the tour-guide to be middle-aged or elderly. B: No,
apparently she’s only...
Exercise № 15. Write one sentence to describe each of these people, giving information about their
hair and face, their height and build and general appearance.
1) you yourself 2) a neighbour 3) your best friend 4) your ideal of a handsome man/ beautiful
woman
In order to create a picture of a person in the mind of the reader four things must be used.
1. Appearance 2. Voice 3. Walk 4. Mannerisms
2. The following is an exercise to describe some of the people I know.
Practice Bank 1. Read over the text and reproduce it verbally.
The tall slender woman came into the room with little pretension or calling of attention to
herself. There was the thought that she had to contend with her impeding age. However the
management of this was part of her life showing a resolve to be active up until the very
last. Evidence of this is the quick way she moves. The woman's hair is groomed with a care going
to the discipline of another time. No neglect is given to this part of her appearance.
Her clothing she selects is tailored with neat pressed lines. Something about the way the
woman dresses tells that she had lived a life of dignity.
While speaking her voice is strong, clear and had no mincing or slurring of words. A
younger woman seemed to speak as she mouthed words in a concise way. If the material before
her held strict discipline or soft emotion the learned academic study was most evident in her
carefully covering the material.
Practice bank 2. Instructions as above.
There is strength about the woman sitting across from me. Her features are chiseled as if
some carver of stone had carefully cut and shaped them. Physically she has a thin structure which
could easily have been gaunt. Age approaching ninety was the reason. This gives us an
understanding and explanation for her tight muscular structure made this way from steady work
while living on a farm. She worked as a school teacher with the responsibility also of caring for
the duties of country life. It has given her a notable swift walk. Quick steps must have helped her
cover territory and area in order to complete numerous tasks.
Although a hearing impediment makes it difficult for her to sometimes understand it still has
no effect on the way she speaks. Her voice is soft and controlled. As with all capable people others
sometimes resent this and tend to pick at her. However, she seems to be accepting of the ones
around her and never becomes angry or short with this sort of treatment.
It is interesting to see how she dresses. Obviously her calling in life dictates her dress in a
conservative way. On the other hand, on occasion she will break over to another selection of

something colorful and rare with an expensive look. As with all women no matter how much is
demanded of us we still all enjoy having a feminine appearance at least once in a while and she is
no exception to this rule.
Practice bank 3. Read over the text and reproduce it verbally.
Even though age is present with the woman somehow this isn't what is seen when she slips
quietly into a room. It is true she usually has her arms wrapped around her books and material as
if she were still cradling one of her children.
Her voice is quiet and melodious with a modulation to tell of her work. The stillness of her
movements makes us know she has been inculcated with heavy discipline of one or more
persuasions.
Personally, it makes me want to feel an understanding and empathy with the essence of all
women who are infinitely beautiful regardless of their looks. To imagine a youthful girl with skin
like milk, hair of the most desirable color and a voice like honey gives us an understanding of how
a God-fearing father must have been afraid for her. Men have knowledge of other men's choices
and desires. People who are terrified themselves often become fearful and domineering in their
manner. To have so imprinted all these negative things on a child's mind is an ultimate sadness.
We, who are women, have had a cruel trick played on us in this century. We are made to stare
at the successful feminine entertainer on television and the movies while we of the masses are to
take up the sometimes basic work available in our own lives whether it is teaching, secretarial
work, doctors, lawyers, and so many other careers where we must forego, at least at the work place,
our feminine ways. The more feminine, desirable and attractive we are the more we feel it is
necessary to cover this over as a weakness.
Exercise № 16. Study these pictures and build a list of proper vocabulary to describe the pictures.
Use only the following grammatical tenses: The Present Simple tense and the
Present Continuous tense.

2.2. Describing people - character
Avoid beginning all sentences in the same way as it will make your composition boring. Use
a variety of structures, trying to link the sentences together.
Instead of writing: She is a pretty girl. She has an oval face., you can write: She is a pretty girl
with an oval face.
Look at the examples suggested below:
He has wrinkles. They make him look older.
He has wrinkles which make him look older.
She is a beautiful woman. She wears designer clothes.
She is a beautiful woman who wears designer clothes.
She has long hair. She wears her hair in a pony-tail.
She wears her long hair in a pony-tail.
He has a big garden. He grows vegetables in the garden.
He has a big garden where he grows vegetables.
Exercise № 17. Rewrite the sentences by linking them together as illustrated in the examples
above.
1. Richard was well-built. He had fine wrinkles around his eyes. They showed when he
laughed.
2. Jack is in his mid- twenties. He has an oval face and long curly hair. He ties it back in
a pony-tail. He has a big kitchen. He likes to cook for his friends.
3. Helen is dark-skinned. She has beautiful almond-shaped eyes. She dyes her hair. It
makes her look younger than she is.
4. Marcy’s mother is an attractive woman. She has long blond hair. She wears her hair in
a bun.
In a number of cases, character description becomes absolutely important and defines
personality much more vividly.
Intellectual ability
Ability: intelligent, bright, clever, smart, shrewd, able, gifted, talented, brainy (colloquial)
Abilities: stupid, foolish, half-witted, simple, silly, brainless, daft, dumb, dim (the last four are
colloquial words)
Clever, in a negative way, using brains to trick or deceive: cunning, crafty sly
Exercise № 18. Make a list of three people who’s known to you and describe them in 3 sentences
in formal and informal ways.

Attitudes towards life
Looking on either the bright or the black side of things: optimistic, pessimistic
Outward-looking or inward-looking (i.e. to the world around one or to one's own inner world):
extroverted introverted
Calm or not calm with regard to attitude to life: relaxed tense
Practical, not dreamy in approach to life: sensible, down-to-earth
Feeling things very intensely: sensitive
Attitudes towards other people
Enjoying others' company: sociable gregarious
Disagreeing with others: quarrelsome, argumentative
Taking pleasure in others' pain: cruel, sadistic
Relaxed in attitude to self and others: easy-going, even-tempered
Not polite to others: impolite, rude, ill-mannered, and discourteous
Telling the truth to others: honest, trustworthy, reliable, sincere
Unhappy if others have what one does not have oneself: jealous, envious
One person's meat is another person's poison
Some characteristics can be either positive or negative depending on your point of view.
Determined - obstinate stubborn pig-headed
Thrifty/economical -
Miserly mean tight-fisted
Self-assured - self-important arrogant full of oneself (colloquial)
Assertive - aggressive bossy (colloquial)
Original - peculiar weird eccentric odd
Frank/direct/open - blunt abrupt brusque curt
Broad-minded - unprincipled permissive
Inquiring - inquisitive nosy (colloquial)
Generous - extravagant
Innocent - naive
Ambitious - pushy (colloquial)
Exercise № 19. Match these words with their opposites.
Clever
extroverted
rude
cruel
generous
unsociable
introverted
tight-fisted
courteous
gregarious
kind-hearted
half-witted
Do you think that the speaker likes or dislikes the people s/he is talking about?
1 Di's very thrifty. 2 Dick's quite bossy. 3 Molly’s usually frank. 4 I find Dave self-important. 5
Liz’s quite broad-minded 6 Don’t you think Jim’s nosy? 7 Sam can be aggressive. 8 Jill is very
original.
Reword the sentences above to give the opposite impression. Example: Di's very stingy.
Magazines often publish questionnaires which are supposed to analyse your character for you.
Look at the words below and then match them to the question, which aims to decide whether a
person is like that.

Example: If you arrange to meet at 7 p.m., do you arrive at 7 p.m.? Reliable
Pessimistic argumentative sensitive sociable, extravagant, assertive, inquisitive.
1 Do you prefer to be in the company of other people?
2 Look at the picture. Do you think 'my glass is half empty'?
4 Do you always look out of the window if you hear a car draw up?
5 Do you often buy your friends presents for no particular reason?
3 Do you find it easy to tell your boss if you feel he or she has treated you badly?
6 Do you frequently disagree with what other people say?
7 Do you lie awake at night if someone has said something unkind to you?
Exercise № 20.What questions could you ask to try to find out whether a person is the following:
1) thrifty 2) sensible 3) even-tempered 4) obstinate 5) blunt 6) intelligent 7) original
Can you complete each of these word forks?
Self-........, ......-tempered; .....-minded
Exercise № 21. Write a sentence to illustrate the meanings of each of your words. Choose five or
six adjectives from the list below, which you think best describe either your own
or a friend's character. How do you or your friend demonstrate these
characteristics?
Example: sociable - I am sociable because I love being with other people.
Intelligent, bright, clever, smart, shrewd, able, gifted, talented, stupid, foolish, half-witted,
simple, silly
Some idiomatic expressions to help to characterize people:
1. Bow and scrape = being excessively polite or servile.
2. Gatecrash = people who attend social events without being invited.
3. Speak out of turn = to intervene at the wrong moment or say something tactless or
inappropriate.
4. Take French leave = leave an event without notifying the person who invited you.
5. In dire straits = in a very difficult situation.
Exercise № 22. Write an informal letter to your friend and use one or two idiomatic expressions,
which will illustrate this characteristics of your opinion. Use your imagination
and create an interesting letter of around 60 words.
Types of relationships
Here is a scale showing closeness and distance in relationships in different contexts.
CLOSER MORE DISTANT
friendship: best friend good friend, friend, acquaintance
work: close colleague colleague/workmate
love/romance: lover steady boy/girlfriend ex-"
marriage: wife/husband/partner ex-

* ex- can be used with or without (informally) another word: She's my ex. (girlfriend, etc.)
Mate is a colloquial word for a good friend. It can also be used in compounds to describe a
person you share something with, e.g. classmate, shipmate, workmate, flat-mate. Workmate is
usual in non-professional contexts; colleague is more common among professional people.
Fiancé/ee can still be used for someone you are engaged to, but a lot of people feel it is dated
nowadays. You will sometimes see husband-/wife-to-be in journalistic style.
English has no universally accepted word for 'person I live with but am not married to', but is
probably the commonest.
Liking and not liking someone
core verb positive negative
like love adore dislike; hate
worship idolise can't stand; loathe
respect look up to admire look down on; despise
She doesn't just like Bob, she idolises him! I can't stand him. I really fancy Lisa, but her friend
just turns me off.
Fancy and turn off are informal. Repel is very strong and rather formal.
Phrases and idioms for relationships
1. Jo and I get on well with each other. [have a good relationship]
2. Adrian and Liz don't see eye to eye. [often argue/ disagree]
3. I've fallen out with my parents again. [had arguments]
4. Tony and Jane have broken up / split up. [ended their relationship]
5. George is having an affair with his boss. [a sexual relationship, usually secret]
6. Children should respect their elders. [adults/parents, etc.
7. Let's try and make it up. [be friends again after a row]
8. She's my junior I I'm her senior I I'm senior to her, so she does what she's told. [refers to
position / length of service at work]
Some idiomatic expressions to help to characterize relationships:
1. Birds of a feather = if two people are birds of a feather, they are very similar in many ways.
2. Build bridges = help to cooperate and understand
3. Get on like a house on fire = have similar interests, support each other.
4. Play gooseberry = if you play gooseberry you join or accompany two people who have a
romantic relationship and want to be alone.
5. Keep at arm’s length = do not allow becoming too friendly
Exercise № 23. Translate the following sentences in black and white using studied vocabulary.
Его мать была занятой 33-35 лет женщиной, которая предпочитала держать своих соседей
и сослуживцев на дистанции. 2. Молодая семейная пара делала все возможное, чтобы
наладить взаимоотношения и понимание ссемьей дяди жены,но в конечном счете признали
свое поражение. 3. Детям следует уважать старших и помогать им в повседневной жизни.
4. Его невеста терпеть не может телефонные звонки за полночь. 5. Джон и Екатерина
прекратили свои отношения и теперь держатся на дистанции друг с другом.
Use words with the suffix -mate to resay or rewrite these sentences.

1 This is Jack. He and I share a flat.
2 My granddad still writes to his old friends he was at sea with.
3 We were in the same class together in 1978, weren’t we?
4 She’s not really a friend; she's just someone I work with.
Exercise № 24. Choose five or six adjectives from this chapter, which you think best describe
either your own, or a friend’s character. How do you or your friend demonstrate
these characteristics?
Example: Sociable - I am sociable because I love being with other people.
Practice bank № 1: Use the adjectives listed below to complete the character descriptions.
honest, reserved, outgoing, frank, tactless, persuasive, trustworthy, fussy
1 Tina is a very ….. person. She is capable of convincing you to do almost anything she wants.
2 Sarah can be ………. on occasion. She often says things that offend people.
3 Jim is very …..; he always says exactly what he is thinking.
4 Stephanie is one of the most ….people I know; she would never consider doing anything illegal.
5 My little sister is very .… about what she eats; there are very few foods she likes.
6 Anna is a very ….. person who hardly ever lets her feelings show.
7 Mark is extremely ….; when it comes to keeping secrets, he will never tell a soul.
8 Annabel is a(n) …. person who loves meeting people and making new friends.
Manners and Mannerism
Instead of only using adjectives to describe a person’s character, you can also include
examples of the way they speak/look/smile, etc. in order to give a clearer picture and to make the
description more lively, e.g. His blue eyes light up whenever he sees his grandchild. Although the
adjectives kind and affectionate could be used to describe the person, giving examples of
mannerism makes the description more vivid.
Exercise № 25. Read the following descriptions and say which quality each one describes.
1 When little Tommy wants a new toy, he screams until his parents buy it for him. (Hysterical)
2 Jim tends to stand by himself at parties and hardly ever meets anyone’s eye.
3 When Sarah listens to sad music her eyes fill with tears.
4 Whenever he received bad news, John would remain quite still and expressionless.
5 Little Annie makes a face and sticks out her tongue each time she wants to show she doesn’t
approve of someone.
6 Whenever someone disagrees with Louise, she gets red in the face and shouts until she gets her
own way.
7 Jerry is always ready with a smile and a good joke. I’ve never seen him cross or sad.
Exercise № 26. Read the following text and notice the way of describing manners of the star. Then
similarly write your own description of a famous Russian person.
Whitney Houston is just a person no one can fail to admire. Over the past ten years she
became both a popular singer and a famous actress, appearing in successful films such as The
Bodyguard.
Looking at Whitney, it was not difficult to see why she was so popular. She had gorgeous
black hair, kind brown eyes and a beautiful smile which lighted up her whole face. The elegant

clothes she wore always complement her perfect figure.
Whitney had a reputation for being a very warm and generous person. At the same time, she
was obviously very determined and could sometimes be rather strong-willed, but this came from
her desire to do things well.
In her free time Whitney, a sociable person, could often be seen at glamorous Hollywood
parties. However, she was a very family-minded person who would have never let her social life
get in the way of her relationship with her daughter.
All in all, Whitney was an incredible woman. Few people manage to fit as much into their
lives as she did. It must have been exhausting, but she always managed to look fresh and beautiful
for the cameras.
Practice bank: Here are some descriptions of typical people for different Zodiac signs. Read them
over and use Appendix № 2 and your knowledge to match the descriptions to the
proper signs. Then you can write a short paragraph of your own describing yourself
due to the Zodiac sign.
1. They are hard to understand. They are very easily influenced by others, and can be passive.
They have strong family ties, but can be a little sad and discontented.
2. They are very just and believe in fairness. They always want to establish good relationships
with everyone. They have excellent taste, and they can also be artistic. They can be
dreamers, and money slips through their fingers.
3. Although jolly and cheerful, they can be impolite as well. They often make their way to
the top. They think a lot of themselves, and though generous hosts, they are not one hundred
per cent trustworthy.
Unit 3. A Descriptive Composition
A descriptive composition about a person should consist of:
An introduction where you give some brief information about the person (his/ her name,
time or place you met/saw him/her, how you heard about him/her):
A main body where you describe physical appearance, personality characteristics and
hobbies/interests/everyday activities in separate paragraphs: and
A conclusion which includes your comments and/or feelings about the person.
Such descriptions can be found in articles, letters, witness statements, novels, etc.
Points to consider
Each paragraph starts with a topic sentence which introduces the subject of the paragraph.
A variety of linking words should be used to connect ideas.
To describe physical appearance, details should be given as follows: height/build, age, facial
features, hair, clothes, moving from the most general aspects to the more specific details, e.g. John

is a tall, slim man in his mid-forties. He has a thin face, blue eyes and a large nose. His short hair
is greying at the temples. He is usually casually dressed.
To describe character and behaviour you can support your description with examples, e.g.
Sally is very sociable. She loves going to parties and dances. If you want to mention any negative
qualities, use mild language (tends to, seems to, is rather, can occasionally be, etc.), e.g. Instead of
saying Sally is arrogant., it is better to say Sally tends to be rather arrogant.
Variety in the use of adjectives will make your description more interesting, e.g. good-
natured, well-behaved, gorgeous, etc.
Present tenses can be used to describe someone connected to the present, e.g. someone you
see every day. Past tenses can be used to describe someone related to the past, e.g. someone who
is no longer alive, someone whom you won’t meet again... etc.
Writing descriptive essays
An essay is a group of paragraphs on a particular topic. A descriptive essay describes a
person, place, or thing in a way that gives the reader a clear mental picture of the subject of the
essay.
Organization
• First, write an introduction. This is a paragraph that should make the reader interested in what
you are describing. Within the introduction paragraph, include a thesis statement. The thesis
statement should tell why the person, place, or thing is your focus.
• Include one or more body paragraphs. Each contains the details of your description.
• Finish with a conclusion. This is a paragraph that gives your final thoughts or opinion about what
you are describing.
Descriptive language
A good descriptive essay gives a clear mental picture of the subject of the essay. The reader
should ·be able to imagine that he or she is with the person described, at the place described, etc.
Include strong imagery (language that helps create these mental pictures) in your body paragraphs.
Not descriptive
She walked into the room. He was dressed formally. The street was filled with people selling
food.
Descriptive
She walked slowly and nervously into the dark room. (with adjectives and adverbs)
He wore a dark suit, a tie, and shiny shoes. (with details and specific language)
The street was filled with loud men shouting out orders above the smoky smell of grilling
meat. (with sensory language related to sounds, smells, etc.)
Exercise № 27. Read the sentences. Rewrite them to make them more descriptive. Add adjectives
and adverbs, details and specific language, and sensory language. Be creative.

1. The man lived in a house far from the village. The strange man lived quietly in an old drafty
house far from the busy village.
2. The room was filled with roses, daisies, and lilacs.
3. The chicken and potatoes were good.
4. We went on a hike through the forest.
5. His aunt entered the room.
6. I didn't get to watch the soccer game on TV.
7. Barak Obama is the President of the United States.
8. Our classroom is a 15-square-yard room at the university.
Exercise № 28. This time describe these objects. Write only one paragraph. Check it with Self-
Assessment checklist.
a) a mobile telephone (appearance)
b) a hair dryer (appearance)
c) an apple (appearance)
d) your English (quality)
e) your weekday studies
Revise and Edit your descriptive essay.
1. Does the essay start with an introduction that catches your interest and expresses a clear opinion?
2. Does the essay give you a clear mental picture of the product, business, or service described?
3. Does the concluding paragraph help to convince you of that opinion?
4. Do you have your own opinion about this product, business; or service?
Complete the Self-Assessment checklist as you prepare to write the final draft of your paragraph.
Be prepared to hand in your work or discuss it in class.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Does each body paragraph have a topic and controlling idea?
2. Does the essay use descriptive language to create a clear mental picture of the subject?
3. Are correct articles used with nouns or noun phrases?
4. If there are collocations from the unit, are they used correctly?
5. Does the essay include vocabulary from the unit?
6. Did you check the essay for punctuation, spelling, and grammar?
Adjectives to describe people.
For each example choose the two adjective that can be used to complete the sentence.
Witty, Patronizing, Encouraging: Sam’s always making …….remarks at my expense.
Bewildered, Prejudiced, Distracted: After the accident Bob was too ……..to make a statement
to the police.
Earnest, Haughty, Overbearing: She’s a difficult woman to work for-…….and unpredictable.
Courteous, Supportive, Considerate: It was very …..of you to let that lorry pull out.

Supportive, Loveable, Considerate: My boss was really ……when I first started the job – always
ready to help out or give advice.
Timid, reserved, earnest: We know he doesn’t say much, but he is not unfriendly. He is just a bit
….
Exercise № 29. Write a 3-paragraph essay of 150 words of the following topics:
1. Your country house;
2. Your neighbor vehicle;
3. Your English class;
4. Yesterday’s lunch
Describing People
Exercise № 30. Look at a picture of some of your acquaintances and build up a list of vocabulary
which you will use for describing these people.
Height: quite tall, rather short, 5’10’’ tall,
General appearance: lanky,
Build: well-built, thin, muscular, athletic
Age: early twenties, mid-thirties, late fifties, teenaged, underage
Facial features: oval-faced, high cheekbones, blue-eyed, Roman nose
Hair: curly, short brown, wavy, thin, shoulder-length, grey, chestnut, blond
Personality: good-humoured, imaginative, short-tempered, vain
Clothes: casual, formal, uniform
Hobbies & activities: going to discos, enjoy watching birds, cooking
A descriptive composition about a person should consist of:
a) an introduction where you give some brief information about the person (his/ her name, time
or place you met/saw him/her, how you heard about him/her):
b) a main body where you describe physical appearance, personality characteristics and
hobbies/interests/everyday activities in separate paragraphs: and
c) a conclusion which includes your comments and/or feelings about the person.
Such descriptions can be found in articles, letters, witness statements, novels, etc.
Practice bank № 2. Decide which adjectives describe positive or negative qualities. Choose any
five of them and write sentences justifying each quality, then write a short paragraph describing the
character of one of your relatives.
patient, boring, pessimistic, mean, ambitious, generous, mature, interesting, hostile,
immature, friendly, impatient, tactful, good-natured, short-tempered, thick-skinned, easy-
going, hard-working, deceitful, fair, shy, helpful, aggressive, reserved, outgoing, polite,
cheerful

Positive qualities Negative qualities
Patient Boring
Model: My father is very patient; he takes time and care with everything he does.
Points to consider
Each paragraph starts with a topic sentence which introduces the subject of the paragraph.
A variety of linking words should be used to connect ideas.
To describe physical appearance, details should be given as follows: height/build, age,
facial features, hair,clothes, movingfrom the most general aspects to the more specific details,
e.g. John is a tall, slim man in his mid-forties. He has a thin face, blue eyes and a large nose.
His short hair is greying at the temples. He is usually casually dressed.
To describe character and behaviour you can support your description with examples,
e.g. Sally is very sociable. She loves going to parties and dances. If you want to mention any
negative qualities, use mild language (tends to, seems to, is rather, can occasionally be, etc.),
e.g. Instead of saying Sally is arrogant., it is better to say Sally tends to be rather arrogant.
Variety in the use of adjectives will make your description more interesting, e.g. good-
natured, well-behaved, gorgeous, etc.
Present tenses can be used to describe someone connected to the present, e.g. someone
you see every day. Past tenses can be used to describe someone related to the past, e.g. someone
who is no longer alive, someone whom you won’t meet again... etc.
Exercise № 31. Read and study descriptions of people made by some famous Russian, British
and American writers.
1. At the hour of the hot spring sunset two citizens appeared at the Patriarch's Ponds. One of
them, approximately forty years old, dressed in a grey summer suit, was short, dark-haired,
plump, bald, and carried his respectable fedora hat in his hand. His neatly shaven face was
adorned with black horn-rimmed glasses of a supernatural size. The other, a broad-
shouldered young man with tousled reddish hair, his checkered cap cocked back on his
head, was wearing a cowboy shirt, wrinkled white trousers and black sneakers. The first
was none other than Mikhail Alexandrovich Berlioz, the editor of a fat literary journal and
the chairman of the board of one of the major Moscow literary associations, called Massolit
for short, and his young companion was the poet Ivan Nikolayevich Ponyrev, who wrote
under the pseudonym of Homeless. (Mikhail Bulgakov, ‘Master and Margarita’)
2. Tom Hagen was thirty-five years old, a tall crew-cut man, very slender, very ordinary-
looking. He was a lawyer but did not do the actual detailed legal work for the Corleone
family business though he had practiced law for three years after passing the bar exam. At
the age of eleven he had been a playmate of eleven-year-old Sonny Corleone. Hagen‟s
mother had gone blind and then died during his eleventh year. Hagen’s father, a heavy
drinker, had become a hopeless drunkard. A hardworking carpenter, he had never done a
dishonest thing in his life. But his drinking destroyed his family and finally killed him.
Tom Hagen was left an orphan who wandered the streets and slept in hallways. (Mario
Puzo, ‘The Godfather’)
3. A stranger was before him--a boy a shade larger than himself. A newcomer of any age or
either sex was an impressive curiosity in the poor little shabby village of St. Petersburg.

This boy was well dressed, too--well dressed on a weekday. This was simply astounding.
His cap was a dainty thing, his close-buttoned blue cloth roundabout was new and natty,
and so were his pantaloons. He had shoes on--and it was only Friday. He even wore a
necktie, a bright bit of ribbon. He had a citified air about him that ate into Tom's vitals.
(Mark Twain, ‘The Adventures of Tom Sawyer’)
4. Tracy Whitney was on her way to work. Her pace was brisk as she walked east on Chestnut
Street towards the bank, and it was all she could do to keep from singing aloud. She wore
a bright-yellow raincoat, boots, and a yellow rain hat that barely contained a mass of
shining chestnut hair. She was in her mid-twenties, with a lively, intelligent face, a full,
sensuous mouth, sparkling eyes that could change from a soft moss green to a dark jade in
moments, and a trim, athletic figure. Her skin ran the gamut from a translucent white to a
deep rose, depending on whether she was angry, tired, or excited. (Sydney Sheldon, ‘If
Tomorrow Comes’)
5. Lucia, a beautiful young woman of twenty-five, had luxuriant dark hair, which flowed to
her shoulders, and brown eyes which could flash excitingly but were now smouldering
with a suppressed emotion not easy to define. ( Agatha Christie, “The Black Coffee”)
6. She was a very tall woman. Her hair was gold with a tinge of red in it. Her eyebrows and
eyelashes were dark, whether by art or by nature I could not decide. If she was, as I thought,
made up, it was done very artistically. There was something Sphinxlike about her face
when it was in repose and she had the most curious eyes I have ever seen — they were
almost golden in shade. Her clothes were perfect and she had all the ease of manner of a
well-bred woman, and yet there was something about her that was incongruous and
baffling. You felt that she was a mystery. The word Griselda had used occurred to me —
sinister. Absurd, of course, and yet — was it so absurd? The thought sprang unbidden into
my mind: "This woman would stick at nothing." ( Agatha Christie, “The Murder at the
Vicarage”)
7. Clare Halliwell was thirty-two. She had an upright carriage, a healthy color, and nice brown
eyes. She was not beautiful, but she looked fresh and pleasant and very English. Everybody
liked her and said she was a good sort. Since her mother's death, two years ago, she had
lived alone in the cottage with her dog, Rover. She kept poultry and was fond of animals
and of a healthy outdoor life. (Agatha Christie, “The Harlequin Tea Set”)
Exercise № 32. Using samples of Exercise № 2, write a paragraph on the following topics:
1. Your first love boy/girl;
2. Your father/mother;
3. The Prime Minister of the Russian Federation;
4. The President of the United States;
5. The Dean of the Faculty;
6. Your favourite university employee;
Exercise № 33. Translate this extract. Build up a list of active vocabulary to translate it.
Степан Аркадьич был человек правдивый в отношении к себе самому. Он не мог
обманывать себя и уверять себя, что он раскаивается в своем поступке. Он не мог теперь
раскаиваться в том, что он, тридцатичетырехлетний, красивый, влюбчивый человек, не был
влюблен в жену, мать пяти живых и двух умерших детей, бывшую только годом моложе
его. Он раскаивался только в том, что не умел лучше скрыть от жены. Но он чувствовал всю
тяжесть своего положения и жалел жену, детей и себя. Может быть, он сумел бы лучше
скрыть свои грехи от жены, если б ожидал, что это известие так на нее подействует. Ясно
он никогда не обдумывал этого вопроса, но смутно ему представлялось, что жена давно
догадывается, что он не верен ей, и смотрит на это сквозь пальцы. Ему даже казалось, что

она, истощенная, состарившаяся, уже некрасивая женщина и ничем не замечательная,
простая, только добрая мать семейства, по чувству справедливости должна быть
снисходительна. Оказалось совсем противное. (Л.Н.Толстой, «Анна Каренина»)
Unit 4. Paragraph Structure
Brainstorming
1. Think over these questions and give an accurate and detailed answer.
a) How many sentences should be included into a paragraph?
b) What answer should any paragraph give?
c) How do we mark a beginning of a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one and only one main idea. A
paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is
unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.
A paragraph may stand by itself. In academic writing, you often write a paragraph to answer
a test question such as the following: “Define management by objective, and give one example of
it from the reading you have done for this class.” A paragraph may also be one part of a longer
piece of writing such as an essay or a book.
We mark a paragraph by indenting the first word about a half-inch (five spaces on a
typewriter or computer) from the left margin.
The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph. Read it carefully two or
three times. Then answer the Writing Technique questions that follow, which will help you analyze
its structure.
Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a
lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and
ornamental purposes. '’Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For
example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made 25 centuries
ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many
years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications, such as photography and dentistry.
The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for
protection when they go outside spaceships in space. ln conclusion, gold is treasured not only for
its beauty but also for its utility.
Writing Technique Questions.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph?

2. What two main points does the writer make about the topic?
3. In which two sentences does the writer say that there are two main points?
4. What examples does the writer use to support each point?
Paragraph organisation
A paragraph has three compulsory parts:
1. The Topic sentence. This is the main and central idea of the paragraph. It is usually the first
sentence of the paragraph and it is the most general sentence of the paragraph.
2. The Supporting sentences. These are the sentences which explain the topic sentence. They are
the most detailed ideas that follow the topic sentence.
3. The Concluding sentence.This may be found as the last sentence of the paragraph. It can finish
the paragraph by repeating the main idea or just giving a final comment on the topic.
Practice bank № 3. Read the following paragraphs and say whether they contain
explanations, examples or both. Then think of an appropriate topic
sentence for each one. The first one has been done for you.
1. First of all, I totally disagree with the plans to rebuild the mobile phone aerial. Not only is there
the threat of radiation to local residents, but it will also destroy their views of open countryside
and reduce the value of their properties. (Explanation) This will be disastrous for residents of
places such as Harlesden and Pemble Waters. (example)
2. …………………… This appears to be the only sensible solution. After all, many children
today know how to use a computer but may not be able to afford one at home. Providing them
in schools will ensure that no one is deprived of this valuable learning aid.
3. …… There is no need for this at all. School is a place of learning, and talking to their friends
or sending text messages is something that students should do in their own time. Furthermore,
they cannot use the excuse that they need them for emergencies, since in a real emergency,
they can use and rely on the school phone.
4. ………… In other words, there is no way that we can be sure that mobile phones are safe.
Even if we all take precautions available nowadays, we do not know what to expect in the
future. What will happen if, for example, they discover a link between mobile phones and
cancer? If we wait then, the damage will have been done and it will be too late to act.
Practice bank № 4. This time try to do your best to compose a paragraph on the following:
a) a quarrelsome wife problem;
b) the problem of a long term credit;
c) importance of learning English language;
d) importance of manners in society.

Unit 5. Parts of a Paragraph
All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and some paragraphs have
a concluding sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It doesn’t only name the topic of
the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed completely in
the space of a single paragraph. The part of the topic sentence that announces the specific area
to be discussed is called the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model states
both the topic and the controlling idea:
TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA
(Gold), a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain or prove that what
is stated in the topic sentence is absolutely true. Following are some of the supporting sentences
that explain the topic sentence about gold.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made 25
centuries ago.
Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits.
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with
important points to remember:
In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs. However, paragraphs that
are parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not need concluding sentences.
Exercise № 34. Read over the following paragraph consisting of supporting sentences and make
up a decision of a suitable topic sentence.
……………….. It rained heavily in April; it rained much in May. It rained a lot in the mornings;
it rather rained in the afternoons. It poured, it drizzled, it showered, it misted — but always it
rained. Nevertheless, the good news is we will not have a drought this summer.
a. The rain makes me gloomy. b. This spring was the rainiest on record.
c. Rain is nice, but I prefer sunshine. d. Scientists know very little about the global climate.
Exercise № 35. For the following questions, a topic sentence is given. Try choosing the sentence
that best develops or supports it.

1. A fireplace should be lined with special firebricks to prevent heat transfer.
a. Normal bricks are not dense enough to withstand excessive heat. b. Fire codes also require a
smoke alarm in every room. c. Good up-drafts can make a pleasant fire, however. d. Modern
houses don’t use as much lumber as older homes did.
2. Cosmetic plastic surgery is one of the fastest-growing segments of U.S. medicine.
a. Cosmetic plastic surgery can have dangerous side effects, some of which can be fatal. b.
Americans are eager to make their bodies as perfect as possible and to minimize the visible signs
of aging. c. The price of cosmetic plastic surgery is also on the rise. d. This increase in cosmetic
plastic surgery says something quite disturbing about our culture.
5.1. Description of process in essays
Process indicators in English.
The following words & phrases join sentences & paragraphs to show the steps in a process.
Study how these process indicators work in paragraphs. (70 words)
• The first step in making scrambled eggs is to put a tablespoon of margarine into a pan.
• Then heat the pan over a medium flame.
• Next, break an egg into a bowl.
• Afterward, scramble the egg with a fork.
• After this step, add some salt and pepper to the eggs.
• Finally, fry the egg, turning it frequently.
Write a process essay in which you tell someone how to do something or explain the process.
• How to take a good photograph;
• How to live on a budget;
• How to apply for a passport;
• How to apply for a college grant;
• How to shop economically;
This timeline shows some important events in Monique’s life. Write some sentences about
her life using when or while.
Exercise № 36. Complete a timeline of your life and answer some questions about it using when
or while.
Write a paragraph about a relationship that is important to you. Use only past simple or
progressive.

Model: I met a lovely French lass called Monique while I was lecturing at Dudley College of
Technology.
Exercise № 37. Write two paragraphs about yourself for your personal website. Tell about your
interests and hobbies using past simple, past progressive and present perfect or
present perfect progressive.
Welcome. I’m Stephanie Hart. I’ve been living in Tokyo since 2006. I build this website to record
my experience here. I’ve posted a lot of photos. I hope you enjoy the website which I opened just
a week ago. I was thinking it over for more than two months and finally made it up as my friends
had advised me to do. They explained me that I had been slaving on design for at least two years.
I believe that I did my best and eventually succeeded in getting it properly.
5.2. Cause and Effect sentences in Essays
Cause and Effect Sentences often show how bad or good you realize the topic that is being
described. Cause sentences give you the reasons why something happened, they answer the
question “Why did the event happen?” Effects are the direct results or consequences of an event,
they respond to the question “What happened because of the event?”
Causes Effects
1. I didn’t pay the road tax for the last
year.
2. She ignored their invitation to the
wedding party at Styles.
3. We’d been heavily occupied with
searching for the right and experienced
accountant.
4. He bought a new remote flat in Moscow
province.
1. The insurance company refused to cover
the cost of the road accident.
2. They stopped socializing with her
husband and her.
3. The tax officer obliged us to pay a heavy
fine for improper reports.
4. He was short of money and didn’t have a
permanent well-paid job.
All these cause and effect sentences are clear and understandable. But in academic writing
they should be united using transitional words and phrases. You can use:
Afterward, Eventually, Finally, in the end, Soon after, Subsequently, As a
result, as the result of, Since, Consequently, As, because, Because of, So that,
Therefore, Resulted, Caused, Thereby, Due to.
Let’s see how we can link two cause and effect sentences together using various transitional
words.
Since he got hepatitis, all his college mates stopped seeing him. All his college mates stopped
seeing him because of his hepatitis. As the result of his hepatitis, all his mates stopped seeing him.
He got hepatitis, and consequently all his college mates stopped seeing him.

Notice the difference between as a result and as a result of. As a result is followed by a full sentence
(independent clause) and introduces an effect. As a result of is followed by a noun phrase and
introduces a clause. He got hepatitis and as the result all his college mates stopped seeing him.
Notice that ‘Thereby’ is most frequently used in front of –ing phrases. He got hepatitis,
thereby stopping all the college mates seeing him.
Exercise № 38. Connect the sentences
1. Native Americans began trading bison skins to the settlers. They wanted steel knives and
guns. (As, Since)
2. They began killing bison in larger numbers. The near extinction of bison. (Resulted in,
Caused)
3. Great Britain was the most powerful nation of the world in the 18th century. The Industrial
Revolution achievements. (Due to, As the result of)
4. Dmitry Medvedev sacked Yuri Luzhkov as the Mayor of Moscow. The loss of trust. (Due
to, Because of)
5. 85 bison survived in Yellowstone National Park in 1892. It saved this species from total
extinction. ( As the result, As the result of)
6. Natalie wants to be fluent and communicative if English. She studies English round the
clock. ( As, So that)
Exercise № 39. Join the sentences together.
1. She ignored so many phone calls from the college. She actually kissed goodbye to her higher
education. 2. Janice got home late. She missed her favourite programme. 3. Alvin missed the bus.
He woke up late. 4. He realized how stupid idea it was. He did not have sufficient amount of money
to pay for that glorious dinner.
Exercise № 40. Finding Errors in Cause/Effect Paragraphs: Read the paragraph below. Put proper
transitional word.
There are several possible reasons why my father is in excellent health, even though he is
over eighty years of age. For one thing, he is in excellent condition …. he has stopped smoking
cigarettes. He quit smoking cigarettes … whenever he climbed stairs he would invariably stop
several times and cough loudly. His good health is also ….. his cutting down on the wrong kinds
of foods. For example, whereas before he would eat fatty red meat and deep-fried dishes several
times a week, nowadays he seldom does so. He has more energy ….. He is also in good physical
shape ….. his devotion to exercise. He swims three times a week at the local gym, and on sunny
days he prefers to walk home rather than take the bus. ….. my father is in better shape than some
of his children are!
Sample Cause and Effect Sentences
Because Bill’s sister was sad, he tried to cheer her up.
It was snowing outside so school was cancelled.
The leaves blew all over the yard so Tom and Sue raked them.
Tom noticed that if he was around dogs, he sneezed a lot.
Amber could not see the board so she got glasses.

Mother was not at home so Sue took a telephone message.
Because Pat felt sick, she went to the doctor.
The children were late for school because their alarm didn’t work.
Mary scraped her knee so Dad gave her a Band-Aid.
The noisy class could not go outside for recess.
Since it was raining, Alice brought her umbrella to school.
Because they earned extra money, the children bought an ice cream treat.
The baby spilled milk on the floor so Mom got the mop.
Mark and Arthur needed extra money so they started a pet business.
Because Cat made up new rules, Mouse said he wasn’t a fair player.
Matthew and Tilley had a fight, so Matthew looked for a new best friend.
The hamster’s cage was messy so the children cleaned it.
There was ice on the step and Sam slipped.
Since the referendum of the Crimea approved independence from Ukraine, the Russian
Federation agreed to join it to the state due to a number of historical and cultural reasons.
5.3. Comparison and Contrast sentences in essays
Writing topics and essays often ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for
example, your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your university
town. Such topics may allow you to organize your essay either around the similarities between
these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and your university town) or around
the differences between them. If you write about the similarities, the essay will be
a comparison essay. On the other hand, if you want to write about the differences, your essay will
be a contrast essay.
This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a
comparison or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraphs and then briefly
look at contrast paragraphs.
Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Similar Points
Consider the following paragraph:
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small
rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about
10,000 people. Similarly, mycollegetown, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents.
This population swellsto 15,000people when thecollege students areattending classes. A second
way in which these two towns aresimilar is thatthey areboth locatedin rural areas. Gridlock is
surrounded by many acresof farmlandwhich isdevoted mainlyto growing corn and soybeans.
In thesame way,Subnormalliesinthecenter of farmlandwhichisused toraise hogs andcattle .
. . .
The passage above is from a comparison paragraph. that is, a paragraph which discusses
the similarities between two subtopics. Notice how the ideas in this paragraph are organized. As

usual, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph. After that, the paragraph continues
by discussing one point of similarity between the towns of Gridlock and Subnormal, namely, their
small population.
Specific details are given to support the statement that "both are small rural communities."
Following this, theparagraph briefly discusses a second point of similarity betweenthe two towns,
that is, their geographic surroundings. Here, the paragraph also gives supporting details to
illustrate their similarity, namely, that they are "both located in rural areas."
As you can see, therefore, this comparison paragraph is structured (organized) according to
the points of similarity between the two towns. This particular paragraph discusses only two
points of similarity, but of course we can imagine a paragraph that gives three, four, or even more
points of similarity. This paragraph, for example, might continue in this way:
. . . Thirdly, both of these towns aresimilar in that both contain college campuses. Gridlock, for
example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program
as well asfor its annual Corn-WatchingFestival. Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the
beautiful campus of Quark College, which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering
department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.
Contrast Clauses
There are two types of adverb clauses that express contrast: direct opposition clauses and
concession clauses.
Direct Opposition Clauses:
In this type, the information in the adverb clause and the information in the independent
clause are in direct contrast.
Direct Opposition Subordinators
Whereas Elista is cool during summer,
whereas Simferopol is generally hot.
While While most homes in Elista do not
have air conditioning, it is a
necessity in the Crimea.
Notes: While and whereas have the same meaning and they are interchangeable. Use commas between two
clauses, no matter which order they are.
Elista is cool during the summer, whereas Simferopol isgenerally hot. Whereas Simferopol is generally
hot during the summer, Elista is cool. Whereas Elista is cool during the summer, Simferopol is generally hot.
Simferopol is generally hot during the summer, whereas Elista is cool.
Concession (Unexpected Result Clauses)
A concession clause means “This idea is true, but the idea in the independent clause is more important:.
This clause is sometimes called “unexpected result” clause because the information in the independent clause

is surprising or unexpected based on the information given in the concession clause.
Concession Subordinators
Although Although I had studied all night, I fail the test.
Even though My house is quite comfortable, even though it
is rather small.
Though Though the citizens of Russia despised the old
Soviet regime, they disliked the new
government of the 1990-s even more.
Notes:Although, even though, and through have almost the same meaning. Though is less formal.
Even though is a little stronger than although. Use a comma between two clauses, no matter which
order they are in.
Practice: Use subordinators in given sentences. Modem Olympic equestrian events emphasize
style. The ancient Greek events emphasized speed.
Modern Olympic equestrian events emphasize style, (whereas) the ancient Greek events
emphasized speed.
1. Both the common cold and the flu are caused by viruses. Only the flu can be prevented through
immunization.
2. A cold develops gradually, and any fever that develops will be low-grade (101°F or less). The
flu often comes on abruptly, with a sudden high fever.
3. Ludwig van Beethoven became totally deaf in midlife. He wrote some of the Western world’s
greatest music.
4. South Korea is becoming an economic superpower. It is a small country with few natural
resources.
5. The Northwest rainfall averages hundreds of inches annually. The Southwest averages less
than 12 inches per year.
6. Scientists know why earthquakes happen. They are still not able to predict them.
7. Smokers claim the right to smoke in public places. Nonsmokers claim the right to breathe
clean air.
Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Subtopic
Another way of organizing a comparison is not according to supporting details that are
similar, but according to subtopic. (A subtopic is a main example, or main supporting idea, that
illustrates the topic sentence of a paragraph. That is, we can organize the paragraph by first
discussing all the relevant points associated to one subtopic, then discussing those of the second
subtopic. Look at the following example, based on the above paragraph:

My hometown andmy collegetown haveseveral things in common. First, my hometown,
Gridlock, is a small town. It has a population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural
area, Gridlockis surrounded by many acres of farmlandwhichare devoted mainlyto growing
corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college campus, Neutron College, which is famous
for its Agricultural Economics program as well asfor its annual Corn-WatchingFestival. As
for my college town, Subnormal, it too is small, having a population of about 11,000 local
residents, which swells to 15,000 people when students from the nearby college are attending
classes. Like Gridlock, Subnormal liesin the center of farmlandwhichis used to raise hogs and
cattle.Finally, Subnormal issimilar toGridlockinthatitalsoboastsa beautiful collegecampus,
calledQuark College. This college is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department
and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.
As you can see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses the relevant details
about Gridlock and then presents the details about Subnormal.
Similes and Metaphors
Similes and metaphors are of great importance in writing process. A Simile is a figure of
speech that compares two things that are basically alike. Mostly similes use words “Like’ and
“As’.
Metaphors are more common in written English and they make effect of sounding quite
poetic and romantic.
Exercise № 41. Write a poem for kids and underline as many similes as possible. Use them in
sentences of your own.
Black as words on printed pages.
Sad like tigers locked in cages.
Long as thread unrolled from spools,
Straight like legs on wooden stools.
Quiet as a school at night.
Happy like a bird in flight.
Tight as fuzzy skin on peaches.
White like dunes of sand on beaches.
Cold as scoops of frozen peas.
Fun like writing similes.
Exercise № 42. Complete these similes in black and white. Use your creativity, but a Lingvo
dictionary.
1) as Happy as …
2) as Dark as …
3) as Smart as …

Exercise № 43. Write definitions.
1) Write a simile about your friend. My friend is as …as …
2) Write a simile about your University lecturer. My university Lecturer is as …as …
3) Write a simile about any of wild animals. Moscow zoo homes a great deal of ….
4) Write a simile about any of domestic animals or home pets. I have a fancy of …
5) Write a simile about your favourite food.
A metaphor compares two seemingly unlike things without using; like, as, than, or
resembles. A metaphor says that something is something else.
Original: My dress blew around in the wind.
Metaphor: My dress was a sail billowing in a wind, making me feel as if I were about to keel
over.
Personification gives human qualities to something that is not human, such as an animal,
an object, or an idea.
Original: The spring rain fell.
Personification: Spring wept its bitter tears of rain.
Exercise № 44. On a piece of paper, rewrite the following sentences using a metaphor, simile, or
personification.
Example: The mountain range rose out of the valley. The mountain range, like a man’s craggy
profile, rose out of the valley.
1. The trees made shadows.
2. The building looked sleek and new.
3. I felt sad.
4. There were some scary noises.
5. The carpet was soft.
6. The dog was very smart.
7. The boat moved through the water.
8. She hit the tennis ball.
9. I hurried down the sidewalk.
10. The stream flowed quickly.
Comparison Conjunctions

In the above paragraphs you will see various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph
coherence. We can look at the above paragraphs again to see how the conjunctions are used:
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural
communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000
people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents. This
population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending classes. A second way
in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is
surrounded by many acres of farmland, which is devotedmainly to growing corn and soybeans. In
the same way, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle.
Thirdly, these towns are similar in that they contain college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is
home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for
its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus
of Quark College, which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for
its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.
This paragraph, of course, is organized according to similarities. Notice how the ORDER
of the similarities is the same throughout the paragraph. That is, at each similar point, the
paragraph first discusses Gridlock and then it discusses Subnormal. Keeping the same order
throughout the paragraph prevents the reader from getting confused.
5.4 ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS
An argumentative essay is an essay in which you agree or disagree with an issue, using
reasons to support your opinion. Your goal is to convince your reader that your opinion is right.
Argumentation is a popular kind of essay question because it forces students to think on their own:
They have to take a stand on an issue, support their stand with solid reasons, and support their
reasons with solid evidence.
In a general writing test such as the IELTS or TOEFL examinations, you might encounter
questions such as these:
The U.S. Declaration of Independence states, “All men are created equal.” Agree or disagree with
this statement. Support your opinion withreasons and examples.
The most important element ina friendship is trust. Agree or disagree withthis statement. Support

your opinion withreasons and examples.
In an academic class, your instructor might ask a question such as this:
CRIMINAL JUSTICE Some cities in the United States and the United Kingdom have passed laws
establishing curfews for young people. Young people (usually age 17 and
younger) may not be out on the streets after 9 or 10 p.m. Do you agree or
disagree withsuch curfews?
What is unique about an argumentative essay is that you do not just give reasons to support
your point of view. You must also discuss the other reasons and then rebut them. (Rebut means to
point out problems with the other side’s reasons to prove that they are not good reasons.) We do
this because we want readers to know that we have considered all sides of the issue. When we
show that we are reasonable and open-minded, readers are more likely to listen to our point of
view.
Choose topic and write an argumentative essay.
1 Agree or disagree with the following statement:
It is worth the expense and risk to make a manned flight to Mars.
Writing an argumentative essay requires especially careful planning.
Step 1 Clarify in your mind what the two sides of the argument are. Decide which side you agree
with.
Step 2 Write a thesis statement. Your thesis statement can state either just your point of view or
both points of view.
Step 3 Research the topic to get ideas and supporting reasons for both sides of the argument. Read
the article and do the exercises for your topic before you begin this writing assignment.
You should use quotations, summaries, or paraphrases from the appropriate parts of the
readings to support your arguments.
Step 4 Write your first draft. Write an explanatory or an attention-getting introduction, as you
prefer.
Step 5 Use the Self-Editing Worksheet and revise your essay if necessary.
Step 6 Exchange papers with a classmate. Review each other’s essays and complete the Peer-
Editing.

Reading
This article from a popular weekly news magazine argues against sending a manned
spacecraft to explore Mars.
Why we should not Go to Mars: Someday people may walk on the planet, but not until it
makes technological sense.
“Two centuries ago, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark left St. Louis to explore the new lands
acquired intheLouisiana Purchase,” George W. Bush said, announcing hisdesire for a program tosend
men and women to Mars.2 “They made that journey in the spirit of discovery. . . . America has ventured
forth intospace for the same reasons.”
Yet there are vital differences between Lewis and Clark’s expedition and a Mars mission. First,
Lewis and Clark were headed to a place amenable tolife; hundreds of thousands of people were already
living there. Second, Lewis and Clark were certain todiscover places and things of immediate value to the
new nation. Third, theLewis and Clark venture cost next to nothing by today’s standards. In 1989, NASA
estimated that a people-to-Mars program would cost $400 billion, whichinflates to$600 billiontoday. The
Hoover Damcost $700 millionintoday’s money, meaning that sending people toMars might cost asmuch
as building about 800 new Hoover Dams. AMars mission may be thesingle most expensive non-wartime
undertaking inU.S. history.
The thought of travel to Mars is exhilarating. Surely men and women willsomeday walk upon that
planet, and surely they will make wondrous discoveries about geology and the history of the solar system,
perhaps even about the very origin of life. Many times, Ihave stared upat Mars intheevening sky—in the
mountains, away from cities, you can almost see the red tint—and wondered what is there or was there.
However, the fact that a destination is tantalizing does not mean the journey makes sense, even
considering the human calling to explore. In addition, Mars as a destination for people makes absolutely
no sense with current technology.
Present systems for getting from Earth’s surface to low-Earth orbit are so fantastically expensive
that merely launching the 1,000 tons or so of spacecraft and equipment a Mars mission would require
could be accomplished only by cutting health-care benefits, education spending, or other important
programs— or by raising taxes. Absent some remarkable discovery, astronauts, geologists, and biologists
once on Mars could do littlemore than analyze rocks and feel awestruck beholding the sky of another
world. Yet rocks can be analyzed by automated probes without risk tohuman life, and at a tiny fraction of
the cost of sending people.
Space exploration proponents deride as lack of vision the mention of technical barriers or the
insistence that needs on Earthcome first. Not so. Theformer isrationality, thelatterthe settingof priorities.
If Mars proponents want to raise $600 billion privately and stage their own expedition, more power to
them; many of the great expeditions of the past were privately mounted. If Mars proponents expect
taxpayers to foot their bill, then they must make their case against the many other competing needs for
money. In addition, against the needs for health care, education, poverty reduction, reinforcement of the
military, and reduction of the federal deficit, the case for vast expenditures to go to Mars using current
technology isvery weak.
Practice Bank 1. Think over these tasks and present an argumentative essay on each of the topics.
1. What is more profitable for me: get a Bachelor degree diploma or gain precious knowledge in my
profession?
2. What is better: get a hundred of friends or a friend in need is a friend indeed?
3. The United States or the Russian Federation: where life is more secured?

Unit 6. Types of writing
When you write a composition, you need to understand the type of writing required.
Your piece of writing can be in the form of a letter, an article for a magazine, a newspaper
or a report.
Letters are written to a person (e.g. your pen friend, a newspaper editor, etc.) or a group of
people (e.g. the students' society, the local football club, etc.) for a specific reason (e.g. to give
advice, to make a complaint etc.). They include:
Informal letters to people you know well, written in a personal chatty style.
Formal letters to managers, officials etc., written in a polite formal style.
Semi-formal letters to people you do not know well or people you know want to sound
polite and respectful e.g. a teacher of yours, your pen friend's etc., written in a polite and respectful
style.
Articles are found in magazines and newspapers. The following can be found in the form of
an article:
Descriptions of people, places, buildings, objects, festivals, ceremonies etc.
Narratives about real or imaginary events, which happened in the past. They can be written
in the first person (first-person narratives) when the writer is the main character of the story or in
the third person (third-person narratives) when the writer is describing events which happened to
another person or group of people.
News reports about current or recent events (e.g. fires, accidents,) written in impersonal
style. News reports present facts objectively and unemotionally.
Reviews discussing a film, TV programme, book, restaurant, etc. and recommending it or
not to the reader.
Discursive essays about arguments concerning particular subjects. They include:
"For and against" essays which present the pros and cons on a specific topic
Opinion Essays, which present the writer's personal opinion on a specific topic

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