The document discusses four major organizational theories that have influenced how schools are structured and managed: (1) classical (bureaucratic and scientific management), (2) human relations, (3) open systems, and (4) selective linkage system approaches. It provides an overview of each theory, including key aspects like organizational structure, leadership styles, and criticisms. The document also examines informal dimensions of school organization and the different types of authority and educational organizations.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
This book provides a summary of The Social Psychology of Organizations by Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn. It begins with an introduction discussing the origins and focus of the book. The book then aims to extend previous research by conceptualizing organizations using an open system point of view. It analyzes organizational structures and processes using concepts like roles, norms, values, and subsystems. Overall, the book seeks to link the individual and organizational levels of analysis using the concept of organizational roles.
This document discusses several organizational theories and how they relate to educational organizations and classroom structures. It covers institutional theory, population ecology, resource dependency theory, structural contingency theory, and Mintzberg's organizational structures. These theories view organizations as open systems influenced by their environment. The document suggests classroom structures can be modeled after Mintzberg's five organizational structures and should adapt based on contingencies like teaching objectives and student learning styles.
This document presents a theoretical framework for analyzing organizational learning developed by Argote and Miron-Spektor. The framework theorizes that organizational experience interacts with organizational context to create knowledge. It discusses key components of the framework including experience, context, knowledge, and organizational learning processes. Factors that affect knowledge retention and transfer are also reviewed.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs proposes that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs like physiological and safety needs before moving upwards to fulfill higher level needs like belonging, esteem and self-actualization. The model was first presented by Maslow in 1943 and defines two types of needs - deficiency needs which motivate until fulfilled, and being needs which continue to drive self-actualized people. However, the model has been criticized for being based too much on individualistic societies and lacking empirical data to support it.
This document outlines a conceptual framework for understanding local leadership development within the INGO sector in Laos. The framework draws on institutional theories and concepts including legitimacy, institutional entrepreneurship, and glocalization. Legitimacy refers to actions being seen as appropriate within social norms. Institutional entrepreneurship examines purposive actions aimed at creating, maintaining or disrupting institutions. Glocalization considers how local leadership is shaped by both domestic and international factors. The framework seeks to understand patterns of meaning that influence relationships and considers both stable social structures and potential for change or contestation within fields.
Sociological Theory And Strategic Managementosiyevskyy
This document summarizes key concepts from institutional theory in sociology and discusses how it has been applied to management research. It outlines two seminal papers from the 1970s-1980s that helped establish institutional theory - Meyer and Rowan's 1977 paper introducing the concept of organizations adopting formal structures to appear legitimate rather than for efficiency, and DiMaggio and Powell's 1983 paper identifying three mechanisms (coercive, mimetic, normative) by which organizations become homogeneous within "organizational fields". It also provides an overview of how institutional theory examines how social rules and norms shape organizational structures and behavior over time.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
This book provides a summary of The Social Psychology of Organizations by Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn. It begins with an introduction discussing the origins and focus of the book. The book then aims to extend previous research by conceptualizing organizations using an open system point of view. It analyzes organizational structures and processes using concepts like roles, norms, values, and subsystems. Overall, the book seeks to link the individual and organizational levels of analysis using the concept of organizational roles.
This document discusses several organizational theories and how they relate to educational organizations and classroom structures. It covers institutional theory, population ecology, resource dependency theory, structural contingency theory, and Mintzberg's organizational structures. These theories view organizations as open systems influenced by their environment. The document suggests classroom structures can be modeled after Mintzberg's five organizational structures and should adapt based on contingencies like teaching objectives and student learning styles.
This document presents a theoretical framework for analyzing organizational learning developed by Argote and Miron-Spektor. The framework theorizes that organizational experience interacts with organizational context to create knowledge. It discusses key components of the framework including experience, context, knowledge, and organizational learning processes. Factors that affect knowledge retention and transfer are also reviewed.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs proposes that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs like physiological and safety needs before moving upwards to fulfill higher level needs like belonging, esteem and self-actualization. The model was first presented by Maslow in 1943 and defines two types of needs - deficiency needs which motivate until fulfilled, and being needs which continue to drive self-actualized people. However, the model has been criticized for being based too much on individualistic societies and lacking empirical data to support it.
This document outlines a conceptual framework for understanding local leadership development within the INGO sector in Laos. The framework draws on institutional theories and concepts including legitimacy, institutional entrepreneurship, and glocalization. Legitimacy refers to actions being seen as appropriate within social norms. Institutional entrepreneurship examines purposive actions aimed at creating, maintaining or disrupting institutions. Glocalization considers how local leadership is shaped by both domestic and international factors. The framework seeks to understand patterns of meaning that influence relationships and considers both stable social structures and potential for change or contestation within fields.
Sociological Theory And Strategic Managementosiyevskyy
This document summarizes key concepts from institutional theory in sociology and discusses how it has been applied to management research. It outlines two seminal papers from the 1970s-1980s that helped establish institutional theory - Meyer and Rowan's 1977 paper introducing the concept of organizations adopting formal structures to appear legitimate rather than for efficiency, and DiMaggio and Powell's 1983 paper identifying three mechanisms (coercive, mimetic, normative) by which organizations become homogeneous within "organizational fields". It also provides an overview of how institutional theory examines how social rules and norms shape organizational structures and behavior over time.
The document discusses modern and postmodern perspectives in organization theory. It outlines key differences between the two views. The modern perspective sees organizations as real entities that can be rationally managed to achieve objectives, while the postmodern view sees organizations as social constructs that are sites of power relations without objective truths or universal principles. The document also summarizes the ideas of several theorists like Lyotard, Nietzsche, Derrida and Foucault that influenced the development of postmodern thought.
This document summarizes six research papers on defining morality from biological and psychological perspectives. The papers discuss how genes influence empathy and altruism as adaptive responses to environmental threats. They also examine how personality and culture interact, how obedience studies have been misinterpreted, the relationship between childhood attachment and ideological beliefs, and the need to assess business students' moral development. In conclusion, defining morality is complex due to many individual and societal variables, and assigning blame to concepts like economic systems reflects human tendencies to perceive inanimate things as forces of good or evil.
This document provides an overview of critical approaches to organizational communication. It discusses 3 key points:
1. Critical approaches view organizations as sites of domination where power imbalances lead to alienation and oppression. Power is pervasive and reproduced through control of production and discourse.
2. Important concepts in critical approaches include power, emancipation, resistance, ideology, and hegemony. The goal is to uncover power structures and enable liberation from oppressive traditions.
3. Specific theories like concertive control theory and feminist theory examine how power relationships can be transformed and highlight gender issues in inherently patriarchal organizations. Identification and discipline are key to understanding concertive control systems.
This study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee attitudes, strain, and behavior through a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that perceptions of organizational politics were significantly related to increased strain, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, affective commitment, task performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Additionally, work attitudes were found to mediate the effects of perceived politics on turnover intentions, and attitudes and strain mediated the effects on performance. Perceptions of organizational politics appear to represent a unique stressor for employees.
Organizational behaviour involves the design of work as well as the psychological, emotional and interpersonal behavioural dynamics that influence organizational performance. Management as a discipline concerned with the study of overseeing activities and supervising people to perform specific tasks is crucial in organizational behaviour and corporate effectiveness. Management emphasizes the design, implementation and arrangement of various administrative and organizational systems for corporate effectiveness. While the individuals, and groups bring their skills, knowledge, values, motives, and attitudes into the organization, and thereby influencing it, the organization, on the other hand, modifies or restructures the individuals and groups through its structure, culture, policies, politics, power, and procedures, and the roles expected to be played by the people in the organization. This study conducted through the exploratory research design involved 125 participants, and result showed strong positive relationship between the variables of interest. The study was never exhaustive due to limitations in terms of time and current relevant literature, therefore, further study could examine the relationship between personality characteristics and performance in the public sector, where productivity is not outstanding, when compared with the private sector. Based on the result of this investigation it was recommended that organizations should provide emotional intelligence programmes for their membership as an important pattern of increasing co-operative behaviours and corporate effectiveness.
This document discusses the evolution and definition of organizational behavior (OB) as a field of study. It defines OB as the study of individuals and groups within organizations, with a focus on individual and micro-level interactions. The document outlines three dimensions that define the conceptual domain of OB: (1) an independent variable-dependent variable framework for problem-solving, (2) an orientation toward facilitating change, and (3) a humanistic concern for self-development. The document also discusses how OB has developed constructs, models, facts, and technologies to study topics like motivation, leadership, and organizational structure. Finally, it concludes that traditional distinctions between OB and related fields are blurring, suggesting a movement toward an "enacted
Organizational behavior is the study of how people and groups act within organizations. It takes a systems approach, examining people-organization relationships from the perspective of the whole person, group, organization, and social system. The goal is to build better relationships and achieve human, organizational, and social objectives. Organizational behavior draws on various disciplines like psychology and sociology to understand workplace behaviors and improve performance.
Organizational theories can be categorized into different types including classical, neoclassical, contingency, and systems theories. Organizational theory is relevant to educational organizations as institutions consist of cognitive, normative, and regulatory structures that provide stability and meaning. Population ecology theorists believe the environment determines organizational success or failure. Structural contingency theory maintains there is no single effective structure for all organizations and contingency factors like strategy and task uncertainty are important. The classroom can be analyzed in terms of its formality, complexity, centralization, and contingencies like learning objectives and technologies used.
The document discusses the performance evaluation context and argues that it is a formal accountability mechanism embedded within a complex social, emotional, cognitive, political, and relationship context. It reviews past research on performance evaluation that has focused on instrumentation and process issues without fully considering this broader contextual backdrop. The paper proposes a framework grounded in affective events theory and emotion cycle theory to better understand the theoretical dynamics and outcomes of performance evaluation when considering the full social, emotional, cognitive, political, and relationship context.
This document summarizes a research article that assesses person-organization fit using a profile comparison approach. The researchers developed an instrument called the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure individual preferences for organizational culture types and the actual cultures of organizations. Results showed the OCP dimensions were interpretable and person-organization fit predicted later job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and actual employee turnover. This provided evidence for the importance of understanding the fit between individual preferences and organizational cultures.
Organisational Development Paper Sascha MichelSascha Michel
The document discusses early organizational development theories proposed by Kurt Lewin and how they impact organizations today. [1] Lewin proposed a three stage model of change - unfreezing, moving, and refreezing - but this model assumes organizations can stabilize, ignoring that they must continuously change and adapt. [2] Organizational development focuses on behavioral interventions but has limitations for strategic planning and systems-level change. [3] Contemporary views integrate behavioral and systemic elements, proposing organizations continuously learn and develop like "learning organizations".
This document discusses the key components of social structure according to sociology. It covers statuses and roles, types of social interaction and how they impact social stability, different types of societies defined by their subsistence strategies, primary and secondary groups, and the bureaucratic structure of formal organizations. Statuses and roles form the basis of social structure and influence human relationships. Exchange, cooperation and accommodation interactions stabilize social structure while competition and conflict can disrupt it.
A comparison and contrast on the classical and behavioural models of manageme...timothy katerere
Classical and behavioural management models are compared and contrasted. Classical management focuses on productivity and efficiency, treating workers as rational beings motivated by economic needs. Behavioural management emphasizes human emotions and relationships, recognizing social and psychological factors. Both influenced management approaches in Zimbabwean schools. Classical principles like planning and centralization were adopted, while behavioural concepts like motivation and morale building were also used. Overall, the models differ in perspective but share the goal of effective organizational management.
The Effect of Leadership, Organizational Culture, Work Motivation And Job Sat...inventionjournals
This document discusses a study on the effect of leadership, organizational culture, work motivation, and job satisfaction on teacher organizational commitment at senior high schools in Medan, Indonesia. The study measured the direct and indirect effects of these variables using a questionnaire completed by 330 teachers. The results showed that leadership, organizational culture, work motivation, and job satisfaction all significantly directly or indirectly impact teacher organizational commitment at the high schools in Medan.
This presentation summarizes different management theories and approaches including the classical, human resource, and modern approaches. The classical approach includes scientific management by Frederick Taylor focusing on efficiency, administrative principles by Henry Fayol focusing on structure and specialization, and bureaucratic organizations by Max Weber focusing on clear hierarchies. The human resource approach includes the Hawthorne studies by Elton Mayo showing the importance of relationships, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and McGregor's Theory X and Y about human motivation. The modern approach discusses more recent developments in management thinking.
Empirical investigation of factors influencing faculty followership’sMohammed Musah
This document describes a study that aimed to test the psychometric properties of the Romance of Leadership Scale (RLS) and investigate factors influencing faculty followership's perception of institutional leaders in Malaysian institutions of higher learning. An online survey using the 32-item RLS was distributed to faculty members at 16 public universities. The study hypothesized that the RLS would demonstrate valid and reliable three-factor structure in the Malaysian context. Demographic information and RLS responses were collected from 434 faculty members. Preliminary analyses of the data were conducted to examine the sample characteristics and properties of the RLS.
AbstractGiven the prevalence of instrumental and positivistic accounts on coaching, our article aims to contribute to a critical theory of coaching by articulating two under-researched topics in the field: power and space. We do so by building on the Lefebvrian political approach to space; more specifically, we show that depending on the coach’s experience of the coaching space, three types of power relationships are produced within the coach–coachee–organization triad: independent, mediated, and parallel. Accordingly, the coaching space appears to be either a generator, supporter, or analyzer of power. Overall, by approaching coaching as a political space, we call for increased awareness of the conditions that facilitate the experience of the coaching space as empowering rather than limiting and controlling.
Dima LouisBeirut, Lebanon
Pauline Fatien DiochonSKEMA Business School - Université Côte d’Azur, France
Over the years, business analysts, economists, and academic researchers have pondered several theories that attempt to explain the dynamics of business organizations, including the ways in which they make decisions, distribute power and control, resolve conflict, and promote or resist organizational change.
Human relations in concept and practice Mutia Ulfi
Human Relations in Concept and Practice discusses the evolution of human relations from early studies to its practices. It starts with studies from the Renaissance to the 1920s exploring human behavior at work. The Hawthorne Studies from 1924-1932 investigated the impact of variables like supervision and incentives, influencing later human relations approaches. While criticized for its methods and conclusions, Hawthorne Studies marked the beginning of formal human relations concepts introduced by academia. Later, centers applied human relations focusing on groups, relations, and sociotechnical systems. Ultimately, human relations emphasized intangible factors like feelings, collaboration and workers' central role, shifting the theme from scientific management's efficiency focus.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - www.n...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes research on the synthetic drug K2, also known as synthetic marijuana. It describes how K2 was created by chemist John Huffman to mimic the effects of THC, the active ingredient in marijuana. While K2 produces similar highs to marijuana, it is more potent and dangerous due to unknown toxins. The document reports on a study that surveyed 246 college students about their knowledge and use of K2. It found most students were unaware of K2 or its dangers, though a small number had tried it. Signs experienced by friends included slowed movement, dizziness and hallucinations. The summary concludes by proposing areas for further study.
Financial Controls: A Safeguard Against Misuse of Public Funds - www.nationa...William Kritsonis
This document discusses financial controls used by school districts to safeguard public funds. It describes two main methods of financial control: internal control and financial audits. Internal control involves policies and procedures established by the CFO to verify accuracy and protect assets. Financial audits include both external audits by outside accountants and internal audits by trained district employees to examine financial reports for accuracy. Both types of audits evaluate procedures for cash, accounts, inventory, assets, loans, revenues, and expenditures. Financial controls help administrators effectively and efficiently use financial resources.
The document discusses modern and postmodern perspectives in organization theory. It outlines key differences between the two views. The modern perspective sees organizations as real entities that can be rationally managed to achieve objectives, while the postmodern view sees organizations as social constructs that are sites of power relations without objective truths or universal principles. The document also summarizes the ideas of several theorists like Lyotard, Nietzsche, Derrida and Foucault that influenced the development of postmodern thought.
This document summarizes six research papers on defining morality from biological and psychological perspectives. The papers discuss how genes influence empathy and altruism as adaptive responses to environmental threats. They also examine how personality and culture interact, how obedience studies have been misinterpreted, the relationship between childhood attachment and ideological beliefs, and the need to assess business students' moral development. In conclusion, defining morality is complex due to many individual and societal variables, and assigning blame to concepts like economic systems reflects human tendencies to perceive inanimate things as forces of good or evil.
This document provides an overview of critical approaches to organizational communication. It discusses 3 key points:
1. Critical approaches view organizations as sites of domination where power imbalances lead to alienation and oppression. Power is pervasive and reproduced through control of production and discourse.
2. Important concepts in critical approaches include power, emancipation, resistance, ideology, and hegemony. The goal is to uncover power structures and enable liberation from oppressive traditions.
3. Specific theories like concertive control theory and feminist theory examine how power relationships can be transformed and highlight gender issues in inherently patriarchal organizations. Identification and discipline are key to understanding concertive control systems.
This study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee attitudes, strain, and behavior through a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that perceptions of organizational politics were significantly related to increased strain, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, affective commitment, task performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Additionally, work attitudes were found to mediate the effects of perceived politics on turnover intentions, and attitudes and strain mediated the effects on performance. Perceptions of organizational politics appear to represent a unique stressor for employees.
Organizational behaviour involves the design of work as well as the psychological, emotional and interpersonal behavioural dynamics that influence organizational performance. Management as a discipline concerned with the study of overseeing activities and supervising people to perform specific tasks is crucial in organizational behaviour and corporate effectiveness. Management emphasizes the design, implementation and arrangement of various administrative and organizational systems for corporate effectiveness. While the individuals, and groups bring their skills, knowledge, values, motives, and attitudes into the organization, and thereby influencing it, the organization, on the other hand, modifies or restructures the individuals and groups through its structure, culture, policies, politics, power, and procedures, and the roles expected to be played by the people in the organization. This study conducted through the exploratory research design involved 125 participants, and result showed strong positive relationship between the variables of interest. The study was never exhaustive due to limitations in terms of time and current relevant literature, therefore, further study could examine the relationship between personality characteristics and performance in the public sector, where productivity is not outstanding, when compared with the private sector. Based on the result of this investigation it was recommended that organizations should provide emotional intelligence programmes for their membership as an important pattern of increasing co-operative behaviours and corporate effectiveness.
This document discusses the evolution and definition of organizational behavior (OB) as a field of study. It defines OB as the study of individuals and groups within organizations, with a focus on individual and micro-level interactions. The document outlines three dimensions that define the conceptual domain of OB: (1) an independent variable-dependent variable framework for problem-solving, (2) an orientation toward facilitating change, and (3) a humanistic concern for self-development. The document also discusses how OB has developed constructs, models, facts, and technologies to study topics like motivation, leadership, and organizational structure. Finally, it concludes that traditional distinctions between OB and related fields are blurring, suggesting a movement toward an "enacted
Organizational behavior is the study of how people and groups act within organizations. It takes a systems approach, examining people-organization relationships from the perspective of the whole person, group, organization, and social system. The goal is to build better relationships and achieve human, organizational, and social objectives. Organizational behavior draws on various disciplines like psychology and sociology to understand workplace behaviors and improve performance.
Organizational theories can be categorized into different types including classical, neoclassical, contingency, and systems theories. Organizational theory is relevant to educational organizations as institutions consist of cognitive, normative, and regulatory structures that provide stability and meaning. Population ecology theorists believe the environment determines organizational success or failure. Structural contingency theory maintains there is no single effective structure for all organizations and contingency factors like strategy and task uncertainty are important. The classroom can be analyzed in terms of its formality, complexity, centralization, and contingencies like learning objectives and technologies used.
The document discusses the performance evaluation context and argues that it is a formal accountability mechanism embedded within a complex social, emotional, cognitive, political, and relationship context. It reviews past research on performance evaluation that has focused on instrumentation and process issues without fully considering this broader contextual backdrop. The paper proposes a framework grounded in affective events theory and emotion cycle theory to better understand the theoretical dynamics and outcomes of performance evaluation when considering the full social, emotional, cognitive, political, and relationship context.
This document summarizes a research article that assesses person-organization fit using a profile comparison approach. The researchers developed an instrument called the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure individual preferences for organizational culture types and the actual cultures of organizations. Results showed the OCP dimensions were interpretable and person-organization fit predicted later job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and actual employee turnover. This provided evidence for the importance of understanding the fit between individual preferences and organizational cultures.
Organisational Development Paper Sascha MichelSascha Michel
The document discusses early organizational development theories proposed by Kurt Lewin and how they impact organizations today. [1] Lewin proposed a three stage model of change - unfreezing, moving, and refreezing - but this model assumes organizations can stabilize, ignoring that they must continuously change and adapt. [2] Organizational development focuses on behavioral interventions but has limitations for strategic planning and systems-level change. [3] Contemporary views integrate behavioral and systemic elements, proposing organizations continuously learn and develop like "learning organizations".
This document discusses the key components of social structure according to sociology. It covers statuses and roles, types of social interaction and how they impact social stability, different types of societies defined by their subsistence strategies, primary and secondary groups, and the bureaucratic structure of formal organizations. Statuses and roles form the basis of social structure and influence human relationships. Exchange, cooperation and accommodation interactions stabilize social structure while competition and conflict can disrupt it.
A comparison and contrast on the classical and behavioural models of manageme...timothy katerere
Classical and behavioural management models are compared and contrasted. Classical management focuses on productivity and efficiency, treating workers as rational beings motivated by economic needs. Behavioural management emphasizes human emotions and relationships, recognizing social and psychological factors. Both influenced management approaches in Zimbabwean schools. Classical principles like planning and centralization were adopted, while behavioural concepts like motivation and morale building were also used. Overall, the models differ in perspective but share the goal of effective organizational management.
The Effect of Leadership, Organizational Culture, Work Motivation And Job Sat...inventionjournals
This document discusses a study on the effect of leadership, organizational culture, work motivation, and job satisfaction on teacher organizational commitment at senior high schools in Medan, Indonesia. The study measured the direct and indirect effects of these variables using a questionnaire completed by 330 teachers. The results showed that leadership, organizational culture, work motivation, and job satisfaction all significantly directly or indirectly impact teacher organizational commitment at the high schools in Medan.
This presentation summarizes different management theories and approaches including the classical, human resource, and modern approaches. The classical approach includes scientific management by Frederick Taylor focusing on efficiency, administrative principles by Henry Fayol focusing on structure and specialization, and bureaucratic organizations by Max Weber focusing on clear hierarchies. The human resource approach includes the Hawthorne studies by Elton Mayo showing the importance of relationships, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and McGregor's Theory X and Y about human motivation. The modern approach discusses more recent developments in management thinking.
Empirical investigation of factors influencing faculty followership’sMohammed Musah
This document describes a study that aimed to test the psychometric properties of the Romance of Leadership Scale (RLS) and investigate factors influencing faculty followership's perception of institutional leaders in Malaysian institutions of higher learning. An online survey using the 32-item RLS was distributed to faculty members at 16 public universities. The study hypothesized that the RLS would demonstrate valid and reliable three-factor structure in the Malaysian context. Demographic information and RLS responses were collected from 434 faculty members. Preliminary analyses of the data were conducted to examine the sample characteristics and properties of the RLS.
AbstractGiven the prevalence of instrumental and positivistic accounts on coaching, our article aims to contribute to a critical theory of coaching by articulating two under-researched topics in the field: power and space. We do so by building on the Lefebvrian political approach to space; more specifically, we show that depending on the coach’s experience of the coaching space, three types of power relationships are produced within the coach–coachee–organization triad: independent, mediated, and parallel. Accordingly, the coaching space appears to be either a generator, supporter, or analyzer of power. Overall, by approaching coaching as a political space, we call for increased awareness of the conditions that facilitate the experience of the coaching space as empowering rather than limiting and controlling.
Dima LouisBeirut, Lebanon
Pauline Fatien DiochonSKEMA Business School - Université Côte d’Azur, France
Over the years, business analysts, economists, and academic researchers have pondered several theories that attempt to explain the dynamics of business organizations, including the ways in which they make decisions, distribute power and control, resolve conflict, and promote or resist organizational change.
Human relations in concept and practice Mutia Ulfi
Human Relations in Concept and Practice discusses the evolution of human relations from early studies to its practices. It starts with studies from the Renaissance to the 1920s exploring human behavior at work. The Hawthorne Studies from 1924-1932 investigated the impact of variables like supervision and incentives, influencing later human relations approaches. While criticized for its methods and conclusions, Hawthorne Studies marked the beginning of formal human relations concepts introduced by academia. Later, centers applied human relations focusing on groups, relations, and sociotechnical systems. Ultimately, human relations emphasized intangible factors like feelings, collaboration and workers' central role, shifting the theme from scientific management's efficiency focus.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - www.n...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes research on the synthetic drug K2, also known as synthetic marijuana. It describes how K2 was created by chemist John Huffman to mimic the effects of THC, the active ingredient in marijuana. While K2 produces similar highs to marijuana, it is more potent and dangerous due to unknown toxins. The document reports on a study that surveyed 246 college students about their knowledge and use of K2. It found most students were unaware of K2 or its dangers, though a small number had tried it. Signs experienced by friends included slowed movement, dizziness and hallucinations. The summary concludes by proposing areas for further study.
Financial Controls: A Safeguard Against Misuse of Public Funds - www.nationa...William Kritsonis
This document discusses financial controls used by school districts to safeguard public funds. It describes two main methods of financial control: internal control and financial audits. Internal control involves policies and procedures established by the CFO to verify accuracy and protect assets. Financial audits include both external audits by outside accountants and internal audits by trained district employees to examine financial reports for accuracy. Both types of audits evaluate procedures for cash, accounts, inventory, assets, loans, revenues, and expenditures. Financial controls help administrators effectively and efficiently use financial resources.
This article summarizes lessons learned from a failed collaboration between university professors and teachers at a local high school. The collaboration aimed to provide mentorship to new teachers but was hindered by scheduling conflicts between the busy teachers and professors, long travel distances, and differing priorities. Key lessons include the need for universities to reform policies to support collaboration, carefully selecting partners, using technology to reduce travel, and scheduling meetings respectfully during teachers' lunch or planning periods. Overall, the experience highlighted barriers that universities must address to successfully partner with local schools.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - www.n...William Kritsonis
This study examined the effects of language support programs on Hispanic student achievement. The authors analyzed standardized test score data from 381 Texas school districts with at least 20% Hispanic students. They found a moderate positive correlation between participation in bilingual programs and student scores, and a very strong positive correlation between participation in ESL programs and student scores. Participation in either language support program was linked to higher achievement, while lack of language support showed little to no correlation with scores. The authors concluded that language support programs may benefit Hispanic students, but called for further research controlling for additional factors.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis - Student Drug Testing, PPT.William Kritsonis
The document discusses the history and legal framework of student drug testing in US public schools. It summarizes key Supreme Court rulings allowing drug testing of student athletes (1995) and extracurricular participants (2002). While the Supreme Court has ruled such testing is constitutional, it has not said all forms of testing are allowed and schools may still face legal challenges under state laws. The document also provides guidance on developing legally sound student drug testing policies and procedures.
www.nationalforum.com - Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman - NATIONAL FORUM J...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes a study that investigated the perspectives and behaviors of school leaders in urban districts that utilize significant instructional technology. Through interviews with leaders in two suburban Texas school districts, the researchers identified challenges in creating digitally enhanced districts, the impact of digital enhancement on student achievement, and how districts maintain momentum with rapidly changing technologies. Key findings included the importance of teacher training, integrating technology into instruction, ensuring access and accessibility for all students, and effective technology budgeting and resource allocation.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational research methods. It discusses the purposes of educational research as explaining educational issues and helping to understand, predict, improve, and generate new questions. It also outlines the main steps of scientific inquiry as recognizing a problem, collecting information, analyzing data, and stating implications. The document then distinguishes between basic, applied, and evaluation research. It explains quantitative and qualitative research methods and various research designs including descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, experimental, and historical. It also discusses sampling techniques, variables and scales of measurement, types of instruments, validity and reliability, and statistical analysis methods.
This document summarizes an academic paper presented at an international conference on language teaching. The paper discusses an approach to ESL/EFL instruction that integrates an understanding of how language varies across communication contexts, uses corpus-based descriptive grammar, and incorporates scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory. It argues this approach can help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and classroom application for teachers by providing specific models of language use.
This document discusses the influence of personal philosophies on education policy development. It begins by defining key terms like curriculum, instruction, philosophy, policy, and pragmatist. It then explains that a person's philosophy, whether developed through study or experience, shapes their approach to issues like what is taught and how. The document also notes that while philosophy influences policy, it receives little direct attention from policymakers. Overall, the document argues that understanding different educational philosophies can help policymakers develop policies that meet the needs of their community.
This document provides an overview of curriculum theory and key concepts related to curriculum. It discusses different types of curriculum, including formal, informal, and hidden curriculum. It also describes several curriculum theories and models, such as curriculum alignment theory, multiple intelligence theory, and personal practical knowledge. The document aims to expose educators to diverse curriculum theories that influence today's educational systems.
WRITING FOR PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATION IN NATIONAL REFEREED JOURNALS by William...William Kritsonis
WRITING FOR PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATION IN NATIONAL REFEREED JOURNALS by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis is Editor-in-Chief of NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS.
Founded in 1983.
Dr. W.A. Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This document discusses confronting pre-service teachers' stereotypes through self-reflection. It describes a study where teacher candidates participated in an exercise examining their own stereotypes. Many students reported increased awareness of their own biases and stereotypes after critically reflecting. The findings showed that engaging students emotionally and intellectually in discussions about diversity helped reduce stereotypes.
Dr. David E. Herrington, PhD Dissertation Chair for CHENG-CHIEH LAI, PVAMU/Th...William Kritsonis
Dr. David E. Herrington, PhD Dissertation Chair for CHENG-CHIEH LAI, PVAMU/The Texas A&M University System, 2008. Committee Members: Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Dr. Camille Gibson, Dr. Tyrone Tanner, Dr. Pamela T. Barber Freeman
This document discusses the influence of philosophy on education policy decisions. It defines key terms like curriculum, instruction, and different educational philosophies like idealism and pragmatism. The document explains that a district's philosophy is reflected in its policies, especially around curriculum. Personal philosophies of educators, policymakers, and influential community members all impact education policy development and implementation at the local level. Effective policymaking requires understanding different philosophies and how they shape beliefs about issues like what knowledge is most important and the goals of education.
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman - Published National Refereed Article in N...William Kritsonis
Dr. Chuck Holt and Dr. Amy Burkman - Published National Refereed Article in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Founded 1982
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national refereed, juried, peer-reviewed, blind-reviewed professional periodicals. Any article published shall earned five affirmative votes from members of our National Board of Invited Distinguished Jurors and must be recommended for national publication by members of the National Policy Board representing all National FORUM Journals. Journal issues are distributed both nationally and world-wide.
Our website features national refereed articles that are published daily within our National FORUM Journals Online Journal Division. Over 1,000 articles are available to scholars and practitioners world-wide. Over 250,000 guests visit our website yearly. About 56,000 articles are downloaded for academic purposes at no charge. We have about an 88% rejection rate. See: www.nationalforum.com
Founded in 1982, National FORUM Journals has published the scholarly contributions of over 5,200 professors with over 2,000 articles indexed. Our journals are indexed with many global agencies including Cabell’s Directories, ERIC, EBSCO, SWETS International, Library of Congress National Serials Data Program, and the Copyright Clearance Center, Danvers, Massachusetts.
Global Website: www.nationalforum.com
Dr. W.A. Kritsonis, Academic Scholarship, Service, and Collaborative ActivitiesWilliam Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis holds several editorial and scholarly roles. He is the Editor-in-Chief of multiple National FORUM Journals and serves as a national reviewer for two journals. He has authored or co-authored numerous books and articles. Dr. Kritsonis has also presented at various conferences and universities. He has received several honors and awards for his distinguished service and leadership.
This document discusses four major theories of organizational structure that have influenced school management: classical, human relations, open systems, and situational leadership theories. It provides an overview of each theory, including key aspects like organizational structure, employee perspectives, administrator duties/authority, and effective leadership styles. The document also compares state and local responsibilities in education. Finally, it examines how values of equality, efficiency, and liberty have impacted educational policy at federal, state, and local levels.
This book discusses organizational psychology from an open systems perspective. It examines how organizations function as social systems with complex interactions between individuals and subsystems. The book defines key concepts like organizational roles, effectiveness, and structures. It presents a framework for understanding how organizations develop over time and compares different models of organizational theory. The goal is to analyze organizations using an integrated social science approach that considers both micro and macro levels of analysis.
Educational Administration and ManagementNafisa Khan
The document discusses various theories of educational administration including classical, neo-classical, and critical theories. It describes key aspects of each theory such as scientific management principles, administrative management functions, and the focus on social values and ideologies in critical theory. Several theorists are discussed who contributed to different approaches, including Fayol, Gulick, Weber, Mayo, Maslow, and McGregor. The theories provide tools to help educational leaders with tasks like motivation, decision-making, policy implementation, and building effective relationships within the school system.
The document discusses system approach and bureaucracy in educational management and administration. It defines system approach as coordinating all aspects of a problem toward specific objectives, like how the digestive system's components work together. Bureaucracy refers to non-elected government officers implementing laws and functions through standardized processes. Max Weber believed bureaucracy was the most efficient organizational structure. The document examines how Weber's bureaucratic principles apply to educational administration, and discusses the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of bureaucracy.
This document outlines the key topics covered in an organizational behavior course, including:
1. The meaning, models, and disciplines of organizational behavior.
2. Individual differences like personality, values, attitudes, and job satisfaction.
3. Group dynamics and team effectiveness.
4. Power, politics, and organizational conflict.
5. Sources of organizational change and methods of managing conflict.
6. Causes and management of workplace stress.
The document also provides an overview of theories of organizational behavior like scientific management, human relations, and bureaucracy theories. Contributing disciplines to OB include psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science.
This document provides an overview of organizational learning. It discusses key concepts in the field such as organizational knowledge, learning processes, and outcomes. Theories of organizational learning attempt to understand how organizational knowledge changes through processes that lead to learning or prevent it, and how learning affects behaviors and outcomes. Current approaches emphasize organizational routines as repositories of knowledge and conceptualize learning as the creation and updating of routines in response to experiences. A dominant notion is that organizational learning is driven by learning processes that facilitate, impede, or direct changes in organizational knowledge. The document reviews the origins and development of organizational learning theory.
Lunenburg, fred c[1]. the demise of bureaucracy schooling v1 n1, 2010.docxWilliam Kritsonis
The article discusses how bureaucracy is an outdated model for school organization and no longer suits the needs of today's diverse, information-driven society. It outlines some of the key dysfunctions of bureaucracy, including specialization, overreliance on rules, emphasis on hierarchy, and impersonality. The article then examines emerging alternative models that are more flexible, people-oriented, and focused on collaboration, such as system 4 design, school-based management, transformational leadership, and professional learning communities. It argues school administrators need to shift away from simple supervision and move towards directly contributing to school goals by guiding teachers in new organizational structures.
The document discusses several theories of organization:
1. Classical theory viewed organizations as machines and workers as cogs, with the goal of efficiency. Neoclassical theory emphasized good human relations and social factors.
2. Bureaucratic theory examines organizations as systems of rules and authority. Weber's theory of bureaucracy defined its key features.
3. Systems theory views organizations as complex systems of interrelated elements and environments. Changes in one element impact others.
4. Contingency theory posits that the best organization structure depends on external factors like environment, strategy, and technology. Different structures suit different situations.
This document discusses key concepts in organizational behavior, including:
1) Organizational behavior is the study of how individuals and groups act within organizations and how organizational structure impacts performance.
2) Individual, group, and organizational factors all influence behavior.
3) Three disciplines - psychology, sociology, and anthropology - provide frameworks for understanding organizational behavior.
4) Metaphors like "machines" and "organisms" can help explain how organizations function.
1. Organizational dynamics refers to patterns of movement and interaction between people in an organization over time. It focuses on how organizational strategies and activities evolve rather than the strategies themselves.
2. There are several models of organizational behavior including autocratic, custodial, supportive, collegial, and system models which differ in how management approaches leadership and employee relationships.
3. Communication in organizations can flow upward, downward, or sideways. Formal communication networks include chains, circles, and wheels, while informal communication often spreads through grapevines. Effective communication is important for organizations to reach mutual goals.
This document provides an overview of organizational behavior. It defines organizational behavior as the study of how people act within organizations. It discusses key elements like people, structure, technology, and environment. It outlines fundamental concepts including that individuals differ, people are whole beings with needs and values, behavior is motivated, and human dignity is valuable. Organizations are social systems with formal and informal structures. The document also covers the historical development of the field and approaches like interdisciplinary, human resources, contingency, productivity, and systems approaches. It provides an example of how recognizing an individual's needs for recognition can improve their performance.
The document discusses six major theoretical perspectives in psychology: evolutionary, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioral, sociocultural, and humanistic. It explains key aspects of each perspective, such as what they focus on and their views on topics like natural selection, how the mind processes information, the effects of unconscious desires on behavior, the impact of external factors like punishment and reward, social influences, and individual free will. The document also mentions that psychologists may use an eclectic approach combining multiple perspectives to study human behavior.
The document discusses schools as social organizations and systems. It covers topics such as the assumptions of social systems, open vs closed systems, the organization as a system with different subsystems, organizational structure including tall vs flat structures, organizational culture, and role theory as it applies to principals and teachers. Key concepts discussed include bureaucracy, roles and role expectations within schools.
The document discusses several key concepts related to understanding schools as social organizations:
- Schools can be viewed as open social systems that interact with their environment and consist of interdependent parts working toward common goals.
- Organizational structures within schools, such as hierarchies and divisions of labor, help coordinate work to achieve goals but also face criticisms like lack of flexibility and creativity.
- Role theory examines how roles within schools are defined by norms and expectations, and principals take on multi-faceted roles as leaders, managers, and facilitators.
- Value systems within schools are shaped by core societal values but also evolve to suit changing environments and populations.
This document summarizes eight major schools of management thought: 1) Management Process, 2) Empirical, 3) Human Behavior, 4) Social, 5) Decision Theory, 6) Mathematical, 7) Systems, and 8) Contingency. It also discusses the contributions of several management theorists including Frederick Taylor's scientific management principles, Henry Fayol's 14 principles of management, and the evolution of management thinking over time to consider situational factors.
Organizational behavior is the field of study that investigates how individuals, groups, and organizational structure impact behavior in organizations. It draws from various contributing disciplines including psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science. There are many challenges and opportunities for organizational behavior today, such as responding to globalization, managing workforce diversity, improving quality and productivity, and improving customer service. Organizational behavior aims to understand and predict workplace behaviors in order to help organizations operate more effectively and improve outcomes like productivity, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship.
There are different theories of organization to predict and explain the process and also behavior patterns in an organizational setting. There are three different types of organizational theory: Classical Organization Theory, Neo-Classical Organizational Theory, and Modern Organizational Theory.
This document provides an introduction to the field of organizational behavior. It discusses what organizations are and how organizational behavior research aims to understand, predict, and influence organizational events. Key trends that have impacted organizations like globalization, information technology, changing workforces, and workplace values are also reviewed. The emergence of organizational behavior from scientific management and classical organizational theory is described. Influential studies like the Hawthorne experiments highlighted the importance of human behavior in organizations. Organizational behavior developed further through the human relations movement and now aims to improve organizational effectiveness by considering how individuals, groups, and structure impact workplace behavior.
Scholars contribute to management theories in several ways. They identify weaknesses in existing theories and propose new ideas, consider how theories apply to different types of organizations, and analyze factors like employee motivation and needs. New theories also emerge from considering an organization's hierarchy, using psychological tests to understand social needs, and recognizing that organizations interact with their environment. While early theories like scientific management focused only on productivity, later scholars developed approaches like human relations theory and contingency theory to account for social and situational factors. Overall, management theories have evolved over time as scholars critique past approaches and apply lessons from different contexts.
There are five main theoretical perspectives used in sociology: symbolic interactionism, rational choice theory, structural functionalism, social conflict theory, and feminist theory. Each of these theories can be used to explain the actions of family members shown in a video of a family dinner. Symbolic interactionism posits that people communicate and act according to the norms of their social group. Family members carry out their roles, like the daughter setting the table and the mother cooking, which have been established over many years.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...
Org theory
1. Organizational Theory in Education
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Potential Questions
Question 1: Different theories have been used to describe how school and
school systems are organized and managed. These organizational theories
include bureaucratic, scientific management, human relations, and the open
systems approach. Compare and contrast two of these theories in the
following areas: organizational structure, basic philosophic perspective of
employees, duties and authority of administrators, and effective leadership
styles. Justify why one approach might be more effective for an educational
entity than the other.
Question 2: Education is a state rather than a federal responsibility. Briefly
compare and contrast the responsibilities and educational activities that are
associated with state and local level educational entities. Describe how
three values, equality, efficiency, and liberty have impacted the
establishment and implementation of educational policies at all levels
(federal, state, and local).
Organizational Theory in Education
2. Three theories have influenced school organization and management:
(1) classical (bureaucratic & scientific management), (2) human relation, and
(3) open systems.
Classical Theory of Organization
Bureaucratic Organizational Model - Max Weber
This formal model includes (1) a hierarchical arrangement with
separation of authority, (2) task specialization among employees (division of
labor), (3) hiring of professional personnel based on technical knowledge,
(4) separation of personal & organizational property and, (5) implicit rules
and regulations that govern official decisions and actions. The intent is to
maximize rational decision-making and facilitate increased efficiency. It is
based on rational-legal authority rather than power and persuasion. Rational
legal authority is a belief that laws can be enacted and changed by formally
correct procedures. This organizational model has drawn the following
criticisms: (1) hierarchical authority can perpetuate rigidity and adherence
to rules, (2) the impersonal focus can result in low morale and alienation, (3)
division of labor can stifle initiative and, (4) informal relationships and
individual needs are ignored.
Scientific Management - Frederick W. Taylor
3. This perspective focuses on increasing efficiency and maximizing human
productivity by identifying the "best" way to do a job. Scientific analysis
and time and motion studies were used to identify and help eliminate
muscular and physiological activities that lead to worker fatigue. In an
effort to optimize work performance, pay was linked to output. This theory
has been criticized because it embodies a mechanistic view of workers as
extensions of machines.
Human Relations Approach
The focus in this organizational theory is on the social and affective
needs of employees and emphasizes the importance of feelings, attitudes and
social climate of organizations. Although the basic organizational structure
may resemble a bureaucratic model, informal interactions that exist outside
bureaucratic norms or formal dimensions of an organization are identified.
Employees whose social and psychological needs have been fulfilled are
motivated to work more productively. The impact of human relations on
employee productivity has been demonstrated in two studies. The results are
known as the Hawthorne Effect. The first experiment investigated the effect
of increased light on productivity. The results showed that increased
productivity was due to subjects' responses to attention and novelty of the
experiment and not to an increase or decrease in light. The second
4. experiment (bank-wiring room), investigated the relationship between
increased financial incentives and productivity. Results showed that workers
establish informal standards that define a "satisfactory" day's work.
Production greater or less than standard was unacceptable to the group.
These two experiments showed that (1) group norms are equal to or greater
than managerial or administrative norms in importance in determining a
productivity level, (2) noneconomic rewards can increase productivity, and
(3) group satisfaction and commitment are enhanced through participatory
decision making.
The Hawthorne studies also showed that leadership style has an effect on
group performance. A "democratic" style was found to be more effective for
group performance than either a "laissez-faire" or "authoritarian" style.
Leaders who give equal attention to initiating structure (task performance)
and consideration (friendship, trust, respect, warmth, and concern) tend to be
more effective as measured by worker satisfaction and performance. Within
groups, there exists both formal and informal leaders. Formal appointed
leaders are concerned with task performance while informal leaders emerge
for the group and attend to the group's social and psychological needs.
Systems Approach
5. Systems can be viewed from three different perspectives: biological
(living organisms), mechanical (automobiles), and social (organizations).
Within each of these perspectives, there are two basic system types: closed
and open. Closed systems, like the bureaucratic and human relations models,
have impenetrable boundaries and derive few inputs from environment.
Although thought to be self-sufficient, these systems can experience entropy,
a movement to disorder, lack of resource transformation, and eventually
death. In contrast, open systems have permeable boundaries exchanging
resources with the environment. Homeostasis exists when the system is
stable and there is a balance or equilibrium between environmental resources
and the system. Disequilibrium results when the system is unable to use
resources as they are received from the environment or when its subsystems
are out of balance. One criticism of the systems approach is that it fails to
adequately account for change that results from interactions between people.
Open Systems Approach
The open systems approach to organizational theory emerged in the
1960s. Organizations were viewed as open systems that interact with the
environments in which they exist. The relationship of organizational parts
and the link between the organization and its larger environment was
stressed. The input-throughput-output model was used to describe this
6. approach. Organizations maintain themselves by processing inputs from
their environment and converting them into outputs.
Schools as a Selective Linkage System
The term, selective linkage system, is used to describe the organizational
structure of contemporary schools. In some respects, they resemble a closed
system and reflect many of the components of Weber's Hierarchical
Organizational Structure. They utilize a (1) hierarchical structure, (2) a
division of labor based on technical competence and specialization, and (3)
written rules and regulations (policies). On the other hand, they are open
systems with both tight and loose controls. Contemporary schools interact
socially and politically with community in which they exist through the
PTA, school advisory councils and a myriad of special interest groups.
Interaction with the community is important in determining school goals and
generating approval and support for programs.
Although the organizational structure may show a hierarchical format,
there are loose controls between authority levels. The superintendent has
authority over staff but must operate within the parameters of board policy
and contractual arrangements. Higher authority levels, such as principals and
7. district level administrators, do not exercise complete control over those at
lower levels. Teachers are still in control within their classrooms, and site-
based management has given more authority to lower organizational levels.
School organizations still command tight control over several areas.
These include requirements for teachers, promotion and graduation policies,
curriculum, and student placement.
Informal Dimensions of Organizational Structure
Groups formed by teachers have been shown to be a powerful force in
school organizations. Administrators who identify informal group leaders
and establish close working relationships with them are substantially
advantaged in accomplishing organizational goals. Group norms have been
shown to be an important determinant of group behavior. Informal groups
of teachers tend to reform after the summer break with little change and are
usually dominated by older and more experienced teachers.
Leadership and Types of Authority
Leaders attempt to influence others through personal and positional
powers such as authority. There are several types of authority that leaders
employ: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal. In the purest form,
traditional authority is aligned with patriarchal authority. Charismatic
authority is based on personal devotion to the leader. It is thought to be an
8. unstable type of authority because it is linked to one specific person.
Rational-legal authority is based on the supremacy of the law and the
position that formally established social norms should direct a person's
actions in the rational pursuit of specified goals. This type of authority is
closely linked to Weber's bureaucracy model.
Types of Educational Organizations
Educational organizations can be classified into three types:
nonprofessional, professional, and semiprofessional organizations.
Bureaucrats (administrators) and professionals (teachers) assume different
roles in these organizations. In nonprofessional organization, the goal is to
make a profit. Administrative activities are coordinated so that profits can
be maximized and final authority resides in line officers (administrators)
who constitute the administrative chain of command. In these organizations,
professionals (teachers) are more likely to occupy specialized or staff
advisory positions outside the line of authority. The goal of professional
organizations, such as those associated with universities, research
organizations, and hospitals, is to produce, apply, preserve, or communicate
knowledge. Generally, 50% or more of the staff are professionals who have
primary control over the major goal activities with administrators providing
support. Final authority resides with the professionals. School and social
9. work agencies are classified as semiprofessional organizations. They are
similar to professional organizations but differ in the areas of professional
employee status and function. Less time is spent on training, and there is a
focus on communication of knowledge.
In educational organizations conflicts may arise between bureaucrats
(administrators) and professionals (teachers) in the area of decision making.
Classic bureaucrats (administrators) make decisions in the interest of the
organization, while idealized professionals (teachers) want decisions made
in the best interests of the students or norms of the profession.
Public School Systems
The 10th Amendment gave states control of activities that are not
specifically assigned to the federal government. This resulted in the states
being responsible for education. Except for Hawaii, all U.S. public
educational systems are state legislated and supported but locally operated.
Local school districts are classified as quasi-corporations: a political division
of the state to facilitate the administration of government.
This century has seen an increase in the power of local districts.
There has been a movement toward consolidation of school districts, hiring
of professional school managers, increased power of the superintendent, and
an interest in scientific management. There continues to be an increasing
10. chasm between mainstream partisan political activity and school
governance. School boards have secured the right as a separate taxing
authority.
The rise in local power has contributed to a decrease in the authority
of the State Board of Education. The general areas of responsibility for state
departments include finance (administration of federal and state monies),
teacher certification, curriculum (textbooks and standards), testing, data
collection and distribution, administration of Federal program, facilities and
transportation, and nonpublic schools.
Local school district adopt policies and practices to govern the operation
of the school system under their control. The policies and practices that are
adopted are a result of a dynamic equilibrium between three values -
equality, efficiency, and liberty.
Equality means the equal access to educational services for all. Several
landmark cases have greatly influenced the organization and functioning of
educational systems in the United States. The most influential case was the
1954 Supreme Court Case, Brown vs. Board of Education, which disallowed
racially segregated schools. The "equal protection clause" of the 14th
Amendment provided equal access to educational opportunities for all
handicapped students. Federal funding is provided through the Education
11. for all Handicapped Children Act (1975). Bilingual students were
guaranteed effective instruction and equal access to education services as a
result of a landmark case; Lau vs. Nichols.
Equality also means equal distribution of financial resources. This
was addressed through the enactment of several programs and the passage of
several federal acts. The Elementary & Secondary Education Act (ESEA),
President Johnson's War on Poverty (1960's), and Compensatory Education
which focused on low income families were programs that addressed
financial resource allocation to elementary and secondary schools. The
needs of post secondary students were addressed through several financial
aid programs: (1) Serviceman's Readjustment Act (based on years of
service), (2) Guaranteed Student Loan Program (GSLP) which subsidized
lending organizations), and (3) Basic Education Opportunity Grants (BEOG)
which were based on financial need.
Unequal tax bases and disparate expenditures result in an unequal
distribution of resources among school districts. A variety of state level
finance reforms during the 1970’s and 1980’s have attempted to equalize
these discrepancies. A landmark case, Rodriguez v. San Antonio, found that
unequal systems are not in violation of the U.S. constitution.
12. For employees, equality means equal access to decision making.
Programs such as collective bargaining have increased employee
participation in decision making. The 1980's saw an increase in teacher
unionization (NEA, AFT).
The second value, efficiency, is concerned with the conserve of
resources so that "conserved" monies can be used for other endeavors such
as expanding school choice. By increasing efficiency, output is maximized
and options are expanded. During the 1970's state spending limits were
implemented. In a landmark case, Serrano v. Priest, the California
legislature imposed a spending ceiling on school districts.
To increase efficiency and contain or reduce costs, school district
adopted scientific management principles and patterned schools after
businesses. A variety of management strategies (technocracy) became
popular as a way to increase student performance while lowering costs and
increasing accountability. These included President Johnson's Program
Performance Budgeting System (PPBS), Zero Based Budgeting (ZBB),
Program Evaluation & Review Techniques (PERT), Management by
Objectives (MBO), and Competency Based Teacher Education (CBTE).
Comprehensive testing programs were implemented with the purpose of
using public scrutiny of test results to make teachers work harder.
13. Developed in 1964, the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP)
testing program compares student achievement between states.
The third value, liberty, refers to the freedom to choose among
alternatives. Reforms focused on helping public schools increase diversity,
be more responsive to their clients, and expand private offerings. A
parent’s right to select a private or a public school for their child was
guaranteed by a 1925 U.S. Supreme Court Case; Pierce v. Society of Sisters.
Tuition tax credits for both public and private school payments were found
to be constitutional in a 1983 Supreme Court Case; Mueller vs. Allen. The
1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act made federal funds available
for nonpublic schools.
Liberty also involves increasing citizen participation and control of
education. This is achieved through the development of alternative schools,
administrative decentralization, school site management, and the formation
of Parent Advisory Councils which are required when receiving federal
programs and money such as ESEA, Title 1, and ESAA.
Structure of Organizations and Leadership
Because organizations are composed of groups and groups have
leaders, the topics of group dynamics and leadership are intertwined with
14. organizational theory. Blanchard defines leaderships as the "process of
influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal
achievement in a given situation.
Situational Leadership
Depending upon the situation, an effective leader must be able to select
and implement the style that will be most effective. This is known as
situational leadership and involves diagnosing which style to use, adapting
the style to meet the demands of the situation and communicating with those
involved. Situational leadership styles can be divided into four techniques:
S1 (telling), S2 (selling), S3 (participation), and S4 (delegating). S1 (telling)
and S4 (delegating) are effective at crisis interventions. S1 (telling) and S3
(participation) tend to see members of the organization as either "good
people" or "bad people". S2 (selling) and S3 (participation) work well with
average groups.
Situational leaders are flexible and can adapt to the needs and readiness
of the group. For employee groups at the R1 or low level of readiness, the
S1 or telling style is preferred. For R2 (low to moderate readiness) groups,
selling (S2) should be used. For R3 (moderate to high readiness) groups, a
participatory style (S3) of leaderships works the best. For groups at a high
level of readiness (R4), a delegating style (S4) should be implemented.
15. Transformational Leadership
Organizations are not static, they go through change. Effective
leadership is particularly difficult when organizations are going through
transformational changes. Transformation is caused by external rather than
internal forces and involves substantial and discontinuous change to the
shape, structure, and nature of the organization. It is caused by external,
rather than internal forces. It is a deep, pervasive change that requires
significantly different actions by the members. Studies of successful and
unsuccessful organizational transformations have led to the identification of
the particular leadership style that can effectively manage transformational
change. This type of leadership, transformational, is also referred to as
visionary, strategic or charismatic leadership. These leaders have (1)
personal commitment to the transformation, (2) firmly and indisputably
communicate the impossibility of maintaining the status quo, (3)
communicate a clear and enthusiastic vision of what the organization could
become, (4) identify and secure the support of key players and power
holders, (5) acknowledge and effectively deal with resistance, (6) design and
put into action an organization that can implement the vision, and (7)
regularly communicate progress, setbacks, and achievements to all
stakeholders.
16. The leader must assess the organization's readiness for change.
Blanchard identifies appropriate transformational leadership strategies for
each level of organizational readiness. In an OR-1 organization that is
fixated, fragmented, and resistant, the leader should use an enforcing
strategy (S1) such as coercive power. An OR-2 organization is inept but co-
operative and concerned. The leader should use referent and reward power
along with enabling strategies (S2). An OR-3 organization is perceptive but
divided and ambivalent. Enlisting strategies (S3) and referent and reward
power should in used. In an OR-4 organization that is versatile, integrated,
and committed, an endorsing strategy (S4) and information power should be
used.
Definition of Terms
Authority - legitimate power. Based on perception about the obligations and
responsibilities associated with particular positions in an organization.
Bureaucracy - administration of a "government" chiefly through bureaus and
departments staffed with nonelected officials.
Equality - equal access to educational services and opportunities
Hierarchical Authority Structure - each higher office has control and
supervision of a lower office. Structure assumes the shape of a pyramid.
17. Human Relations - attention to the social and psychological needs of
workers.
Leadership - the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a
group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.
Leadership style - behavior pattern that a person exhibits when attempting to
influence the activities of others.
Liberty - a public value. Freedom to choose from among alternatives
Organizational Theory - fundamental conceptualization of organizational
structure and operational arrangements of schools i.e., classical, human
relations, and open systems.
Rational-legal authority - assumes existence of a formally established body
of social norms designated to organize conduct for rational pursuit of
specified goals.
Scientific management - utilizing time and motion studies to enhance worker
productivity (Frederick Taylor)
Situational Leadership- selecting and implementing the most effective
leadership style based on specific characteristics of the situation, group, and
problem.
System - a group of interacting elements forming a complex whole.
18. Technocracy - theoretical system of government and management based on
principles devised and administered by scientists and professional
technicians.
Transformation - a vital organizational change caused by factors external to
the organization that involves substantial and discontinuous change to the
organization's shape, structure, and nature.
Related Web Sites
Equality and Education: School Choice:
http//www.equaleducation.com/School_Choice/
Hawthorne Studies
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm/Hawthorne.html
Leadership
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm/leadersh.htm
McGregor: Principles of Management:
http//sundial.net/˜russe/RussRP.htm
Open Systems Theory:
http//www.kwandong.ac.kr/˜choich/open_system.html
Organizational Theory: Center for Organizational Theory
http//garnet.berkeley.edu/˜iir/cot/cot.html
19. Organizational Theory and Behavior
http//www.utoledo.edu/˜DDavis/prinorg.htm
Situational Leadership:
http//www.triangle.org/leadership/sitlead.html
Situational Leadership: Overview (28 slides)
http//sun.vmi.edu/hall/as300/as303/SituationalLeadership/sld001.htm
Taylor's Scientific Management
http//www.analytictech.com/mb021/taylor.htm
Technocracy:
http//encarta.msn.com/index/conciseindex/56/056DC000.htm?
z=1&pg=2&br=1
Transformational Leadership: ERIC Digest, Number 72
http//www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed347636.html
Transformational Leadership: A Prescription for Contemporary
Organizations
http//www.cnu.edu/hrracj/bobpaper.html
Transformational Leadership: Ethics, Character, and Authentic
Transformational Leadership
http//cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html
Weber and Bureaucracy