This document discusses the philosophical ideas of Duhem, Quine, and challenges in theory testing and scientific methodology. It addresses the concepts of underdetermination of theory by data, holism in testing, and meaning holism. It explains that scientific theories are tested as groups, not in isolation, and that changing one hypothesis can require changes throughout the theoretical framework. The document uses examples like Newton's laws of motion and predictions of planetary orbits to illustrate these concepts.
The document discusses four types of mindsets: deliberative-implemental, promotion-prevention, growth-fixed, and consistency-dissonance. It outlines the key characteristics of each mindset type, including their different definitions of success and failure, goal-striving strategies, and effects on motivation, cognition, and behavior. The document also examines achievement goals, noting that mastery goals are generally more beneficial than performance goals for learning, persistence, and well-being.
Gestalt therapy was developed in the 1940s-1950s and focuses on developing self-awareness and personal responsibility. It views individuals as defined by their relationships with others and in a state of constant change. The goal is to increase awareness of how one functions with others. Principles include holism, field theory, figure formation, and organismic self-regulation. Methods include the cycle of experience, addressing resistances, and different levels of experimentation. While research is limited, studies found clients improved more than average. Gestalt therapy may be most suitable for educated individuals addressing alienation and personal estrangement issues.
Intro and Defininition of Positive Psychology.pdfAQSA SHAHID
Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on human flourishing and optimal functioning. It studies how people can become happier and lead more fulfilling lives. Positive psychology operates at three levels - subjective well-being, individual virtues and strengths, and community-level qualities like responsibility. It has applications in education, therapy, self-help, and workplaces. Leading researchers established positive psychology to understand thriving and build interventions to cultivate optimism, gratitude, and meaning.
The document discusses the ethical guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA) for psychologists. It provides information on the APA as the largest association of psychologists, founded in 1892. It defines ethics as rules of conduct for a profession. The APA's general principles for ethics include beneficence, responsibility, integrity, justice, and respecting people's rights. The document outlines specific ethical standards and guidelines psychologists must follow regarding issues like resolving ethical issues, competence, privacy, research, advertising and more. It stresses the humane treatment of animals in research and justified research purposes.
This document outlines ethical standards for clinical psychologists. It discusses the importance of maintaining high professional ethics, which are held to a higher standard than the law. The document then reviews general ethical principles like beneficence, fidelity, integrity, justice, and respecting dignity. It provides guidance on resolving ethical issues, maintaining competence, human relations, privacy/confidentiality, record keeping/fees, assessment, and therapy. Clinical psychologists are expected to closely follow these ethical principles to behave responsibly and protect the public.
Dr. Urvashi Sharma, an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Sanskriti University, discusses psychological research in her document. She defines research as the systematic investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses. Research aims to describe, predict, explain, and control behavior in an objective manner. Some key goals of psychological research are to describe behaviors, explain why behaviors occur, predict behaviors based on previous research, and control behaviors through suitable interventions. Dr. Sharma provides examples of researching employee safety behaviors to illustrate these goals.
Julian Rotter was an American psychologist known for developing influential theories including social learning theory and locus of control. He was born in 1916 in New York and studied psychology, developing theories that behavior is influenced by social and environmental factors. His social learning theory examined how reinforcement and expectations influence behavior. He also studied personality and developed the concept of internal vs. external locus of control relating to beliefs about what determines reinforcement.
The document is a 31 slide presentation summarizing key concepts about personal control beliefs from Chapter 10 of Understanding Motivation and Emotion by Johnmarshall Reeve. It covers topics like self-efficacy, learned helplessness, mastery versus helplessness orientation, and reactance theory. Diagrams and tables from the textbook are reproduced to illustrate important models and studies.
The document discusses four types of mindsets: deliberative-implemental, promotion-prevention, growth-fixed, and consistency-dissonance. It outlines the key characteristics of each mindset type, including their different definitions of success and failure, goal-striving strategies, and effects on motivation, cognition, and behavior. The document also examines achievement goals, noting that mastery goals are generally more beneficial than performance goals for learning, persistence, and well-being.
Gestalt therapy was developed in the 1940s-1950s and focuses on developing self-awareness and personal responsibility. It views individuals as defined by their relationships with others and in a state of constant change. The goal is to increase awareness of how one functions with others. Principles include holism, field theory, figure formation, and organismic self-regulation. Methods include the cycle of experience, addressing resistances, and different levels of experimentation. While research is limited, studies found clients improved more than average. Gestalt therapy may be most suitable for educated individuals addressing alienation and personal estrangement issues.
Intro and Defininition of Positive Psychology.pdfAQSA SHAHID
Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on human flourishing and optimal functioning. It studies how people can become happier and lead more fulfilling lives. Positive psychology operates at three levels - subjective well-being, individual virtues and strengths, and community-level qualities like responsibility. It has applications in education, therapy, self-help, and workplaces. Leading researchers established positive psychology to understand thriving and build interventions to cultivate optimism, gratitude, and meaning.
The document discusses the ethical guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA) for psychologists. It provides information on the APA as the largest association of psychologists, founded in 1892. It defines ethics as rules of conduct for a profession. The APA's general principles for ethics include beneficence, responsibility, integrity, justice, and respecting people's rights. The document outlines specific ethical standards and guidelines psychologists must follow regarding issues like resolving ethical issues, competence, privacy, research, advertising and more. It stresses the humane treatment of animals in research and justified research purposes.
This document outlines ethical standards for clinical psychologists. It discusses the importance of maintaining high professional ethics, which are held to a higher standard than the law. The document then reviews general ethical principles like beneficence, fidelity, integrity, justice, and respecting dignity. It provides guidance on resolving ethical issues, maintaining competence, human relations, privacy/confidentiality, record keeping/fees, assessment, and therapy. Clinical psychologists are expected to closely follow these ethical principles to behave responsibly and protect the public.
Dr. Urvashi Sharma, an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Sanskriti University, discusses psychological research in her document. She defines research as the systematic investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses. Research aims to describe, predict, explain, and control behavior in an objective manner. Some key goals of psychological research are to describe behaviors, explain why behaviors occur, predict behaviors based on previous research, and control behaviors through suitable interventions. Dr. Sharma provides examples of researching employee safety behaviors to illustrate these goals.
Julian Rotter was an American psychologist known for developing influential theories including social learning theory and locus of control. He was born in 1916 in New York and studied psychology, developing theories that behavior is influenced by social and environmental factors. His social learning theory examined how reinforcement and expectations influence behavior. He also studied personality and developed the concept of internal vs. external locus of control relating to beliefs about what determines reinforcement.
The document is a 31 slide presentation summarizing key concepts about personal control beliefs from Chapter 10 of Understanding Motivation and Emotion by Johnmarshall Reeve. It covers topics like self-efficacy, learned helplessness, mastery versus helplessness orientation, and reactance theory. Diagrams and tables from the textbook are reproduced to illustrate important models and studies.
The document provides an overview of behavior therapy, including its historical background and key figures like Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura; it discusses concepts like classical and operant conditioning, social cognitive theory, and cognitive behavior therapy; and it describes the therapeutic process in behavior therapy including the therapist's role in assessment, goal setting, and applying evidence-based techniques.
Clinical psychology evolved through psychologists' involvement in four areas: research, assessment, treatment, and prevention. Psychologists became involved in these areas at different times in the 20th century and for various reasons. Their role in these areas helps understand the field's past and anticipate its future. Likewise, understanding the broader social context is important. Clinical psychologists' research has grown significantly in scope since the early 1900s. Two landmark studies, on the effectiveness of psychotherapy and statistical versus clinical prediction, shaped the field by challenging assumptions and spurring better research.
The document provides an overview of a parent training program on behavior management offered by Harbor Regional Center. The program aims to help parents develop skills to effectively manage their child's behaviors through various activities including a weekly classroom training, individual consultations with experts, parent support groups, and groups focused on specific behavior issues. The expected outcome is an increase in desirable behaviors and reduction in undesirable behaviors in children. For parents to succeed, they must be fully committed to consistently applying the skills learned over an extended period of time.
The document provides an overview of an introductory social psychology lecture. It covers key topics such as social cognition including attitudes and attributions; social influence including conformity and obedience; and social relationships including prejudice, aggression, and altruism. Video examples and classic studies are discussed to illustrate important concepts and findings in social psychology.
1) Social facilitation occurs when an individual performs better on familiar tasks when others are present, due to increased motivation. However, performance declines on unfamiliar tasks due to pressure. Social loafing occurs when group members exert less individual effort than if working alone, reducing group productivity.
2) The author discusses how growing up in a competitive environment led them to experience social facilitation, working harder in the presence of classmates and when parents monitored their studies. However, the author's performance declined in less familiar subjects like Chinese when watched by teachers.
3) The author realized that social loafing can occur in close-knit groups, where members rely too heavily on each other. While some take on more work,
Carl Rogers developed client-centered (also known as person-centered) therapy in the 1930s. In this approach, the therapist takes a nondirective role and aims to foster a supportive relationship where the client can discuss their life in a safe, confidential environment. The therapist's role is to listen attentively and help the client improve problems through clarifying questions. The goal is for clients to develop increased self-esteem, openness to new experiences, and the ability to better cope with life's difficulties.
Bowlby's theory proposed that children have an innate need to attach to a primary caregiver, usually the mother, for healthy development. Disruption of this attachment through separation could cause long-term emotional and behavioral issues. He argued that continuous care from the primary attachment figure is crucial, especially in the first two years. If separated during this critical period, the child may experience distress, despair, and detachment, and later develop problems with relationships, intelligence, and mental health. Secure attachment allows children to build an internal model of themselves and others as trustworthy and effective.
Comprehensive Assessment and Intervention Planningactsconz
This document outlines the process for comprehensive assessment and intervention planning for clients. It discusses the overall purpose of assessment, which is to understand a client's wellness needs, set measurable treatment goals, and create a treatment plan. It also describes the different types of assessments, including screening, brief, and comprehensive assessments. The comprehensive assessment aims to understand barriers to a client's well-being and develop strategies to minimize barriers and enhance pathways. Key parts of the assessment include determining level of care, cultural needs, and developing a management plan and prognosis. The intervention planning considers medical, psychiatric, addiction, and social issues to create a treatment plan addressing predisposing, triggering, maintaining, and protective factors.
This document provides biographical information about Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). It discusses Ellis' childhood, education, early career focusing on writing, and eventual development of REBT. The summary is:
Ellis was born in 1913 in Pittsburgh and raised in New York. He had a difficult childhood but developed a passion for reading and problem-solving. After trying various careers including writing, he turned to psychotherapy and developed REBT which focuses on disputing irrational beliefs that cause emotional disturbances. REBT became his life's work and he published extensively on the topic until his death in 2007.
This document provides an overview of psychotherapies for addiction treatment. It defines addiction and describes different types of drugs including stimulants, depressants, opioids, hallucinogens, and cannabis. It then discusses various treatment models and approaches for addiction including cognitive behavioral therapy, motivational enhancement therapy, contingency management, 12-step facilitation therapy, multisystemic therapy, and relapse prevention therapy. The document emphasizes that addiction is a chronic disease that often requires long-term, multi-pronged treatment approaches to support individuals in stopping drug use and staying drug-free.
This document discusses some of the ethical issues that can arise in psychological experiments involving human participants. It notes that researchers must ensure participants are not harmed and that informed consent and the right to withdraw are important principles. However, fully informing participants about experimental aims can interfere with controls. The document explores how to gain informed consent while maintaining experimental integrity. It also discusses how the Milgram obedience study exemplified unethical practices and how to evaluate experiments' strengths and weaknesses.
Islamic psychology developed concepts from early scholars including Al-Kindi, who was the first to use experimental methods, and Ashraf Ali Thanvi, who developed personality and treatment theories. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi classified disorders, differentiated between neurosis and psychosis, and pioneered cognitive therapy. Ibn Sina described numerous conditions and was a pioneer of psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine, proposing seven inner senses to complement the outer senses.
The document provides an overview of the field of psychology, including its goals, approaches, and history. It discusses how psychology aims to understand both normal and abnormal behavior and mental processes scientifically. Early approaches included structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism. Modern psychology takes an eclectic approach, drawing from biological, cognitive, evolutionary, and cultural perspectives to understand the adaptive human mind.
This document discusses various psychosocial approaches and psychotherapies relevant to child psychiatry. It describes therapies such as psychoeducation, parent counseling, psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, family therapy, group psychotherapy, play therapy, and others. It notes that while principles are similar to adult psychotherapy, key differences for children include their developmental level, dependence on adults, and involvement of parents in treatment. Therapies aim to improve function by addressing cognition, emotions, and underlying psychopathology through therapeutic relationships and play. Skill and understanding of child development is important for effective psychotherapy in children.
microSKILLS in COLLABORATIVE COMMUNICATION (counselling /motivational interv...Xharyu Bulok
This document discusses counseling and motivational interviewing techniques. It begins with key points defining counseling as a method to facilitate intrinsic motivation and change behavior, and motivational interviewing as a process where a client works with a counselor to establish goals and change behaviors. The document then covers counseling microskills like attending, observing, and understanding subtext. It discusses the importance of nonverbal communication and personal distances in interactions. Overall, the document provides an overview of counseling and motivational interviewing techniques with a focus on microskills.
I'm sharing this PPT which I had presented in my university as a part of my assignments. This PPT can be helpful for students of psychology to prepare their notes. It is brief, covers major points of the topic. Hope people like it.
The document discusses confrontation and challenging skills used in counseling. It defines confrontation as gently bringing awareness to something a client may be avoiding or overlooking. The goals of confrontation include increasing client awareness of blind spots and developing new perspectives. There are three steps to confrontation in counseling: identifying mixed messages, bringing awareness to clashes, and evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention. The document provides guidance on what to challenge, such as inconsistencies, irrational beliefs, problems being avoided, and opportunities being ignored.
1. Reality therapy is a counseling approach based on choice theory which posits that human behavior is driven by five basic needs and that people have the ability to choose their behaviors.
2. The therapeutic process in reality therapy involves creating a supportive counseling environment, exploring a client's wants and needs, evaluating whether their current behaviors are meeting those wants and needs, and developing plans for behavior change.
3. Key aspects of reality therapy include keeping therapy focused on the present, emphasizing personal responsibility and choice over past events, avoiding non-constructive techniques like transference, and developing plans that are simple, measurable, and committed to by the client.
Social learning theories - Personalities theoriesManu Melwin Joy
social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John Dollard in 1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura from 1962 until the present. . Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning.
Psychotherapy is a treatment approach for mental illnesses and disorders of behavior and mind. It involves talking therapies where a trained practitioner supports clients to modify their cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in desirable ways. Some key features of psychotherapy are that it provides a nonjudgmental and supportive environment for clients to discuss problems, explores more satisfactory ways of living, aims to facilitate effective and lasting changes, and involves interactions between the therapist and client that connect psychological theories to help improve client functioning.
This document discusses several issues relating to patents and intellectual property:
- There is a tension between the norm of open scientific knowledge and the concept of intellectual property ownership.
- Employers and universities often claim ownership over intellectual property created by employees and students. Patent law varies by jurisdiction on this issue.
- Patents provide a limited monopoly on inventions in exchange for publicly disclosing details that allow others to replicate the work once the patent expires. However, critics argue the patent system does not always encourage innovation or serve the public interest.
The document discusses the 2009 hacking of emails from the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia which led to public questions about the reliability and honesty of climate scientists. It summarizes concerns raised about the scientists' expressed reluctance to share data and code as requested, as well as references to a "trick" used to "hide the decline". However, it also notes that nothing in the emails provides evidence of a conspiracy or data falsification. The document examines issues around scientific transparency, biases, and building public trust in science.
The document provides an overview of behavior therapy, including its historical background and key figures like Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura; it discusses concepts like classical and operant conditioning, social cognitive theory, and cognitive behavior therapy; and it describes the therapeutic process in behavior therapy including the therapist's role in assessment, goal setting, and applying evidence-based techniques.
Clinical psychology evolved through psychologists' involvement in four areas: research, assessment, treatment, and prevention. Psychologists became involved in these areas at different times in the 20th century and for various reasons. Their role in these areas helps understand the field's past and anticipate its future. Likewise, understanding the broader social context is important. Clinical psychologists' research has grown significantly in scope since the early 1900s. Two landmark studies, on the effectiveness of psychotherapy and statistical versus clinical prediction, shaped the field by challenging assumptions and spurring better research.
The document provides an overview of a parent training program on behavior management offered by Harbor Regional Center. The program aims to help parents develop skills to effectively manage their child's behaviors through various activities including a weekly classroom training, individual consultations with experts, parent support groups, and groups focused on specific behavior issues. The expected outcome is an increase in desirable behaviors and reduction in undesirable behaviors in children. For parents to succeed, they must be fully committed to consistently applying the skills learned over an extended period of time.
The document provides an overview of an introductory social psychology lecture. It covers key topics such as social cognition including attitudes and attributions; social influence including conformity and obedience; and social relationships including prejudice, aggression, and altruism. Video examples and classic studies are discussed to illustrate important concepts and findings in social psychology.
1) Social facilitation occurs when an individual performs better on familiar tasks when others are present, due to increased motivation. However, performance declines on unfamiliar tasks due to pressure. Social loafing occurs when group members exert less individual effort than if working alone, reducing group productivity.
2) The author discusses how growing up in a competitive environment led them to experience social facilitation, working harder in the presence of classmates and when parents monitored their studies. However, the author's performance declined in less familiar subjects like Chinese when watched by teachers.
3) The author realized that social loafing can occur in close-knit groups, where members rely too heavily on each other. While some take on more work,
Carl Rogers developed client-centered (also known as person-centered) therapy in the 1930s. In this approach, the therapist takes a nondirective role and aims to foster a supportive relationship where the client can discuss their life in a safe, confidential environment. The therapist's role is to listen attentively and help the client improve problems through clarifying questions. The goal is for clients to develop increased self-esteem, openness to new experiences, and the ability to better cope with life's difficulties.
Bowlby's theory proposed that children have an innate need to attach to a primary caregiver, usually the mother, for healthy development. Disruption of this attachment through separation could cause long-term emotional and behavioral issues. He argued that continuous care from the primary attachment figure is crucial, especially in the first two years. If separated during this critical period, the child may experience distress, despair, and detachment, and later develop problems with relationships, intelligence, and mental health. Secure attachment allows children to build an internal model of themselves and others as trustworthy and effective.
Comprehensive Assessment and Intervention Planningactsconz
This document outlines the process for comprehensive assessment and intervention planning for clients. It discusses the overall purpose of assessment, which is to understand a client's wellness needs, set measurable treatment goals, and create a treatment plan. It also describes the different types of assessments, including screening, brief, and comprehensive assessments. The comprehensive assessment aims to understand barriers to a client's well-being and develop strategies to minimize barriers and enhance pathways. Key parts of the assessment include determining level of care, cultural needs, and developing a management plan and prognosis. The intervention planning considers medical, psychiatric, addiction, and social issues to create a treatment plan addressing predisposing, triggering, maintaining, and protective factors.
This document provides biographical information about Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). It discusses Ellis' childhood, education, early career focusing on writing, and eventual development of REBT. The summary is:
Ellis was born in 1913 in Pittsburgh and raised in New York. He had a difficult childhood but developed a passion for reading and problem-solving. After trying various careers including writing, he turned to psychotherapy and developed REBT which focuses on disputing irrational beliefs that cause emotional disturbances. REBT became his life's work and he published extensively on the topic until his death in 2007.
This document provides an overview of psychotherapies for addiction treatment. It defines addiction and describes different types of drugs including stimulants, depressants, opioids, hallucinogens, and cannabis. It then discusses various treatment models and approaches for addiction including cognitive behavioral therapy, motivational enhancement therapy, contingency management, 12-step facilitation therapy, multisystemic therapy, and relapse prevention therapy. The document emphasizes that addiction is a chronic disease that often requires long-term, multi-pronged treatment approaches to support individuals in stopping drug use and staying drug-free.
This document discusses some of the ethical issues that can arise in psychological experiments involving human participants. It notes that researchers must ensure participants are not harmed and that informed consent and the right to withdraw are important principles. However, fully informing participants about experimental aims can interfere with controls. The document explores how to gain informed consent while maintaining experimental integrity. It also discusses how the Milgram obedience study exemplified unethical practices and how to evaluate experiments' strengths and weaknesses.
Islamic psychology developed concepts from early scholars including Al-Kindi, who was the first to use experimental methods, and Ashraf Ali Thanvi, who developed personality and treatment theories. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi classified disorders, differentiated between neurosis and psychosis, and pioneered cognitive therapy. Ibn Sina described numerous conditions and was a pioneer of psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine, proposing seven inner senses to complement the outer senses.
The document provides an overview of the field of psychology, including its goals, approaches, and history. It discusses how psychology aims to understand both normal and abnormal behavior and mental processes scientifically. Early approaches included structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism. Modern psychology takes an eclectic approach, drawing from biological, cognitive, evolutionary, and cultural perspectives to understand the adaptive human mind.
This document discusses various psychosocial approaches and psychotherapies relevant to child psychiatry. It describes therapies such as psychoeducation, parent counseling, psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, family therapy, group psychotherapy, play therapy, and others. It notes that while principles are similar to adult psychotherapy, key differences for children include their developmental level, dependence on adults, and involvement of parents in treatment. Therapies aim to improve function by addressing cognition, emotions, and underlying psychopathology through therapeutic relationships and play. Skill and understanding of child development is important for effective psychotherapy in children.
microSKILLS in COLLABORATIVE COMMUNICATION (counselling /motivational interv...Xharyu Bulok
This document discusses counseling and motivational interviewing techniques. It begins with key points defining counseling as a method to facilitate intrinsic motivation and change behavior, and motivational interviewing as a process where a client works with a counselor to establish goals and change behaviors. The document then covers counseling microskills like attending, observing, and understanding subtext. It discusses the importance of nonverbal communication and personal distances in interactions. Overall, the document provides an overview of counseling and motivational interviewing techniques with a focus on microskills.
I'm sharing this PPT which I had presented in my university as a part of my assignments. This PPT can be helpful for students of psychology to prepare their notes. It is brief, covers major points of the topic. Hope people like it.
The document discusses confrontation and challenging skills used in counseling. It defines confrontation as gently bringing awareness to something a client may be avoiding or overlooking. The goals of confrontation include increasing client awareness of blind spots and developing new perspectives. There are three steps to confrontation in counseling: identifying mixed messages, bringing awareness to clashes, and evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention. The document provides guidance on what to challenge, such as inconsistencies, irrational beliefs, problems being avoided, and opportunities being ignored.
1. Reality therapy is a counseling approach based on choice theory which posits that human behavior is driven by five basic needs and that people have the ability to choose their behaviors.
2. The therapeutic process in reality therapy involves creating a supportive counseling environment, exploring a client's wants and needs, evaluating whether their current behaviors are meeting those wants and needs, and developing plans for behavior change.
3. Key aspects of reality therapy include keeping therapy focused on the present, emphasizing personal responsibility and choice over past events, avoiding non-constructive techniques like transference, and developing plans that are simple, measurable, and committed to by the client.
Social learning theories - Personalities theoriesManu Melwin Joy
social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John Dollard in 1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura from 1962 until the present. . Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning.
Psychotherapy is a treatment approach for mental illnesses and disorders of behavior and mind. It involves talking therapies where a trained practitioner supports clients to modify their cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in desirable ways. Some key features of psychotherapy are that it provides a nonjudgmental and supportive environment for clients to discuss problems, explores more satisfactory ways of living, aims to facilitate effective and lasting changes, and involves interactions between the therapist and client that connect psychological theories to help improve client functioning.
This document discusses several issues relating to patents and intellectual property:
- There is a tension between the norm of open scientific knowledge and the concept of intellectual property ownership.
- Employers and universities often claim ownership over intellectual property created by employees and students. Patent law varies by jurisdiction on this issue.
- Patents provide a limited monopoly on inventions in exchange for publicly disclosing details that allow others to replicate the work once the patent expires. However, critics argue the patent system does not always encourage innovation or serve the public interest.
The document discusses the 2009 hacking of emails from the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia which led to public questions about the reliability and honesty of climate scientists. It summarizes concerns raised about the scientists' expressed reluctance to share data and code as requested, as well as references to a "trick" used to "hide the decline". However, it also notes that nothing in the emails provides evidence of a conspiracy or data falsification. The document examines issues around scientific transparency, biases, and building public trust in science.
The document discusses indirect truth table analysis for determining the validity of arguments. It provides examples of setting up truth tables to evaluate arguments by making the conclusion false and premises true without contradictions. The examples show both valid and invalid arguments based on whether a consistent truth assignment can be found.
The document discusses various positions regarding scientific realism and antirealism. It presents an example from the 19th century of a scientist, Jones, developing a theory that an unobservable microbe called a "crobe" is responsible for transmitting disease in the same way that lice transmit diseases. While the theory is empirically successful, some argue we cannot know if crobes truly exist. The document explores arguments for scientific realism, antirealism, and a middle position of "entity realism," discussing what types of claims we can and cannot make regarding observable versus unobservable entities based on empirical evidence and scientific theories.
This document summarizes Thomas Kuhn's view of scientific progress and theory change, and responses to Kuhn from philosophers Lakatos, Laudan, and Feyerabend. Kuhn argued that science progresses through "paradigm shifts" rather than continuous progress, observations are theory-laden, and the choice between paradigms is not fully objective. Later philosophers criticized aspects of Kuhn's view and proposed alternative models of scientific progress and rational theory evaluation.
The document discusses feminist critiques of science, specifically examining how the exclusion of women from science may have been harmful. It explores how scientific theories in the past have promoted gender biases and stereotypes to justify excluding women. A key feminist critique is that excluding diverse perspectives, like those of women, reduces objectivity by limiting alternative viewpoints and questions that could be asked. The document argues that including more women in science can help address implicit biases and assumptions, leading to more rigorous and objective scientific research.
Kuhn and his Critics Theory-laden Observations and the Question of ProgressKaium Chowdhury
This document discusses Thomas Kuhn's view of scientific progress and paradigm shifts, and responses from Lakatos, Laudan, and Feyerabend. Lakatos proposed that scientific research programs make progressive changes within a hard core of assumptions to solve puzzles. Laudan argued scientists can pursue untested theories. Feyerabend believed anything goes and rational rules limit creativity. The document questions whether science can be described as rational or progressive.
The document discusses Thomas Kuhn's concept of scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts. It explains that normal science operates within a shared paradigm, but anomalies can lead to a crisis when the paradigm is unable to solve resistant puzzles. This forces scientists to consider alternatives. When comparing paradigms like Ptolemaic vs Copernican models of planetary motion, factors like how well each addresses unsolved puzzles, fits with other theories and observations, and aesthetic appeal influence which paradigm gains acceptance. However, paradigm choices are subjective since what we observe depends on the paradigm.
The document discusses Semmelweis' work in the 1840s to address childbed fever in Vienna hospitals. Semmelweis observed that the mortality rate from childbed fever was much higher in the first division ward staffed by doctors and medical students compared to the second division ward staffed by midwives. Through a process of elimination, Semmelweis hypothesized that cadaveric particles carried from autopsies to patients caused the disease. Reducing these particles by washing hands and instruments with chlorinated lime lowered the mortality rate, supporting his hypothesis. However, his conclusion could not be logically proven through the evidence, as other factors could also explain the outcome. The document also discusses the problem of induction in drawing conclusions about
Thomas Kuhn argues that science operates in two distinct modes: normal science and scientific revolution. During normal science, scientists work within a shared paradigm that provides the framework and assumptions for their research. The paradigm guides what phenomena can be explained, what problems are worth studying, and how research is conducted. However, over time anomalies and resistant problems emerge that the paradigm cannot resolve, leading to a crisis and eventual shift to a new paradigm during a period of scientific revolution.
The document discusses several topics relating to naturalism as a philosophical approach:
1) Naturalism shifts the question from how to justify scientific methodology to how to adequately describe how knowledge and science work based on what science tells us.
2) A naturalist view is that science can describe the belief-forming mechanisms that humans use and philosophy can evaluate how good those mechanisms are for achieving different goals.
3) Several philosophers discussed apply scientific findings and methods to philosophical problems, including describing how social and reward structures within science help explain its success.
The document discusses the concepts of induction and confirmation in philosophy. It uses Semmelweis's discovery of the cause of childbed fever as a case study. Semmelweis used inductive and deductive reasoning to identify that physicians were transmitting cadaveric particles from autopsies to patients, which was causing childbed fever. However, strictly speaking, Semmelweis's conclusions were not proven with his data since inductive arguments can only establish potential causes, not prove conclusions with certainty.
This document discusses scientific theories and the Big Bang Theory. It provides definitions of key terms like scientific theory, fact, and law. It explains that a scientific theory is well-supported by evidence but is not absolute fact. The document then summarizes the development of the Big Bang Theory, including contributions from Einstein, Friedman, and Hubble. It describes how evidence from the cosmic microwave background and galaxy redshifts supports the idea that the universe expanded from a hot, dense initial state nearly 14 billion years ago.
The document discusses Karl Popper's theory of falsification and its evolution over time. It explains that Popper argued scientific theories are never truly verified, but can be falsified by a single contradictory observation. Theories should aim to be falsifiable to be considered scientific. Later, Popper acknowledged natural selection as testable despite initial doubts. The document also examines criticisms of falsification, such as that theories may not be falsified even when observations contradict them, depending on how the theory is modified in response.
The Scientific Revolution began in the mid-1500s as scientists began questioning accepted beliefs and making new theories based on experimentation and observation. This challenged the medieval view that knowledge came from religious texts. Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton developed new theories like heliocentrism and the laws of motion and gravity through experimentation and evidence. However, Galileo faced opposition from the Church for his findings. The Scientific Revolution led to the development of the scientific method and new instruments that drove further discoveries in fields like astronomy, anatomy, chemistry, and medicine. These developments were part of the broader intellectual movement of the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, science, and humanism.
This document discusses the nature of scientific inquiry through examples of famous scientists who made mistakes or had their theories later disproven, showing how science is self-correcting. It provides examples of Lord Kelvin underestimating the age of the Earth until radioactivity was discovered. Enrico Fermi initially claiming to create transuranium elements through bombardment, but actually discovering nuclear fission. And Linus Pauling proposing an incorrect 3-strand DNA model that was later corrected by Watson and Crick's double helix model.
The Origin of the Universe: Creation or Evolution?Dennis Edwards
The document summarizes two theories on the origin of the universe: the big bang theory and the biblical creation theory. It argues that both are historical sciences that begin with foundational assumptions rather than observations. The big bang assumes natural causes while creation assumes God as the cause. While the big bang leaves many questions unanswered, the document claims creation theory better explains evidence like an orderly universe, galaxies grouped in space, and observations of distant stars that suggest the universe has a center and edge.
The document discusses key developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era in Europe:
1) In the mid-1500s, scientists like Copernicus, Galileo and Newton began questioning accepted beliefs and developing theories based on experimentation and evidence, marking the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
2) Thinkers of the Enlightenment like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau advocated new political ideas like religious tolerance, separation of powers, checks and balances, and consent of the governed.
3) Enlightenment ideas spread through Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, aided by the development of science and influential works such as Diderot's Encyclopedia.
The document discusses the scientific method and its key components. It defines science as a methodology of testing knowledge claims through empirical observation and experimentation. This includes formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, analyzing results, developing scientific laws and theories, and repeating the cycle through peer review and attempts at falsification. The scientific method aims to approach truth through successive testing and revision of ideas, without claiming absolute certainty.
The document discusses research methods and the scientific method. It provides an overview of key figures in the development of science like Galileo, Popper, Kuhn, and Lakatos. It describes Galileo's experiment dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to test hypotheses. It also summarizes Popper's concept of falsifiability, Kuhn's idea of paradigms, and Lakatos' attempt to find common ground between Popper and Kuhn.
The document discusses the paradigm shift that occurred during the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution, where people began thinking critically and questioning established authorities. This led to advances in science through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton. It also led to new political philosophies around natural rights and limited government through Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, influencing revolutions in England, America, and France.
Laporan Praktikum Biologi Dasar - Lazzaro spallanzani experimentWiwi Pratiwie
The document summarizes a student's report on replicating an experiment by Lazzaro Spallanzani. The student, Nur Pratiwi, conducted the experiment to understand theories about the beginning of life. They took broth, sealed and unsealed it in different ways in test tubes, then observed any microbial growth over 4 days. The experiment helped support Spallanzani's theory that microorganisms do not spontaneously generate, disproving other theories of the time. The student's report was reviewed and their experiment was accepted.
The document discusses the history of theories of inheritance from ancient Greek philosophers to modern genetics. Early theories included vapor and fluid theories proposed by Pythagoras and Hippocrates, and preformation theories including the idea of homunculi contained in sperm or eggs. Later particulate theories proposed inheritance through particles from each parent, including Darwin's theory of pangenesis and Weismann's germ plasm theory which separated inheritance to the germline. Modern genetics built upon the particulate theory concept of inheritance through genetic material from both parents.
This document discusses arguments for the existence of God. It begins by stating that human reason allows for only two explanations for the origin of the world: either something has always existed or nothing existed at some point. Since nothing cannot become something, the author argues we must assume something has always existed, and that something is God. The document then discusses different views people have on faith and creation, including theist, atheist, agnostic, theistic evolutionist, and Christian views.
The document discusses the history of human subjects research, including unethical experiments conducted by Nazi Germany scientists and the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service from 1932 to 1972. The Nazi experiments violated subjects' rights and caused extreme harm. The Tuskegee study intended to observe untreated syphilis in black men but became unscientific when subjects received some treatment and contributed no useful medical knowledge. It was later deemed unethical by modern standards for failing to obtain informed consent and exposing subjects to harm without benefit.
The document discusses the historical evolution of ethics guidelines for research involving human subjects. It begins with the Hippocratic Oath from ancient Greece which established early standards of medical ethics. It then discusses the Nuremberg Code created after World War II which focused on informed consent and avoiding harming subjects. Finally, it examines the Declaration of Helsinki which recognized the need for institutional review and emphasized informed consent, assessing risks/benefits, and protecting subject well-being.
This document discusses several ethical issues regarding human subjects research, particularly in developing countries. It summarizes the Belmont Report's principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. It then examines debates around the ethics of placebo-controlled trials in developing world contexts and whether local standards of care are acceptable for control groups. The tension between beneficence toward subjects and producing scientifically valid results that could benefit the population is also discussed.
This document discusses scientific communication and the process of publishing scientific papers. It outlines the typical sections of a scientific paper, including the introduction, methods, results, and discussion. It also describes the role of peer review in evaluating papers before publication. While scientific papers aim to contribute to shared knowledge, they also serve as a way for scientists to establish priority and build their career records. This can complicate communication if it discourages sharing negative results or stretching the interpretation of findings. The document examines criticisms of the standard scientific paper format and considers other modes of scientific communication.
This document discusses authorship standards and issues in scientific publishing. It outlines why author order and attribution matter for communicating who did the research and granting proper credit. It describes problematic authorship situations like ghost writers and guest authors that can mislead readers. The document also summarizes International Committee of Medical Journal Editors standards for authorship and calls for more explicit identification of author contributions to increase accountability. It raises some concerns about peer review being misused to delay competitors' work.
Lec16 International Strategies for Scientific DialogueJanet Stemwedel
International strategies for scientific dialogue discusses various cultural influences on scientific communities and how scientists navigate these differences. Some key points summarized:
1. Local cultures and institutions can influence how science is practiced differently than an idealized meritocratic model. Hierarchies form within communities based on factors like field of study or country of origin.
2. Japanese scientists aim to participate globally while maintaining their national identity, but risk being seen as "strange" if habits from abroad are acknowledged.
3. The Tsukuba Science City project departed from traditional Japanese models by focusing on a less prestigious field outside standard university channels. This lowered their status nationally but raised it internationally in that field.
The document discusses different types of scientific explanations and criteria for a good explanation. It presents the deductive-nomological model of explanation but notes some limitations, as not all good explanations fit this model and some arguments that fit the model may not be good explanations. Different examples are provided to illustrate explanations based on laws of nature, statistical generalizations, mechanisms, and pragmatic or contextual factors.
The document discusses how truth tables can be used to determine the logical status of propositions and arguments. Truth tables assign truth values (True/False) to propositions based on the truth values of their component statements, allowing the logical status of single propositions and groups of propositions to be determined. The logical status can be tautology, contradiction, contingent, equivalent, satisfiable/consistent, or unsatisfiable/inconsistent depending on the truth values. Validity of arguments can also be determined from truth tables by checking if the conclusion is true in all rows where the premises are true. Examples of truth tables are provided to illustrate these concepts.
The document discusses translating statements from English to propositional logic, including:
- Conjunction and disjunction are commutative but order matters for statements with mixed operators
- How to translate conditional statements like "if P then Q" and biconditionals like "P if and only if Q"
- Necessary and sufficient conditions and how they relate to conditionals
- Examples of translating various English language statements into propositional logic statements
The document discusses translating natural language statements into propositional logic by identifying logical structures like negation, conjunction, disjunction, etc. It provides examples of translating statements involving negation (e.g. "Bill does not own a car"), conjunction (e.g. "Jenny went to the park and Bill went to the park"), disjunction (e.g. "Either my roommate will bring the textbook or my lab partner will let me borrow hers"), and discusses how to properly capture meaning and logical relationships. Key concepts covered are using variables to represent propositions, appropriate use of logical operators, and handling collective subjects, temporal sequences, and additive comparisons.
The document contains a review of quiz questions about arguments and logic. It defines arguments, validity, and soundness. It also identifies whether passages provide arguments, explanations, or reports. Additionally, it addresses ambiguities in arguments and answers questions testing the concepts.
The document discusses various types of definitions that can be used to reduce ambiguity and vagueness in arguments, including: ostensive definitions, which involve directly pointing out the thing being defined; verbal extensional definitions, which list examples of members of the set; intensional definitions, which outline the properties of members; lexical definitions from dictionaries; stipulative definitions for new terms; precising definitions to clarify vague terms; theoretical definitions based on a particular theory; and operational definitions that provide instructions for determining if something fits the definition. It also discusses ambiguity, vagueness, emotive or persuasive definitions, and gives examples and homework assignments related to defining terms clearly.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
20. PHIL 160 Need auxiliary hypotheses to generate testable predictions: H1: Cadaveric matter causes childbed fever. H2: Cadaveric matter is transferred from cadavers to patients via hands, instruments. H3: Washing hands, instruments in chlorinated lime will remove or destroy cadaveric matter.
26. PHIL 160 1 st law of motion : If there is no force acting on a body, the momentum of that body will remain constant. Newton’s group of hypotheses
27. PHIL 160 2 nd law of motion : If there is a force acting on a body, that body will accelerate by an amount directly proportional to the strength of the force and inversely proportional to its mass. Newton’s group of hypotheses
28. PHIL 160 3 rd law of motion : If one body exerts a force on a second body, then the second body exerts a force on the first body that is equal in strength and opposite in direction. Newton’s group of hypotheses
29. PHIL 160 Law of universal gravitation : Any two bodies exert attractive forces on each other where the forces are in the direction of the line connecting the bodies and are proportional to the product of their masses divided by the square of the distance between them. Newton’s group of hypotheses
30. PHIL 160 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation No testable predictions! Newton’s group of hypotheses
31. PHIL 160 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation + auxiliary hypotheses about masses, positions of planets and sun Predictions of planets’ orbits Newton’s group of hypotheses
32. PHIL 160 But where? Negative test - there is a problem SOMEWHERE in the group of hypotheses Test group of hypotheses
33. PHIL 160 Bad prediction of Uranus’s orbit 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation + auxiliary hypotheses about masses, positions of planets and sun Newton’s group of hypotheses
34. PHIL 160 Bad prediction of Uranus’s orbit 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation + auxiliary hypotheses about masses, positions of planets and sun Missing a planet? Newton’s group of hypotheses
36. PHIL 160 Astronomers changed auxiliary hypothesis about how many planets, left Newton’s laws & UG unchanged. This fixed bad prediction of Uranus orbit. New planet (Neptune) observed by telescope.
38. 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation + auxiliary hypotheses about masses, positions of planets and sun PHIL 160 Bad prediction of Mercury’s orbit Newton’s group of hypotheses
39. PHIL 160 First attempt: stick another planet in (“Vulcan”) between Mercury and Sun.
40. PHIL 160 No repeatable observations of this new planet. First attempt: stick another planet in (“Vulcan”) between Mercury and Sun.
41. PHIL 160 No repeatable observations of this new planet. (Possible aux. hypothesis: the new planet is invisible!) First attempt: stick another planet in (“Vulcan”) between Mercury and Sun.
42. 3 laws of motion + law of universal gravitation + auxiliary hypotheses about masses, positions of planets and sun PHIL 160 Bad prediction of Mercury’s orbit Bad theory? Newton’s group of hypotheses
43. PHIL 160 Duhem says scientists must rely on “good sense” No set rule for how to fix group of hypotheses that makes a bad prediction.
44. PHIL 160 Holism in testing important in observations made with scientific instruments. Group includes hypotheses about the measuring device.
48. PHIL 160 In the group of hypotheses: Theory about salmonella growth. Theory of the microscope. Bad prediction could mean a problem with either theory (or both)
49. PHIL 160 Quine : Hypotheses are tested in groups and the group includes all human knowledge claims (including meanings of terms). “ Meaning holism” Can’t test hypotheses in isolation, and changes in one hypothesis can prompt changes throughout whole logical structure of the theory.
50. PHIL 160 What does this have to do with the Twin Earth thought experiment?
57. PHIL 160 Is the stuff from Twin Earth water? New test: elemental analysis Water from Earth: H 2 O Stuff from Twin Earth: XYZ But is Twin Earth stuff water?
58. PHIL 160 Is the stuff from Twin Earth water? Because of meaning holism, this depends on the choices you make in evaluating the group of hypotheses.
59. PHIL 160 1. Water is the stuff found in rivers, lakes, streams, and aqueducts that humans drink, cook with, bathe in, swim in, etc.
60.
61. PHIL 160 3. Although water from the ocean, water from a stream, water from a well, rainwater, etc., may differ in their impurities (salt, mud, etc.), they all count as water; that is, the substance containing these different impurities is the same.
62. PHIL 160 4. Water’s behavior is a result of what it is made of.
63. PHIL 160 5. If two samples display different microstructure (e.g., different elemental composition), they must be samples of different substances.
64. PHIL 160 6. Substances with different microstructures will display different macroscopic behavior.
69. Baptism: "That stuff is water" PHIL 160 Courtesy of the Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University
70. Description: "Water has the following properties ..." PHIL 160 Freezing point Taste, color ... Boiling point Microscopic structure
71. PHIL 160 Courtesy of the Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University "That stuff (water) has these properties"
72. Quine: PHIL 160 “ Any statement can be held to be true come what may, if we make drastic enough adjustments elsewhere in the system.”
Editor's Notes
Note that we’re shifting the discussion a bit from “hypothesis testing” to “theory testing”. This is important – one of the issues Duhem raises is that the testing scientists do is of theories rather than of individual hypotheses. We’ll see why in just a moment.
Note that you can think of a theory as a group of hypotheses, some of which focus on ontology (what kind of stuff there is), others of which focus on behavior, maybe by positing laws of one sort or another.
This was the picture of science the logical empiricists found intuitively appealing. Hempel said that science couldn’t really work this way. There is just too much to observe. We’d never have all the facts, so any kind of generalizations we’d want to draw based on what we had observed would be vulnerable to the problem of induction . There would be no guarantee that what we had observed was an accurate indication of what the stuff we hadn’t observed was like.
Hempel says that there are two separate processes here, hypothesis formation and hypothesis testing. Pause a moment to notice the connection between hypothesis and theory here. First, an hypothesis is a claim – maybe about the existence or properties of a certain entity, maybe about how that entity evolves over time, maybe about how that entity interacts with other entities. When we call such a claim an hypothesis, it usually suggests that it’s a guess rather than something we’re certain about, but there can be hypotheses about which we’re pretty confident. A theory, then, will just be a group of hypotheses; each hypothesis is one of the claims that make up the theory’s account of the world. So, a strategy you might use to test a theory would be to test each of the hypotheses in the theory. First, we need to identify what Hempel called the “test implications” of the hypothesis – the observable consequences of the hypothesis that will help us figure out whether the hypothesis is true or false. Next, we set up the appropriate test conditions. And then, we see what actually happens.
If my hypothesis H is true, I expect to see observable outcome I under the test conditions. I set up the test conditions and don’t observe I. This test gives a negative result; the hypothesis must be false.
If my hypothesis H is true, I expect to see outcome I under the test conditions. I set up the test conditions and this time observe I. A positive test! Have I demonstrated that H is true? No. This is where the problem of induction comes in. Even though outcome I is consistent with H being true, it might also be consistent with a number of other hypotheses.
My observation of 10,000 black ravens and no ravens that aren’t black is consistent with the hypothesis “All ravens are black,” but this observation is also consistent with the hypothesis, “Some ravens are pink.”
My observation of 10,000 black ravens and no ravens that aren’t black is consistent with the hypothesis “All ravens are black,” but this observation is also consistent with the hypothesis, “Some ravens are pink.”
All the daily sunrises observed over the course of human history count as data to support the claim “The sun will rise tomorrow,” but they are also consistent with the claim, “The sun won’t rise tomorrow.”
Our scientific theories are underdetermined by our experience . There are lots of ways the world could be that fit with the data we’ve collected so far. This could be a world in which the “laws of nature” never change and sunrise will happen everyday, or it could be a world in which the “laws of nature” will change dramatically next Tuesday. The observations we’ve got can’t tell us which of these worlds we are in (at least not before next Tuesday). Since there are different ways the world could be that fit with our experiences of it, it is possible to generate equally many good theories to account for the world. From the point of view of testing, what underdetermination means is that a positive test doesn’t establish an hypothesis as certainly true.
Our scientific theories are underdetermined by our experience . There are lots of ways the world could be that fit with the data we’ve collected so far. This could be a world in which the “laws of nature” never change and sunrise will happen everyday, or it could be a world in which the “laws of nature” will change dramatically next Tuesday. The observations we’ve got can’t tell us which of these worlds we are in (at least not before next Tuesday). Since there are different ways the world could be that fit with our experiences of it, it is possible to generate equally many good theories to account for the world. From the point of view of testing, what underdetermination means is that a positive test doesn’t establish an hypothesis as certainly true.
It would be great to take our hypothesis one by one, subject them to tests, and get rid of the ones that fail the tests. However, for many hypotheses in scientific theories, we just can’t do this.
Pierre Duhem, a French philosopher and physicist, was the first to point out in the early 1900s that for the most part hypotheses are tested in groups because individual hypotheses are usually not testable .
Why not? Because individual hypotheses usually don’t have any observational consequences. In other words, they don’t make any predictions you could test with an observation.
Hypotheses like this are much more common than you might think. Recall the hypothesis Semmelweis had: “Cadaveric matter causes childbed fever.” Given that cadaveric matter is not something he could observe, how could he test this hypothesis? He could only test it if he included additional hypotheses about what kinds of activities spread cadaveric matter and what types of measures stopped its spread. In other words, Semmelweis’s test was really the test of a group of hypotheses.
If cadaveric matter causes childbed fever, and if cadaveric matter is spread to pregnant women by hands and instruments of physicians involved in autopsies, and if chlorinated lime deactivates cadaveric matter, then washing the hands and instruments in chlorinated lime after autopsies will lower the rate of childbed fever.
Semmelweis got a positive result to his test – washing with chlorinated lime resulted in a drop in the rate of childbed fever. But if the results had been negative, it might be very difficult to figure out just what the results could mean. Would a negative test result mean that chlorinated lime didn’t deactivate cadaveric matter? Or that the cadaveric matter was not transmitted from autopsies but through some other means? Or that cadaveric matter didn’t cause childbed fever?
Duhem points out that if your test yields a result that differs from the one you’d expect if your group of hypotheses was right, you know there must be a problem somewhere in the group of hypotheses. The difficulty is that the failed test doesn’t tell you where in the group the problem lies. The group of hypotheses stands or falls together; you can’t test them one by one to see where the problem is.
Duhem points out that if your test yields a result that differs from the one you’d expect if your group of hypotheses was right, you know there must be a problem somewhere in the group of hypotheses. The difficulty is that the failed test doesn’t tell you where in the group the problem lies. The group of hypotheses stands or falls together; you can’t test them one by one to see where the problem is.
It’s worth pointing out that there are some hypotheses that can be tested all by themselves. For example, “Mars has a triangular orbit” is testable. Observe the path of the orbit of Mars and see what shape it has. However, a great many important scientific hypotheses can only be tested when combined with other hypotheses.
It’s worth pointing out that there are some hypotheses that can be tested all by themselves. For example, “Mars has a triangular orbit” is testable. Observe the path of the orbit of Mars and see what shape it has. However, a great many important scientific hypotheses can only be tested when combined with other hypotheses.
In fact, here’s a theory that isn’t testable without additional hypotheses: Newtonian mechanics. The theory describes how bodies behave and interact.
What we need to add to Newtonian mechanics to get any testable predictions are auxiliary hypotheses about what bodies there are, their masses, positions, etc. But when you add auxiliary hypotheses about the masses and positions of the sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, [20] all of a sudden Newtonian mechanics gives lots of testable predictions about things like planetary orbits. Comparing observed planetary orbits to predicted planetary orbits is the kind of thing you might do if you were trying to test the theory of Newtonian mechanics. As long as the observations match up well with what the theory predicts, you can conclude that Newtonian mechanics is at least consistent with the observed planetary motions.
But what do we do if the observations don’t match up with the predictions? This was just the situation in which physicists and astronomers found themselves in the early 1800s. Although the hypotheses of Newtonian mechanics (plus those auxiliary hypotheses about the positions and masses of the celestial bodies) gave very good predictions of the orbits of Mars and Venus and Jupiter and Saturn, the prediction for the orbit or Uranus wasn’t even close to what was observed. [21] Clearly, something was wrong with this group of hypotheses, but what?
But what do we do if the observations don’t match up with the predictions? This was just the situation in which physicists and astronomers found themselves in the early 1800s. Although the hypotheses of Newtonian mechanics (plus those auxiliary hypotheses about the positions and masses of the celestial bodies) gave very good predictions of the orbits of Mars and Venus and Jupiter and Saturn, the prediction for the orbit or Uranus wasn’t even close to what was observed. [21] Clearly, something was wrong with this group of hypotheses, but what? One possibility was that the problem was in the law of universal gravitation, or in one of the three laws of motion, or even that two or more of these four hypotheses were false. Another possibility was that the problem was with the auxiliary hypotheses. Perhaps the predictions were made using a bad mass or position for one of the planets. Or maybe there were other planets in the system that were omitted from the auxiliary hypotheses!
This last hunch was the one that two separate astronomers pursued. They reasoned that if there were an additional planet beyond Uranus, the gravitational pull it exerted on Uranus could explain the observed orbit of Uranus. Indeed, they were able to use Newtonian mechanics to calculate the approximate mass and position of this additional planet, and only a few years later, this planet, Neptune, was observed by telescope.
This last hunch was the one that two separate astronomers pursued. They reasoned that if there were an additional planet beyond Uranus, the gravitational pull it exerted on Uranus could explain the observed orbit of Uranus. Indeed, they were able to use Newtonian mechanics to calculate the approximate mass and position of this additional planet, and only a few years later, this planet, Neptune, was observed by telescope.
This last hunch was the one that two separate astronomers pursued. They reasoned that if there were an additional planet beyond Uranus, the gravitational pull it exerted on Uranus could explain the observed orbit of Uranus. Indeed, they were able to use Newtonian mechanics to calculate the approximate mass and position of this additional planet, and only a few years later, this planet, Neptune, was observed by telescope. This case is a nice example of how scientists adjust a group of hypotheses to deal with a failed test. Here, the scientists found a way to add an auxiliary hypothesis that fixed the one bad prediction while leaving the good predictions of the other planets’ orbits untouched.
This last hunch was the one that two separate astronomers pursued. They reasoned that if there were an additional planet beyond Uranus, the gravitational pull it exerted on Uranus could explain the observed orbit of Uranus. Indeed, they were able to use Newtonian mechanics to calculate the approximate mass and position of this additional planet, and only a few years later, this planet, Neptune, was observed by telescope. This case is a nice example of how scientists adjust a group of hypotheses to deal with a failed test. Here, the scientists found a way to add an auxiliary hypothesis that fixed the one bad prediction while leaving the good predictions of the other planets’ orbits untouched.
It looks like a sensible strategy, but does it always do the job? As it turns out, Uranus wasn’t the only planet for which Newtonian mechanics predicted an orbit that was significantly different from the observed orbit. This was a problem for the planet Mercury as well (although it didn’t become apparent how big a problem it was until telescopes got fairly powerful, allowing for more precise observational data). Well, still aglow with their success with Uranus, astronomers tried to use the same approach to deal with this problem. They decided not to touch Newton’s laws. Rather, they hypothesized that there was an additional planet between Mercury and the sun. The gravitational pull from this extra planet would end up explaining why Mercury had the orbit that was actually observed. So sure were they that this strategy would work again that they actually named this additional planet Vulcan before the folks with telescopes even had a chance to locate it.
As it turns out, they needn’t have bothered. No matter how hard they looked, no one ever observed an extra planet in the vicinity of Mercury. [23] Ultimately, the astronomers did fix the predicted orbit of Mercury, but to do so they had to replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s theory of relativity. Once again, the moral of the story about holism in testing is that it’s a group of hypotheses that generates the prediction. If what actually happens differs from what was predicted, you know there must be a problem somewhere in that group of hypotheses. But, you don’t know where in the group of hypotheses the problem actually is.
As it turns out, they needn’t have bothered. No matter how hard they looked, no one ever observed an extra planet in the vicinity of Mercury. [23] Ultimately, the astronomers did fix the predicted orbit of Mercury, but to do so they had to replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s theory of relativity. Once again, the moral of the story about holism in testing is that it’s a group of hypotheses that generates the prediction. If what actually happens differs from what was predicted, you know there must be a problem somewhere in that group of hypotheses. But, you don’t know where in the group of hypotheses the problem actually is.
As it turns out, they needn’t have bothered. No matter how hard they looked, no one ever observed an extra planet in the vicinity of Mercury. [23] Ultimately, the astronomers did fix the predicted orbit of Mercury, but to do so they had to replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s theory of relativity. Once again, the moral of the story about holism in testing is that it’s a group of hypotheses that generates the prediction. If what actually happens differs from what was predicted, you know there must be a problem somewhere in that group of hypotheses. But, you don’t know where in the group of hypotheses the problem actually is.
As it turns out, they needn’t have bothered. No matter how hard they looked, no one ever observed an extra planet in the vicinity of Mercury. [23] Ultimately, the astronomers did fix the predicted orbit of Mercury, but to do so they had to replace Newtonian mechanics with Einstein’s theory of relativity. Once again, the moral of the story about holism in testing is that it’s a group of hypotheses that generates the prediction. If what actually happens differs from what was predicted, you know there must be a problem somewhere in that group of hypotheses. But, you don’t know where in the group of hypotheses the problem actually is.
What should we do when we encounter failed predictions, then? Duhem says the scientist must rely on “good sense”. Perhaps the scientist can change one hypothesis in the group and see what the new group predicts. If that doesn’t bring the prediction in line with reality, maybe change a different hypothesis and see what happens then. It may seem prudent to start making the changes in the auxiliary hypotheses before moving on to the central hypotheses of the theory. But, there’s no sure way to know ahead of time how – if at all – you’ll be able to turn bad predictions into good ones.
Here’s one more consequence of this holism about testing Duhem points out: there are even hypotheses built into the observations we make in order to test our hypotheses in the first place, at least when we make those observations using measuring devices.
. If you test a theory that predicts your room-temperature chicken leg is crawling with salmonella bacteria by looking at that chicken leg under the microscope to see the bacteria, your group of hypotheses now includes a set of hypotheses about how the microscope works and what kinds of entities it can let you observe under what conditions. If the predicted detection of the salmonella fails, the problem could be with your hypotheses about room-temperature chicken, or it could be with your hypotheses about the microscope.
. If you test a theory that predicts your room-temperature chicken leg is crawling with salmonella bacteria by looking at that chicken leg under the microscope to see the bacteria, your group of hypotheses now includes a set of hypotheses about how the microscope works and what kinds of entities it can let you observe under what conditions. If the predicted detection of the salmonella fails, the problem could be with your hypotheses about room-temperature chicken, or it could be with your hypotheses about the microscope.
. If you test a theory that predicts your room-temperature chicken leg is crawling with salmonella bacteria by looking at that chicken leg under the microscope to see the bacteria, your group of hypotheses now includes a set of hypotheses about how the microscope works and what kinds of entities it can let you observe under what conditions. If the predicted detection of the salmonella fails, the problem could be with your hypotheses about room-temperature chicken, or it could be with your hypotheses about the microscope.
Duhem’s holism about testing makes evaluating the fit between theory and world pretty strenuous work. Quine, however, tells us that the holism that comes into play in our attempts to test a theory is even more far-reaching. Indeed, Quine asserts that all human knowledge claims, whether scientific hypotheses or claims about the relation between the New York Yankees and the source of all evil, are tied up together in one big group. In other words, when we make a prediction and observe a different outcome, the group of hypotheses we must figure out how to adjust includes everything , even meanings of words.
If science is holistic, then scientists make choices – rather than being forced by the data to a single conclusion, they have to use the data to decide how to update their hypotheses and concepts.
You considered a thought experiment starting in the year 1600. You are a scientist who has that essential piece of laboratory equipment, an interplanetary transporter. With this device you travel to Twin Earth, a planet very much like our own Earth.
While there, you discover that the rivers, lakes, streams, and aqueducts of Twin Earth are filled with a liquid that Twin Earthlings drink, cook with, bathe in, swim in, etc. With their permission, you collect several buckets of this stuff and teleport back to Earth.
The obvious question: is this stuff water? Certainly, to the average person in the 1600s, it would seem to be. But you are a scientist . You are not interested in mere appearances. You want to establish by experimental means whether this stuff really is water. In the framework of 1600s science, this will not be a matter of fancy equipment but rather of empirical determination of the behavior of this stuff in different conditions.
Can this stuff be drunk like water? You summon the two village idiots, give one a glass of water and the other a glass of the stuff from Twin Earth. Neither dies, both affirm that their thirst is quenched. So far, the Twin Earth stuff acts like water. You heat some of the Twin Earth stuff in a cauldron; after a while it boils, just like water. You use some of it to irrigate a plot in your garden; the plants do just as well as in the part of your garden irrigated with water. You climb the high peak with a bucket of each; the water and the stuff from Twin Earth freeze at the same altitude. For every test you perform, water and the stuff from Twin Earth behave identically. Thus, you decide, it is reasonable to conclude that the stuff from Twin Earth is water.
By the next stage of the thought experiment, in 1785, you might want to reconsider this conclusion. For now, you are a scientist in the laboratory of Lavoisier, the discoverer of oxygen. As a scientist, you no longer see the world as made up of earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, you recognize that the world is made up of many different elements, including oxygen and hydrogen.
One of your experiments involves getting a bucket of water from the Seine River, running electricity through it, and collecting the gasses the bubble off. You determine that twice as much hydrogen gas as oxygen gas is produced in this experiment and conclude from this that water is two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen, or H 2 O. What about the buckets of stuff still sitting in the storeroom from that trip to Twin Earth back in 1600? Just for fun, you have a young assistant perform the same electrolysis experiment on the water from Twin Earth. But surprise: this stuff has a different elemental composition (call it XYZ). You repeat the experiment yourself to be sure and you get the same results. Whatever this stuff from Twin Earth is, it’s not H 2 O.
What, then, should we say about whether the stuff from Twin Earth is water? In 1600, there was no observation that allowed us to distinguish samples of water from Earth from the liquid from Twin Earth. Now, elemental analysis provides a way to distinguish them. However, this is the only detectable difference between these to substances. Is this difference enough for us to tell whether the stuff from Twin Earth is water? One natural response might be to say, if these two substances have different elemental compositions – if they’re made of different stuff – then they must be different substances. So no matter how similarly the stuff from Twin Earth behaves to water, the fact that it is not H 2 O means it is not water. We know from the elemental analysis that water is H 2 O, and this is enough information for us to figure out that the stuff from Twin Earth is not water. But do we want to say “Water is H 2 O” is some sort of definition of water? It’s certainly not a definition that would have made any sense at all in 1600, and people then spoke of water without any confusion. So, at least in 1600, H 2 O was no part of the meaning of the word “water”. The central question may be whether the elemental analysis in 1785 necessarily changed the meaning of the word “water”. Because, I would argue, it might be equally reasonable to respond to the news that the stuff from the Seine is H 2 O and the stuff from Twin Earth is XYZ by saying, “Look, water has at least two different elemental compositions!” In other words, I’m claiming that we’re not forced into a certain conclusion by these experimental results. Rather, we have to make a choice .
On its own, each of these hypotheses seems reasonable. But, in light of the elemental analyses of the stuff from the Seine and the stuff from Twin Earth, we can’t commit to all of these hypotheses. [30] As a group, the hypotheses get us into trouble. The stuff from Twin Earth qualifies as water according to hypotheses 1 and 2, but not according to hypothesis 5. It seems like it would be pretty hard to keep hypothesis 6, no matter what we decide to call the stuff from Twin Earth. But if we get rid of hypothesis 6, then hypothesis 5 seems pretty arbitrary. Something’s got to give.
Here’s one way to update the group of hypotheses: [31] drop hypothesis 6 (which just doesn’t seem to fit with the experimental evidence) and hypothesis 5. The hypotheses that are left define water in terms of its macroscopic behavior (freezing, boiling, dissovling substances, etc.). While hypothesis 4 links water’s macroscopic behavior with what water is made of, it doesn’t specify that only a single sort of microscopic composition can produce the macroscopic behavior. Revising the group of hypotheses this way lets us say that the Twin Earth stuff is water, even though it has a different microscopic structure than Earth water.
Alternatively, [32] we could hold onto hypothesis 5 and replace hypotheses 1 through 3 with the definition “Water is H 2 O.” (Since hypothesis 6 is still at odds with the experimental results, it’s still out of the group.) This sort of updating reflects a decision that the microscopic structure matters more than the macroscopic behavior in identifying what is water and what is not. But it is crucial to notice here that [33] this way of updating the group of hypotheses is changing the meaning of “water”. So, Quine argues, maybe there are no analytic claims – no claims that are true or false based on meanings alone. Why? Because meanings get updated, and they get updated based on choices we make.
This is an illustration of meaning holism . What we mean by a term like “water” is tied up with all sorts of experiences we have with water and with other kinds of things. It depends on how narrowly or broadly we choose to draw our categories, what kinds of variations we can tolerate between two samples while still considering them “the same” stuff. And because meanings are connected to other like this, an experimental test could just as easily change what we mean by “water” as disprove our hypothesis that the stuff from Twin Earth is water. If you’re nervous about this — if it just seems like a bad idea to consider changing the meaning of a term that’s as basic as water — we need to consider the question of what exactly fixes the meaning of “water” in the first place. Here are two possibilities.
Let’s call the first possibility “baptism”. [34] We point at stuff in the world and say, “This stuff here is water.” I’m not committing to knowing much about what I’m naming. I’m just picking something out of the world – whatever it is – and giving it a name. But, it’s worth noting that when I point to a bucket of stuff from the Seine River and name it “water”, I probably mean to include more than just the stuff in this particular bucket. I probably want to include the other stuff that is relevantly similar – the rest of the stuff in the Seine plus the stuff in other lakes, rivers and streams.
But there’s another way I could fix the meaning of water: “description”. [35] Here, I’d say, “Water is whatever has these properties,” and then I’d list the properties. The properties I specify here will determine what counts as water and what doesn’t. (And, it’s entirely possible to list a set of properties that nothing has. For example, a descriptive definition of “unicorn” is a list of properties that no actual beast has).
Is the stuff from Twin Earth water? If the meaning of “water” is fixed by baptism, it will depend on what we point at as “water” and whether the Twin Earth stuff is similar enough. If the meaning of “water” is fixed by description, it will depend on what properties are part of the defining description. And, complicating matters, remember that science is trying to describe the stuff in our world. [36] In other words, baptism and description get intertwined with each other. So, scientists could go either way in classifying the stuff from Twin Earth as water or something else. Where does this get us? Quine wants us to notice the flexibility of our definitions and abandon the analytic/synthetic distinction. He says all our meanings are tied up together, and all of them are connected with our experience. So, there may not be any claims that are true based on meanings alone. The other big consequence of meaning holism is that an unexpected experimental result signals a problem in a group of “hypotheses” that includes definitions, too. In other words, I can deal with the bad prediction by changing a hypothesis. But, I might equally well deal with the bad prediction by changing a definition as well.
But here’s where Quine’s radical holism seems to throw the project of scientific testing into serious confusion. [37] For Quine says, “Any statement can be held to be true come what may, if we make drastic enough adjustments elsewhere in the system.” Regardless of the experimental outcome, we can hold a particular hypothesis true, as long as we change other hypotheses or definitions. So, if the hypothesis can be kept regardless of what happens, how is this a test?