1. Philosophical/Social/Political Issues in Education: Philosophy Issues in
Policy Decisions
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Potential Questions
1. You have just accepted the position of superintendent in a district and
the board has challenged you to change several of the district’s
policies. You feel that unless the philosophy of the district staff
changes, you will not be able to develop and implement new policies.
How will you address this issue?
2. The site-based decisionmaking committee for your district is having
difficulty coming to consensus about several issues because the
members of the committee do not have compatible personal
educational philosophies. How will you lead this committee into a
productive environment for decision-making?
3. You have just been promoted from a campus administrative
principal’s position to a central office position. You are charged with
improving instruction on the elementary campuses. The five campus
principals are very different philosophically. How will you work with
the principals to develop compatible policies and procedures for
curriculum so that all campuses are academically productive and
curricular programming is comparable?

2. Key Terms
The terms below are defined in terms of their use and meaning for the
purposes of this section of the study guide.
curriculum – what is taught in the public school setting.
idealist – a scholarly philosophical thought where reality is defined in
spiritual or non-material terms.
instruction – how curriculum is taught in the public school setting.
philosophy - a person's attempt to think speculatively, reflectively, and
systematically about the universe and the relationships of humans to the
universe.
personal philosophy – a person’s beliefs and general principals related
to a certain discipline (education) and based on past experiences, education,
and reflection.
policy – set of rules and regulations developed by a local board of
trustees. Policies reflect current law and local practice.
policy development – the process by which local policies are
presented, discussed, reviewed, and adopted.
pragmatist – in scholarly terms a pragmatist believes that the human
conception of reality is based on experience.

3. realist – according to scholarly thought a realist sees reality as an
order of objects that exist independently of human beings.
Discussion of Topic
The operation of a public school system is dependent on policies –
policies that govern all aspects of management related to personnel,
students, and curriculum decisions. Each policy is developed through a
process of discussion, collaboration and consensus and reflects the beliefs
and personal philosophies of the developers. Gutek (1997) states that
education is in a constant state of debate, not only now, but, throughout
history. However, in some ways, the presence of divergent thought is
actually a of sign vitality, with school as a social institution being a focal
point of conflict.
The impact of policy development cannot be over emphasized. Public
school policy has the potential to shape society because the vast majority of
all elementary and secondary students in the United States, almost 90
percent, are enrolled in public schools, even at the lower grades. According
to Guthrie and Reed (1991), by 1990, 3.2 million 5- and 6-year-olds, 94% of
the age cohort, were enrolled in public kindergartens. In addition,
approximately 29 million students were enrolled in elementary schools with
either a K – 6th
or a K – 8th
grade configuration. With the vast majority of all

4. school-aged students enrolled in public schools, the development of policy
that meets the needs of a large and diverse public school population is
difficult at best and dependent on the ability to reach consensus on
philosophical issues. Throughout history, educators have continuously been
concerned with encouraging the development of certain values in the young
and with the encouragement of certain kinds of preferred behavior (Gutek,
1997).
For effective policy development, educators would benefit from
examining their basic philosophy with regard to life and society. Gutek
(1997) defines philosophy in general terms as a person's attempt to think
speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about the universe and the
relationships of humans to the universe. When an educator reflects on the
concept of reality, or of human nature, or of society, he or she is actually
philosophizing about education. When relating philosophy to the educational
setting, the concept of reality held by the society supporting the particular
school is evident in the subjects, experiences, and skills of the curriculum, in
an attempt by curriculum writers, teachers, and textbook writers, to describe
societal reality to students. Because of the impact philosophy has on policy
decisions related to curriculum as well as other areas, it is valuable for
educators to recognize some of the various identified philosophies of

5. education to better examine analyze curricula and methods in light of their
relationships to a particular philosophical position. For example, “an Idealist
defines reality in spiritual or non material terms, a Realist sees reality as an
order of objects that exist independently of human beings…a Pragmatist
hold that the human conception of reality is based on experience” (Gutek,
1997, p. 2).
Gutek (1997) indicates that what is taught, or the curriculum, and how
it is taught, or instruction, are operational components of the educational
system that should garner attention from educational leaders and policy
makers. The values of the public and community are most strongly reflected
in curricular policies and to a lesser degree in instructional activities. The
philosophy of a district is most evident in the curricular decisions. If there
were complete agreement within a society regarding desired educational
outcomes, decisions would be far more technical and not at all political.
Gutek (1997) explains:
As the vital center of the school’s educational efforts, the curriculum
is the locus of the sharpest controversies. Decision making in
curricular matters involves considering, examining, and formulating
the ends of education. Those concerned with curriculum planning and
organization ask such questions as: What knowledge is of most

6. worth? What knowledge should be introduced to the learner? What
are the criteria for selecting knowledge? What is valuable for the
learner as a person and as a member of society? The answers to these
questions determine what is included and what is excluded in the
schools instructional program, but also rest ultimately on assumptions
about the nature of the universe, of human beings, of society, and of
the good life ( p. 5).
Again according to Gutek (1997), "When educators are unable to
recognize the philosophical and ideological perspective from which
proposals emanate, they are unable to either criticize or to implement these
proposals from a professional perspective” (p. 9). The use of philosophy
inquiry may be a beneficial aid to educators as they examine problems and
make effective decisions to solve identified problems. Even though
knowledge of identified educational philosophies may affect the
development of personal philosophies, the development of a philosophy of
education for a district or society may draw heavily on experiences,
practices, and observations of the educators involved in the decision-
making.
Although examining educational philosophy provides insight into the
policies and practices of a district, Theobald, (2000) states that over the

7. years, educational philosophy has received little attention from educators
and policy makers. Scholars also have generally not evaluated the behavior
of people in schools to determine the philosophy behind the action. A
common view of those associated with public schools is that the real work of
educating children is accomplished by the teachers and administrators in the
nation’s public schools and real work has no relationship to philosophy in its
truest sense.
Rather than adopt the teachings of an educational philosophy such as
Idealism, Realism, or Pragmatism, districts adopt a philosophy of education
that is based on the needs and beliefs related to what is right for those served
by the district. Reed and Guthrie (1991) indicate that policies and practices
adopted by American public schools are the result of constant interplay of
three deeply held values - equality, efficiency, and liberty which significantly
influence public policy generally and education specifically. In fact:
Government actions regarding national defense, housing, taxation,
antitrust regulation, racial desegregation, and literally hundreds of
other policy dimensions, including education, are motivated and
molded by one or more of these three values… Equality, liberty, and
efficiency are viewed by an overwhelming public majority as
conditions that government should maximize. These three values are

8. considered "good," “just," and "right." (Guthrie & Reed, 1991, p.
26)."
Guthrie and Reed (1991) further contend that these values are a
common thread in the historical roots of American heritage and affect the
philosophical beliefs by permeating the ideology of political parties,
churches, courts, schools and other social institutions. Being a strategic
leader in the educational setting is not just about evaluation and planning.
Philosophically, it is “as important to know ‘what is right to do’ as it is ‘to
know how to do it right” (Guthrie & Reed, 1991, p. 21). Policy makers must
determine what is the right thing to do for a particular district and then
develop the appropriate policies an them motivate educators, students,
parents, community members – in fact all stakeholders – to follow the
policies.
Policy makers have a personal philosophy based on their life
experiences and teachings; yet, Miller and Safer (July, 1993) suggest that
policy makers are seldom required on a personal or professional level, to
defend their decisions in terms of philosophical beliefs. They do not
articulate their position regarding a policy in terms of an in-depth ethical or
epistemological position deliberation. Such deliberations, if they ever
transpire, occur after the policy maker has left office and has time to reflect.

9. So, unfortunately, what should affect policy making - ethical and evidential
reasoning, is often peripheral to policy decision-making.
Policy decisions are strongly affected by local board members and
there influence in the community. According the Guthrie and Reed, 1991,
such decisions involve complicated interactions of the constituency and the
multiple layers of the organization. Education decision makers
(administrators) have an understanding of local political interactions and
realize the affect of local politics on school policy. It is a fact that some
individuals in a community have more influence than others. This influence
is caused by several factors, including personal wealth, intellect, physical
force, charisma, and family and friendship connections.
The personal beliefs of the influential people in the community affect
school policy, which could be detrimental. Guthrie and Reed (1991) site a
study that suggests small towns may have a structure that is different than
larger cities, with local politics more strongly affecting education policy.
Administrators new to a district would do well to become familiar with the
local philosophy of education and to become acquainted with influential
people within the community.
The American system of education, though governed to some extent,
by federal and state laws and guidelines, continues to be governed at the

10. local level. Every public school system has a local board of education that is
elected by the residents of the school district. Because boards of education
are charged with adopting policies that govern the district, local philosophies
will be apparent, especially in the curriculum. For example, some public
school districts have a strong technical program and others do not – which is
a reflection of the beliefs and values of the members of the board of trustees.
In turn, the carrying out of those policies reflects the personal philosophies,
beliefs, and values of the district’s administrators, teachers, and support
staff. Therefore, personal philosophies, whether developed through scholarly
study or through personal experiences or a combination of both, affect
education policy at both the development and implementation stages.

11. Related Websites:
Education Policy - The Education Policy Analysis Archives has full
text articles related to education policy. The website is available at
http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa
ERIC Digests - This site allows access to various ERIC documents at
http://www.edgov/databases/ERIC_Digests
Policy Perspectives - Articles are available at
http://www.edpolicy.org/perspectives/archives/ that examine public policy
issues in teacher education.
Policy Publications - Articles related to policy are available at
http://www.edpolicy.org/publications

12. References
Gutek, G. L. (1997). Philosophical and ideological perspectives on
education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Guthrie, J. W. & Reed, R. J. (1991). Educational administration and
policy. Needham Heights, Massachusetts; Allyn and Bacon.
Miller, S. I. & Safer, L. A. (July, 1993). Evidence, ethics and social
policy dilemmas. Education Policy Analysis Archives. [Online] Available:
http://epaa.asu.edu/e/v1n9.html
Theobold, P. (January, 1992). Rural philosophy for education: Wendell
berry's tradition. Eric Digest ED 345930. Eric Clearinghouse on
RuralEducation and Small Schools. Charleston, WV. [Online] Available:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed345930.html