Open Systems Theory (OST) views organizations as open systems that are influenced by and influence their external environments through a process of mutual adaptation. An open system must actively adapt to changing values and expectations in its external environment in order to remain viable over time. OST recognizes that organizations exist within broader social, economic, political, and technological contexts and must respond to changes in these environments to succeed.
This document provides an overview of classical and modern organization theory as applied to health care organizations. It discusses several theories of organization including scientific management, administrative management, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories. Scientific management theory focuses on standardization, time studies, and dividing work responsibilities. Administrative theory examines formal structure, rules, and principles of management. Behavioral theory emphasizes human factors like motivation, leadership, and group dynamics. Systems theory views organizations as goal-oriented systems, while contingency theory contends there is no single best way to manage and the approach must fit the situation. The theories provide frameworks for functions like management structures, performance evaluation, process standardization, and adapting to changing environments in health care.
The document discusses the evolution of management theories from the classical school to modern schools of management. It provides details on key contributors and concepts within each era, including scientific management under Taylor, bureaucracy theory under Weber, administrative principles under Fayol, human relations theory from Hawthorne Studies, and contingency theory focusing on situational factors. Theories progressed from an economic focus on efficiency to consideration of human and social aspects of organizations, then to a systems perspective accounting for environmental factors. Modern theories integrate knowledge across different fields to deal with organizational complexity.
Evolution of management theory,Scientific Management School
Classical Organization Theory school
Behavioral School
Management Science School
The System Approach
The Contingency Approach
Dynamic Engagement Approach
Organizational culture refers to shared meanings and behaviors among members of an organization. It is shaped by founders and reinforced over time through socialization, stories, rituals, and symbols. A strong culture with clear values can increase commitment and coordination but may also resist change and diversity. Managers can develop an ethical culture through role modeling, training, and rewarding ethical conduct. National culture also influences how organizational culture is expressed in other countries.
Power refers to the ability to influence others and is used to achieve goals and gain influence. There are different types of power including legitimate power from one's position, reward power to give rewards, coercive power to punish, information power from controlling information, referent power from personality, and expert power from knowledge. Politics involves intentional acts to enhance self-interest and occurs due to limited resources, different goals and unknown outcomes. Political tactics include attacking others, creating a favorable image, and forming alliances. Factors influencing political behavior include individual efficiency and needs as well as organizational competition and pressures. Political games are played at all levels to resist or counter authority, enhance power, and defeat rivals. Managing power and politics requires recognizing their influence
Open Systems Theory (OST) views organizations as open systems that are influenced by and influence their external environments through a process of mutual adaptation. An open system must actively adapt to changing values and expectations in its external environment in order to remain viable over time. OST recognizes that organizations exist within broader social, economic, political, and technological contexts and must respond to changes in these environments to succeed.
This document provides an overview of classical and modern organization theory as applied to health care organizations. It discusses several theories of organization including scientific management, administrative management, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories. Scientific management theory focuses on standardization, time studies, and dividing work responsibilities. Administrative theory examines formal structure, rules, and principles of management. Behavioral theory emphasizes human factors like motivation, leadership, and group dynamics. Systems theory views organizations as goal-oriented systems, while contingency theory contends there is no single best way to manage and the approach must fit the situation. The theories provide frameworks for functions like management structures, performance evaluation, process standardization, and adapting to changing environments in health care.
The document discusses the evolution of management theories from the classical school to modern schools of management. It provides details on key contributors and concepts within each era, including scientific management under Taylor, bureaucracy theory under Weber, administrative principles under Fayol, human relations theory from Hawthorne Studies, and contingency theory focusing on situational factors. Theories progressed from an economic focus on efficiency to consideration of human and social aspects of organizations, then to a systems perspective accounting for environmental factors. Modern theories integrate knowledge across different fields to deal with organizational complexity.
Evolution of management theory,Scientific Management School
Classical Organization Theory school
Behavioral School
Management Science School
The System Approach
The Contingency Approach
Dynamic Engagement Approach
Organizational culture refers to shared meanings and behaviors among members of an organization. It is shaped by founders and reinforced over time through socialization, stories, rituals, and symbols. A strong culture with clear values can increase commitment and coordination but may also resist change and diversity. Managers can develop an ethical culture through role modeling, training, and rewarding ethical conduct. National culture also influences how organizational culture is expressed in other countries.
Power refers to the ability to influence others and is used to achieve goals and gain influence. There are different types of power including legitimate power from one's position, reward power to give rewards, coercive power to punish, information power from controlling information, referent power from personality, and expert power from knowledge. Politics involves intentional acts to enhance self-interest and occurs due to limited resources, different goals and unknown outcomes. Political tactics include attacking others, creating a favorable image, and forming alliances. Factors influencing political behavior include individual efficiency and needs as well as organizational competition and pressures. Political games are played at all levels to resist or counter authority, enhance power, and defeat rivals. Managing power and politics requires recognizing their influence
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines an organization as a system that takes in inputs from the environment, transforms them through processes, and outputs products or services back to the environment. An organization's structure determines how job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated. Key elements of organizational design include work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, formalization, and contingency factors like strategy, size, technology, and environmental uncertainty. Organizational structures can range from mechanistic to organic.
This document discusses organizational change and its key aspects. It defines organizational change as modifications to an organization's structure, processes, or products that impact how work is performed. Changes can include altering the organizational structure, operations, workforce size, working hours/practices, or roles. Changes are categorized as either planned, resulting from deliberate decisions, or unplanned, being imposed on the organization. Managing resistance to change is also discussed, emphasizing the importance of communication, participation, empathy, and other strategies. The roles and skills of change agents in facilitating organizational change are outlined.
This document provides an overview of organizational development and interventions. It defines organizational development as a deliberately planned effort to increase an organization's relevance and viability. The key aspects covered include:
- The meaning, definitions, objectives, assumptions, values and process of organizational development.
- Common organizational development interventions like team building, coaching, large group interventions and leadership development.
- The assumptions underlying organizational interventions, which include viewing groups as the basic building blocks and aiming to reduce inappropriate competition between parts of an organization.
- The effectiveness of organizational development in providing opportunities for employees and organizations to reach their full potential and treating people with dignity and respect.
This document outlines the key aspects of policy formulation for a healthcare organization. It defines what a policy is, the purpose of policy formulation, and why policies and procedures are needed in the workplace. The document then discusses the characteristics of a good policy and the steps involved in the policy making process. Specifically, it notes that a policy provides guidance, ensures consistency and fair treatment, promotes predictable behavior, allows for delegation, and aids communication and coordination. The characteristics highlighted include being clear, aligned with organizational goals, efficient and effective. The policy making process involves formulation, acceptance, clear communication, allocation of resources, and distribution strategies.
This document provides an overview of systems theory. It discusses that systems theory views an organization as an organism made up of interconnected subsystems that must work together. Key aspects of systems theory discussed include that it emphasizes communication between subsystems, takes a holistic view of the organization, and recognizes that organizations cannot be separated from their environment. The document also notes some limitations of systems theory in that it is not prescriptive and can be difficult to apply to practical problems.
This document summarizes a presentation on organizational development and leadership effectiveness given by Adrian James A. Briones and Catherine S. Villanueva. It covers the following key points:
1. The presentation discusses reasons for organizational change including remaining competitive and responding to crises. It also covers types of organizational change like evolutionary and revolutionary change.
2. Models of organizational change are presented including Lewin's three-stage model of unfreezing, movement, and refreezing as well as Kotter's eight-step model. Managing resistance to change through various approaches is also covered.
3. For organizations to adapt to constant change, renewal is needed. This involves analyzing the organization, anticipating changing patterns
The document discusses the neoclassical theory of management. It states that the neoclassical approach was first established by Alfred Marshall and that George Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the neoclassical theory. The document outlines key distinctions between the classical and neoclassical approaches, noting that the neoclassical approach focuses more on human qualities and treats workers as social beings rather than just economic functions. It also describes the human relations movement proposed by Mayo which emphasized employee-centric and participative leadership styles to motivate workers.
This document discusses organizational behavior and its key concepts. It defines organizational behavior as the systematic study of how people act within organizations. The goals of organizational behavior are to describe, understand, predict, and control human behavior in organizational settings. It examines the forces that influence organizational behavior, including people, the organizational structure and environment, and technology. Some fundamental concepts discussed are the nature of people, including individual differences, perception, motivation, and values, as well as the nature of organizations as social systems based on mutual interests and ethics.
This document discusses models for diagnosing organizations. It introduces the open systems model which views organizations as existing within an environment and exchanging inputs, transformations, and outputs. Key properties of systems like boundaries and feedback are also discussed. Several diagnostic models are presented for understanding organizations at the individual, group, and organization levels. The document emphasizes that diagnosis involves understanding each part of the model and assessing how well elements are aligned with each other and external inputs to impact organizational effectiveness. A number of other diagnostic models developed over time are also listed.
An organization interacts with and is influenced by its internal and external environments. The internal environment includes employees and corporate culture, while the external environment comprises general forces like political, economic, technological and social factors. An organization also directly interacts with external entities like customers, suppliers, owners and competitors through an exchange of resources and information. This interaction is reciprocal, as the environment also influences the organization.
The document discusses the concepts of organizing, including defining organizing as the process of arranging work, authority, and resources to achieve organizational goals. It covers principles of organization like unity of command and span of control, and different types of organizational structures such as functional, divisional, and matrix structures. The document also examines concepts related to organizing like responsibility, authority, and centralization versus decentralization.
The document discusses policies, procedures, vision, mission, values, and goals for organizations. It provides examples of policies and procedures from cooperatives and explains that policies outline general guidelines while procedures provide specific steps for implementation. Together, policies and procedures help organizations achieve goals and objectives in a standardized, compliant, and efficient manner.
The document discusses the system theory, which views organizations as complex systems made up of interconnected subsystems. It defines key aspects of the system theory, including that organizations rely on synergy between subsystems like departments and employees. The premises of system theory are explained, noting organizations function like living organisms through interdependent subsystems working together. Characteristics of system theory focus on communication, boundaries, and organizations being goal-directed. Advantages include a broad theoretical view of organizations and dealing with complexity, while disadvantages are a lack of focus on specific tasks and interpersonal relationships. Modern organizations apply system theory to measure performance and interactions between individuals and departments.
This document discusses and compares formal and informal organizations within a company. It defines a formal organization as having well-defined jobs, authority structures, and goals, while an informal organization comprises the natural relationships and networks that form among employees. Some key differences highlighted are that formal organizations have official rules and communication channels, while informal groups are dynamic and fluid, relying on personal connections. Both types of organizations serve important purposes in coordinating work and building relationships.
Organizational culture is defined as the shared beliefs, customs, traditions, and values of an organization's members. It is shaped by an organization's founders, leaders, selection practices, and socialization of new employees. Maintaining culture involves selecting new members who share the existing values and socializing them to accept prevailing norms and customs through stories, rituals, symbols, and language used in the organization.
The document discusses the organizational environment and its importance for management. It describes two key layers of the environment - the general environment and task environment.
The general environment includes political, economic, technological and socio-cultural forces outside an organization's direct control that can indirectly impact it. The task environment encompasses an organization's customers, suppliers, labor forces and competitors that it directly interacts with.
Understanding how these external factors influence an organization is vital for management to effectively analyze strategic options and ensure organizational effectiveness and performance. Regular environmental scanning allows managers to set goals and design strategies to respond to changes in the unpredictable external environment.
This book aims to provide a link between theory and social work practice. It develops a theoretical foundation from which you can draw to serve your clients. Different lenses, or theories, are presented and
coupled with practice situations, from assessment through evaluation, that are designed to assist you in increasing your understanding of the importance of linking theory to practice.
In the beginning level
of practice situations, you are called upon to be generalists; this means you should be able to respond to human need through micro practice, mezzo practice, or macro practice methods and should be able to
respond to needs expressed by systems of all sizes, including individuals, families and groups, organizations, and communities.
This is a pretty tall order. The Bachelor of Social Work curriculum ensures that you receive knowledge and skills, and understand the related social work values, across the spectrum of systems from conception to death. Inherent in the curriculum is an integrated understanding of general systems theory and the ecological perspective. Each system is within a particular context. Content areas include human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy, diversity, economic and social justice, practice methods, ethics and values, research, and field experience.
To ensure that you receive the knowledge, skills, and values and can use them in practice, the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) develops academic standards by which programs measure their relative effectiveness in reaching student learning outcomes.
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines an organization as a system that takes in inputs from the environment, transforms them through processes, and outputs products or services back to the environment. An organization's structure determines how job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated. Key elements of organizational design include work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, formalization, and contingency factors like strategy, size, technology, and environmental uncertainty. Organizational structures can range from mechanistic to organic.
This document discusses organizational change and its key aspects. It defines organizational change as modifications to an organization's structure, processes, or products that impact how work is performed. Changes can include altering the organizational structure, operations, workforce size, working hours/practices, or roles. Changes are categorized as either planned, resulting from deliberate decisions, or unplanned, being imposed on the organization. Managing resistance to change is also discussed, emphasizing the importance of communication, participation, empathy, and other strategies. The roles and skills of change agents in facilitating organizational change are outlined.
This document provides an overview of organizational development and interventions. It defines organizational development as a deliberately planned effort to increase an organization's relevance and viability. The key aspects covered include:
- The meaning, definitions, objectives, assumptions, values and process of organizational development.
- Common organizational development interventions like team building, coaching, large group interventions and leadership development.
- The assumptions underlying organizational interventions, which include viewing groups as the basic building blocks and aiming to reduce inappropriate competition between parts of an organization.
- The effectiveness of organizational development in providing opportunities for employees and organizations to reach their full potential and treating people with dignity and respect.
This document outlines the key aspects of policy formulation for a healthcare organization. It defines what a policy is, the purpose of policy formulation, and why policies and procedures are needed in the workplace. The document then discusses the characteristics of a good policy and the steps involved in the policy making process. Specifically, it notes that a policy provides guidance, ensures consistency and fair treatment, promotes predictable behavior, allows for delegation, and aids communication and coordination. The characteristics highlighted include being clear, aligned with organizational goals, efficient and effective. The policy making process involves formulation, acceptance, clear communication, allocation of resources, and distribution strategies.
This document provides an overview of systems theory. It discusses that systems theory views an organization as an organism made up of interconnected subsystems that must work together. Key aspects of systems theory discussed include that it emphasizes communication between subsystems, takes a holistic view of the organization, and recognizes that organizations cannot be separated from their environment. The document also notes some limitations of systems theory in that it is not prescriptive and can be difficult to apply to practical problems.
This document summarizes a presentation on organizational development and leadership effectiveness given by Adrian James A. Briones and Catherine S. Villanueva. It covers the following key points:
1. The presentation discusses reasons for organizational change including remaining competitive and responding to crises. It also covers types of organizational change like evolutionary and revolutionary change.
2. Models of organizational change are presented including Lewin's three-stage model of unfreezing, movement, and refreezing as well as Kotter's eight-step model. Managing resistance to change through various approaches is also covered.
3. For organizations to adapt to constant change, renewal is needed. This involves analyzing the organization, anticipating changing patterns
The document discusses the neoclassical theory of management. It states that the neoclassical approach was first established by Alfred Marshall and that George Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the neoclassical theory. The document outlines key distinctions between the classical and neoclassical approaches, noting that the neoclassical approach focuses more on human qualities and treats workers as social beings rather than just economic functions. It also describes the human relations movement proposed by Mayo which emphasized employee-centric and participative leadership styles to motivate workers.
This document discusses organizational behavior and its key concepts. It defines organizational behavior as the systematic study of how people act within organizations. The goals of organizational behavior are to describe, understand, predict, and control human behavior in organizational settings. It examines the forces that influence organizational behavior, including people, the organizational structure and environment, and technology. Some fundamental concepts discussed are the nature of people, including individual differences, perception, motivation, and values, as well as the nature of organizations as social systems based on mutual interests and ethics.
This document discusses models for diagnosing organizations. It introduces the open systems model which views organizations as existing within an environment and exchanging inputs, transformations, and outputs. Key properties of systems like boundaries and feedback are also discussed. Several diagnostic models are presented for understanding organizations at the individual, group, and organization levels. The document emphasizes that diagnosis involves understanding each part of the model and assessing how well elements are aligned with each other and external inputs to impact organizational effectiveness. A number of other diagnostic models developed over time are also listed.
An organization interacts with and is influenced by its internal and external environments. The internal environment includes employees and corporate culture, while the external environment comprises general forces like political, economic, technological and social factors. An organization also directly interacts with external entities like customers, suppliers, owners and competitors through an exchange of resources and information. This interaction is reciprocal, as the environment also influences the organization.
The document discusses the concepts of organizing, including defining organizing as the process of arranging work, authority, and resources to achieve organizational goals. It covers principles of organization like unity of command and span of control, and different types of organizational structures such as functional, divisional, and matrix structures. The document also examines concepts related to organizing like responsibility, authority, and centralization versus decentralization.
The document discusses policies, procedures, vision, mission, values, and goals for organizations. It provides examples of policies and procedures from cooperatives and explains that policies outline general guidelines while procedures provide specific steps for implementation. Together, policies and procedures help organizations achieve goals and objectives in a standardized, compliant, and efficient manner.
The document discusses the system theory, which views organizations as complex systems made up of interconnected subsystems. It defines key aspects of the system theory, including that organizations rely on synergy between subsystems like departments and employees. The premises of system theory are explained, noting organizations function like living organisms through interdependent subsystems working together. Characteristics of system theory focus on communication, boundaries, and organizations being goal-directed. Advantages include a broad theoretical view of organizations and dealing with complexity, while disadvantages are a lack of focus on specific tasks and interpersonal relationships. Modern organizations apply system theory to measure performance and interactions between individuals and departments.
This document discusses and compares formal and informal organizations within a company. It defines a formal organization as having well-defined jobs, authority structures, and goals, while an informal organization comprises the natural relationships and networks that form among employees. Some key differences highlighted are that formal organizations have official rules and communication channels, while informal groups are dynamic and fluid, relying on personal connections. Both types of organizations serve important purposes in coordinating work and building relationships.
Organizational culture is defined as the shared beliefs, customs, traditions, and values of an organization's members. It is shaped by an organization's founders, leaders, selection practices, and socialization of new employees. Maintaining culture involves selecting new members who share the existing values and socializing them to accept prevailing norms and customs through stories, rituals, symbols, and language used in the organization.
The document discusses the organizational environment and its importance for management. It describes two key layers of the environment - the general environment and task environment.
The general environment includes political, economic, technological and socio-cultural forces outside an organization's direct control that can indirectly impact it. The task environment encompasses an organization's customers, suppliers, labor forces and competitors that it directly interacts with.
Understanding how these external factors influence an organization is vital for management to effectively analyze strategic options and ensure organizational effectiveness and performance. Regular environmental scanning allows managers to set goals and design strategies to respond to changes in the unpredictable external environment.
This book aims to provide a link between theory and social work practice. It develops a theoretical foundation from which you can draw to serve your clients. Different lenses, or theories, are presented and
coupled with practice situations, from assessment through evaluation, that are designed to assist you in increasing your understanding of the importance of linking theory to practice.
In the beginning level
of practice situations, you are called upon to be generalists; this means you should be able to respond to human need through micro practice, mezzo practice, or macro practice methods and should be able to
respond to needs expressed by systems of all sizes, including individuals, families and groups, organizations, and communities.
This is a pretty tall order. The Bachelor of Social Work curriculum ensures that you receive knowledge and skills, and understand the related social work values, across the spectrum of systems from conception to death. Inherent in the curriculum is an integrated understanding of general systems theory and the ecological perspective. Each system is within a particular context. Content areas include human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy, diversity, economic and social justice, practice methods, ethics and values, research, and field experience.
To ensure that you receive the knowledge, skills, and values and can use them in practice, the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) develops academic standards by which programs measure their relative effectiveness in reaching student learning outcomes.
The conflict model focuses on inequalities that arise from competition over scarce resources and social structures rather than individual characteristics. It summarizes that social structures produce patterns of inequality in the distribution of scarce resources, which can lead to conflict, reorganization and social change.
This document summarizes several organizational theories that can help explain the structure of education institutions: institutional theory explains how universities develop similar structures and cultures; population ecology and resource dependency theory both argue that organizations are influenced by their environment; structural contingency theory posits that organizational structures must adapt to fit contextual factors; and the traditional classroom structure mirrors Mintzberg's machine bureaucracy model with a hierarchical knowledge transfer from teacher to students. Analyzing these models can provide insight into decision-making within colleges and universities.
This document discusses several theories relevant to nursing informatics including:
- General systems theory which views systems as interconnected parts that form a whole. Input, output, and feedback are key concepts.
- Change theory which outlines a three stage model of change: unfreezing, change, and refreezing. Driving and restraining forces influence equilibrium.
- Cognitive learning theory which explains learning through observation, reproduction of behaviors, and self-efficacy. Social cognitive theory incorporates behavioral, personal, and environmental factors.
- Novice to expert theory outlines five levels of skill acquisition from novice to expert based on pattern recognition and intuition over rules. Deliberate practice and risk-taking enable progression.
This document provides an overview of motor control theories that are relevant for physical therapy. It discusses several theories of motor control, including reflex, hierarchical, motor programming, systems, and dynamic action theories. For each theory, it provides details on the core concepts, limitations, and clinical implications for assessing and treating patients with movement impairments. The document emphasizes that understanding motor control theories can provide a framework to guide physical therapy examination and intervention.
This book discusses organizational psychology from an open systems perspective. It examines how organizations function as social systems with complex interactions between individuals and subsystems. The book defines key concepts like organizational roles, effectiveness, and structures. It presents a framework for understanding how organizations develop over time and compares different models of organizational theory. The goal is to analyze organizations using an integrated social science approach that considers both micro and macro levels of analysis.
Group 5_Modern Management Thought- Systems School .pptxMANASA759282
The document discusses Herbert Simon and his contributions to management theory. It notes that Simon originated the concept of "satisficing" to describe bounded rationality in decision making. Simon viewed organizations as systems where individuals make rational decisions based on their limited information and cognitive abilities. The document also discusses Simon's influence on organizational learning, transaction cost economics, and decision theory. It analyzes some of Simon's key publications and compares his work with that of James March at the Carnegie School.
This document defines a system as a collection of interrelated parts that work together to achieve an overall goal. It states that libraries are complex systems with inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback. Libraries receive resources as input, organize and classify information, and output resources back into their environment. As systems, libraries must adapt to changes in their environments and accept feedback to survive. The document uses academic libraries as an example, noting they consist of subsystems and interact with higher education and external economic, political, and cultural systems. It emphasizes that libraries must continuously change and adapt to meet rising information needs, technology changes, and shifts in external social, political, and economic systems.
The document discusses the system theory, which views organizations as sets of interconnected and interdependent parts. It describes system theory's key premises, including that organizational success relies on synergy between subsystems like departments and employees. The document outlines characteristics of system theory like boundaries and goal-directedness. It also discusses advantages like facilitating environmental interaction and disadvantages like impracticality. Finally, it explains how system theory is used in modern organizations to measure performance and interactions between individuals and departments.
The document discusses systems and contingency concepts in organization theory. It defines a system as a set of interdependent parts that work as a unified whole. An organization can be viewed as an open system that interacts with its external environment. The contingency view seeks to understand how organizations operate under different conditions based on relationships among subsystems and the environment. It suggests that an organization's structure should match its environment and goals to maximize effectiveness.
Dear students we many times problems with Advance research theory application so i am just explain by my PPT slides to help the students and application of theories.
The document discusses how an organization's structure is influenced by its environment. It defines the general and specific environments and describes how environmental uncertainty can vary. When uncertainty is high, organizations tend toward organic structures that are flexible and adaptive, while stable environments suit mechanistic structures. Different models of environmental types are presented, from placid to turbulent. Organizational change is described as a three-stage process of variation, selection, and retention. The relationship between environment and an organization's complexity, formalization, and centralization is explained. High uncertainty leads to greater complexity and decentralization, while stability allows for formality and centralization.
Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior in organizational settings. It examines how individuals, groups, and structures affect behavior within organizations for the purpose of improving organizational effectiveness. The scope of organizational behavior includes studying individuals, their attitudes, values, and motivation. It also includes studying groups, including dynamics, communication, leadership, and conflicts between groups. The goal is to understand and predict human behavior in organizations so managers can create environments that optimize performance.
Chapter 6 complexity science and complex adaptive systemsstanbridge
This document discusses complexity science and complex adaptive systems (CAS). It defines complexity science as emerging from simple rules and focusing on relationships among variables. CAS are made up of agents that interact according to patterns and simple rules, which can result in complex and unpredictable behaviors. Healthcare organizations are examples of CAS, as they consist of interconnected systems that are dynamic and adaptive. Viewing healthcare through the lens of complexity science and CAS fits with nursing's holistic approach and supports flexibility, creativity and decentralized leadership in organizations.
Structural functionalism views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It focuses on how social institutions like the family, education, religion, etc. function to meet social needs and maintain social order. According to Talcott Parsons, a society achieves equilibrium when its social institutions fulfill four essential functions: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and pattern maintenance. Structural functionalism emphasizes that society's institutions are interdependent and work together to ensure society's survival.
System theory of management bipsu-convertedJEFFREY PROJO
This document discusses the systems theory of management. It defines a system as a collection of interrelated parts working together to achieve goals. A management system includes inputs, transformation processes, outputs, feedback, and the environment. It views an organization as made up of subsystems that work together holistically and synergistically. The systems approach helps study complex organizations and identify interrelations between functions. However, it is abstract and does not provide specific tools for managers. Primary contributors to systems theory include Bernard, Simon, von Bertalanffy.
This document discusses organizational theories as they relate to educational management. It provides an overview of rational, natural, and open systems perspectives on organizations. The rational perspective views organizations as closed, formal structures designed for efficiency, while the natural perspective sees them as open, informal structures akin to organisms. The open systems perspective integrates both views by recognizing that organizations are influenced by and dependent on their environments. The document also outlines Talcott Parsons' social systems theory and key elements of a school as a social system, including its structure, culture, politics, technical core, environment, and feedback loops.
The document provides an introduction to complex health systems through a series of concepts and frameworks:
- It discusses shifting perspectives from health programs to health systems development and complex adaptive health systems.
- Key concepts are introduced like the "Martian view" and "Gorilla view" of systems, as well as threshold concepts about the socially constructed and integrated nature of health systems.
- It also covers complexity concepts like self-organization, feedback loops, and emergence. Frameworks for different forms of complexity and four revolutions transforming health systems are presented.
- Systems thinking is discussed as giving insights into how systems work and can be improved, emphasizing relationships and processes over structures. Small changes can produce big results
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
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2. MANAGEMENT THEORIES
MANAGEMENT IS THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING AND MAINTAINING AN
ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS, WORKING TOGETHER IN GROUPS,
EFFICIENTLY ACCOMPLISH SELECTED AIMS (KOONTZ AND WEIHRICH 1990, P. 4).
MANAGEMENT THEORIES ARE THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ABOUT MANAGING
CERTAIN ORGANIZATIONS IN A WAY TO ACCOMPLISH ORGANIZATIONAL
AIMS/GOALS EFFECTIVELY.
DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT THEORIES ARE PROPOSED OVER TIME HERE OUR
CONTENT IS CONCERNED WITH THE OPEN SYSTEMS THEORY.
3. SYSTEMS THEORY
• SYSTEMS THEORY STATES THAT ORGANIZATIONAL SUCCESS RELIES ON
SYNERGY, INTERRELATIONS AND INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT
SUBSYSTEMS.
• EMPHASIZES UNITY AND INTEGRITY OF THE ORGANIZATION
• FOCUS ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN ITS COMPONENT PARTS AND WITH THE
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.
• STRESS UNITY AND COHERENCE OF THE ORGANIZATION.
• DEPARTMENTS, WORK GROUPS, BUSINESS UNITS, FACULITIES AND INDIVIDUAL
EMPLOYEES CAN ALL BE CONSIDERED COMPONENT SYSTEMS OF THE
ORGANIZATIONS.
4. • SYSTEMS APPROACH
EMPHASIZE THE CONCEPT OF A SYSTEM BOUNDARY. THE BOUNDARY IS AN
ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN THE DEFINITION OF THE SYSTEM, DISTINGUISHING THE
ORGANIZATION AND ITS MEMBERS FROM THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.
ENVIRONMENT IS TYPICALLY SEEN AS EVERYTHING OUTSIDE THE BOUNDARIES
OF AN ORGANISATION, EVEN THOUGH THE BOUNDARIES ARE OFTEN NEBULOUS
AND POORLY DRAWN.
IT IS THE ENVIRONMENT THAT PROVIDES RAW MATERIALS TO AN
ORGANISATION AND RECEIVES THE ORGANISATION’S OUTPUTS
5. SYSTEMS APPROACH IN EDUCATIONAL
CONTEXT
• SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES ARE THOUGHT TO HAVE INTEGRITY AS PRIME
INSTITUTIONS.
• MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION, AND THOSE EXTERNAL TO IT, RECOGNIZE
THE SCHOOL OR COLLEGE AS A MEANINGFUL ENTITY.
• STAFF AND STUDENTS MAY FEEL THAT THEY ‘BELONG’ TO THE PLACE WHERE
THEY TEACH OR LEARN.
• SCHOOLS RECEIVE STUDENTS FROM THE COMMUNITY AND LATER RETURN
GRADUATES TO THE COMMUNITY. (BOLMAN AND DEAL, 1989, P. 24)
6. AN OPEN SYSTEM
• ASSUMES PERMEABLE BOUNDARIES AND AN INTERACTIVE TWO-WAY
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONS, AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS. OPEN-
SYSTEM CONCEPT HIGHLIGHTS THE VULNERABILITY AND INTERDEPENDENCE OF
ORGANISATIONS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS. (HOY AND MISKEL, 1987, P. 29)
7. THE OPEN SYSTEMS THEORY
• BY1950s THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE BEGAN TO REPLACE THE NATURAL
SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE AS THE DOMINANT APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL
ANALYSIS.
• BOTH OF THESE PERSPECTIVES VIEW ORGANIZATIONS AS ORGANIC WHOLES
THAT MUST CONTINUALLY IMPORT RESOURCES FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENTS TO
REMAIN VIABLE
• BOTH ACKNOWLEDGE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES SHAPE THE STRUCTURE
AND BEHAVIOR OF ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS.
• BUT THERE ARE CERTAIN SUBTLE RATHER IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES AMONG
BOTH PERSPECTIVES
8. NATURAL SYSTEMS
• THEORISTS INTERESTED IN
MICROLEVEL ANALYSIS (HOW TO
MAINTAIN INTERNAL EQUILIBRIUM)
• PASSIVE EFFORTS BY THE
ORGANIZATION TO ADAPT THE
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES
OPEN SYSTEMS
• MORE LIKELY TO FOCUS ON
EXCHANGES WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
AND HOW TO MAINTAIN EXTERNAL
EQUILIBRIUM
• MORE LIKELY TO DESCRIBE
AGGRESSIVE EFFORTS TO ADJUST THE
ENVIRONMENT TO THE
ORGANIZATION'S NEEDS
9. THE INFLUENCE OF THEORIES ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
• THE APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS TO THE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONS
EXPERIENCED A REBIRTH IN THE 1950S UNDER THE NAME OPEN SYSTEMS
THEORY.
• THIS REBIRTH WAS DUE IN PART TO THE INFLUENCE OF LUDWIG VON
BERTALANFFY'S GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY.
• A BIOLOGIST BY PROFESSION, VON BERTALANFFY URGED
THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS AS ORGANIC WHOLES IN THE 1920S,
INTRODUCED THE THEORY OF THE ORGANISM AS AN OPEN SYSTEM IN 1940
ESTABLISHED THE FIELD OF GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY IN 1945.
10. VON BERTALANFFY INSISTED
• THAT ORGANIC WHOLES, INCLUDING ORGANIZATIONS, MUST BE UNDERSTOOD
AS OPEN SYSTEMS.
• OPEN SYSTEMS, IN CONTRAST TO CLOSED SYSTEMS, EXCHANGE MATERIALS,
ENERGY, AND INFORMATION WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENTS SO THAT THEY CAN
RENEW THEMSELVES AND CONTINUE TO GROW.
IN HIS WORDS:
• "THE CHARACTERISTIC STATE OF THE LIVING ORGANISM IS THAT OF AN OPEN
SYSTEM. WE CALL A SYSTEM CLOSED IF NO MATERIALS ENTER OR LEAVE IT. IT IS
OPEN IF THERE IS INFLOW AND OUTFLOW AND THEREFORE CHANGE OF THE
COMPONENT MATERIALS.“
• ONE OF THE DEFINING FEATURES OF OPEN SYSTEMS IS THAT THEY ARE
CHARACTERIZED BY NEGATIVE ENTROPY.
11. • OPEN SYSTEMS ARE ALSO SUBJECT TO THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUIFINALITY.
• THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUIFINALITY INTRODUCES AN IMPORTANT THEME IN
ORGANIZATION THEORY: FREEDOM OF CHOICE.
• TWO ORGANIZATIONS MAY SHARE THE SAME GOALS BUT REACH THEM
THROUGH DIFFERENT MEANS. NOT ONLY ARE OUTCOMES NOT
PREDETERMINED, BUT THERE IS NO ONE BEST WAY OF ACHIEVING SUCCESS. .
• GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY NOT ONLY PROVIDED THE LANGUAGE AND
CONCEPTS USED BY OPEN SYSTEMS THEORISTS IN STUDYING ORGANIZATIONS,
IT ALSO INFLUENCED THE DIRECTION THEIR RESEARCH WOULD TAKE AND THE
CONCLUSIONS THEY WOULD DRAW
12. • THE FIELD OF CYBERNETICS, ESTABLISHED BY A MATHEMATICIAN NORBERT
WIENER IN THE 1940S, ALSO HAD A PROFOUND INFLUENCE ON OPEN SYSTEMS
THEORY IN ITS FORMATIVE YEARS.
• CYBERNETICS IS THE STUDY OF SELF-REGULATING SYSTEMS, SUCH AS SELF-
GUIDED MISSILES OR FURNACE SYSTEMS REGULATED BY THERMOSTATS.
• THESE SYSTEMS RELY ON CONTINUOUS FEEDBACK FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENTS
SO THAT THEY CAN TAKE CORRECTIVE ACTION, THEREBY MAINTAINING SYSTEM
EQUILIBRIUM.
• CYBERNETICS CONCEIVED OF SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF THE CONTINUOUS
TRANSFORMATION OF INPUTS INTO OUTPUTS THROUGH PROCESSES KNOWN AS
THROUGHPUTS.
• ORGANIZATION THEORISTS RECOGNIZED IMMEDIATELY THAT THIS APPLIED TO
ORGANIZATIONS AS WELL AS MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.
• ORGANIZATIONS TAKE IN RESOURCES (IN- PUTS) AND TRANSFORM THEM INTO
PRODUCTS OR SERVICES (OUTPUTS).
13. UNIVERSITIES, FOR EXAMPLE, RECEIVE INPUTS IN THE FORM OF MATERIALS,
INFORMATION, STAFF, AND STUDENTS, UTILIZE VARIOUS INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNIQUES TO EDUCATE STUDENTS, AND PRODUCE OUTPUTS IN THE FORM OF
GRADUATES.
THEY ALSO OBTAIN FEEDBACK FROM GRADUATES, PARENTS, AND EMPLOYERS
ABOUT HOW WELL THEY ARE DOING AND FROM THE ENVIRONMENT ABOUT
IMPENDING EXTERNAL CHANGES.
THIS FEEDBACK BECOMES AN INPUT FOR DETERMINING WHETHER CORRECTIVE
ACTION IS REQUIRED TO PRESERVE THE CHARACTER AND FUNCTIONING OF THE
UNIVERSITY.
• AS A RESULT OF THE INFLUENCE OF CYBERNETICS, MANY OPEN SYSTEMS
THEORISTS CAME TO VIEW ORGANIZATIONS AS SELF-REGULATING SYSTEMS
THAT MONITOR THEIR ENVIRONMENTS, IDENTIFY DEVIATIONS FROM THEIR
GOALS OR DESIRED STATES, AND ADJUST THEIR INTERNAL STRUCTURES, GOALS,
OR ENVIRONMENTS TO MAINTAIN SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM.
14. ECONOMIST KENNETH BOULDING PUBLISHED AN ARTICLE ENTITLED "GENERAL
SYSTEMS THEORY—THE SKELETON OF SCIENCE" IN 1956
MERGED WIENER'S CONCEPT OF CYBERNETICS WITH VON BERTALANFFY'S
CONCEPT OF GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY.
IDENTIFIED SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS OF SYSTEMS AND ARRANGED THEM
INTO A HIERARCHICAL FRAMEWORK COMPRISING NINE LEVELS, EACH
REPRESENTING AN INCREASINGLY HIGHER LEVEL OF COMPLEXITY.
THIS FRAMEWORK PLACED SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS AT LEVEL EIGHT, THE NEXT
TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL IN TERMS OF COMPLEXITY.
EMPHASIZED THAT WE HAVE VERY LITTLE THEORETICAL OR EMPIRICAL
KNOWLEDGE OF SYSTEMS AT THIS LEVEL AND, CONSEQUENTLY, WE ARE A VERY
LONG WAY FROM BEING ABLE TO CONSTRUCT MODELS THAT MIGHT ALLOW US
TO DIRECT AND CONTROL COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS.
15. • STAFFORD BEER EXPLORE THE IMPLICATIONS OF CYBERNETICS FOR
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE.
• DEVELOPED A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME COMPRISING SIX CLASSES OF SYSTEMS
RANGING FROM "SIMPLE DETERMINISTIC" TO "EXCEEDINGLY COMPLEX
PROBABILISTIC" SYSTEMS.
• PLACED ORGANIZATIONS INTO THE LATTER CATEGORY, REPRESENTING THE
HIGHEST DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY AND LOWEST DEGREE OF PREDICTABILITY.
• HE WROTE,THE TASK OF CYBERNETICS, IS TO DETERMINE HOW TO EXERCISE
CONTROL OVER SYSTEMS OF THIS KIND. SO THE PURPOSE OF MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS, FOR EXAMPLE, IS TO EXERCISE CONTROL OVER THE TRANSFORMATION
PROCESS.
IN THIS INSTANCE CONTROL DOES NOT REFER TO COERCIVE ACTS DESIGNED
TO CONTROL HUMAN BEHAVIOR BUT TO MECHANISMS DESIGNED TO ENSURE
THAT PERFORMANCE CONFORMS TO ESTABLISHED STANDARDS.
16. ACCORDING TO BEER
THE MODEL THAT MANAGEMENT PLANNERS CONSTRUCT TO DEPICT THE
TRANSFORMATION OF INPUTS TO OUTPUTS MUST CONTAIN A "BLACK BOX" AT ITS
CENTER BECAUSE THE WAY INPUTS ARE TRANSFORMED INTO OUTPUTS IS NOT
VISIBLE.
WE CAN NEITHER IDENTIFY ALL SYSTEM VARIABLES NOR DETERMINE HOW A
CHANGE IN ONE VARIABLE WILL AFFECT ALL OTHERS. MANAGEMENT MUST
EXPERIMENT WITH VARIOUS INTERVENTIONS, SEEK TO DISCERN BASIC PATTERNS,
AND ADJUST ITS MODEL ACCORDINGLY.
17. ROBERT SWINTH ALSO PIONEERED IN THE APPLICATION OF CYBERNETICS TO THE
DESIGN OF MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS.
CHARACTERIZED THE VARIOUS MECHANISMS BY WHICH INPUTS ARE CONVERTED
TO GOODS OR SERVICES AS THE ORGANIZATION'S SERVO-MECHANISM (OSM).THIS
REFERS TO THREE LINKED FUNCTIONS:
• THE OPERATIONS FUNCTION, BY WHICH RAW MATERIALS ARE CONVERTED INTO
OUTPUTS
• THE POLICY FUNCTION, BY WHICH FEEDBACK ABOUT HOW WELL THE PROCESS IS
ACHIEVING ITS GOALS IS TRANSLATED INTO SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• THE CONTROL FUNCTION, BY WHICH OPERATIONS ARE DIRECTED IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THESE OBJECTIVES.
18. IN SWINTH'S CYBERNETICS MODEL,
• DEMANDS ARE RECEIVED BY THE POLICY CENTER AND TRANSLATED INTO A SET OF
OBJECTIVES.
• THE POLICY CENTER THEN GIVES A CONTROL CENTER A PERFORMANCE STANDARD
TO MEET.
• THE CONTROL CENTER COMPARES DESIRED PERFORMANCE WITH ACTUAL
PERFORMANCE AND TAKES STEPS TO KEEP OPERATIONS AS NEAR AS POSSIBLE TO
DESIRED LEVELS.
ACCORDING TO SWINTH, IT IS THROUGH THE OPERATION OF SERVOMECHANISMS
THAT ORGANIZATIONS ACHIEVE EQUILIBRIUM OR HOMEOSTASIS.
IN HIS VIEW CYBERNETIC MODELS CAN ASSIST MANAGERS IN MAKING
ORGANIZATIONS MORE SELF-REGULATING AND MORE PREDICTABLE IN THEIR
OUTCOMES.
19. • BY THE CLOSE OF THE 1960S THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE HAD BECOME
THE DOMI NANT APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS DUE TO THE
PUBLICATION OF SUCH HIGHLY INFLUENTIAL WORKS AS
DANIEL KATZ AND ROBERT L. KAHN'S THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF
ORGANIZATIONS IN 1966
JAMES D.THOMPSON'S ORGANIZATIONS IN ACTION IN 1967.
20. THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF ORGANIZATIONS
• KATZ AND KAHN USED THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE TO INTEGRATE WHAT
WAS THEN KNOWN ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS.
• LIKE BARNARD, KATZ AND KAHN FOCUSED ON INTERNAL PROCESSES AND THE
IMPORTANCE OF MORALE AND MOTIVATION TO SYSTEM SURVIVAL.
• IN CONTRAST TO BARNARD, THEY ALSO PLACED A MUCH GREATER EMPHASIS
ON THE ROLE PLAYED BY ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES IN SHAPING
ORGANIZATIONAL NORMS, INTERNAL STRUCTURES, AND THE ORGANIZATION'S
ABILITY TO ATTRACT AND RETAIN COMMITTED EMPLOYEES.
21. ACCORDING TO KATZ AND KAHN,
CLASSICAL THEORISTS TENDED TO TREAT INTERNAL PROCESSES AS IF THEY WERE
UNAFFECTED BY CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND AS IF THEY COULD BE
MADE PERFECTLY PREDICTABLE AND CONTROLLED. WORKING FROM
MISCONCEPTIONS OF THIS KIND, CLASSICAL THEORISTS ENCOURAGED MANAGERS
TO BUILD RIGIDITIES INTO THE SYSTEM, THEREBY UNDERMINING THE
ORGANIZATION'S ABILITY TO RESPOND QUICKLY AND SUCCESSFULLY TO
CHANGING EXTERNAL CONDITIONS.
URGED THEORISTS AND PRACTITIONERS ALIKE TO VIEW ORGANIZATIONS AS OPEN
SYSTEMS AND TO INVESTIGATE THE EXTERNAL CAUSES OF INTERNAL STRESSES
AND STRAINS.
22. ORGANIZATIONS IN ACTION
• EVEN THE UNIVERSAL ASPECTS OF COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS, SUCH AS
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DIFFERENTIATION, VARY FROM ONE ORGANIZATION
TO THE NEXT, THOMPSON DEVELOPED A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR
INVESTIGATING THE CONDITIONS THAT EXPLAIN SYSTEM VARIATIONS.
• AS A SOCIOLOGIST, HE WAS MORE INTERESTED IN EXPLAINING THE BEHAVIOR OF
ORGANIZATIONS AS A WHOLE THAN THE BEHAVIORS THAT OCCUR WITHIN
ORGANIZATIONS.
HOW ORGANIZATIONS AS OPEN SYSTEMS MUST ENGAGE IN EXCHANGE
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER ORGANIZATIONS TO OBTAIN NEEDED RESOURCES OR
OUTLETS
HOW THE RESULTING DEPENDENCIES CAUSE ORGANIZATIONS TO DEVELOP
STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING THEIR DEPENDENCE, SUCH AS EXERTING CONTROL
OVER OTHER ORGANIZATIONS, EXPANDING THEIR BOUNDARIES, ALTERING THEIR
INTERNAL STRUCTURES, OR REDEFINING THEIR GOALS
23. ACCORDING TO THOMPSON
• IF SIMILAR PROBLEMS RESULT IN SIMILAR ADAPTIVE RESPONSES, IT SHOULD BE
POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY BASIC PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR.
ORGANIZATIONS IN ACTION OFFERED NINETY-THREE PROPOSITIONS FOR
INVESTIGATING THESE BASIC PATTERNS.
• THOMPSON WADED INTO THE DEBATE OVER THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF
ORGANIZATIONS.
ARE THEY, AS THE CLASSICAL THEORISTS IMPLY, RATIONAL, GOAL-ORIENTED
INSTRUMENTS THAT ARE DELIBERATELY DESIGNED TO BE AS EFFICIENT AND
PREDICTABLE AS POSSIBLE, OR ARE THEY, AS SOME NATURAL SYSTEMS
THEORISTS IMPLIED, LIVING ORGANISMS STRUGGLING TO SURVIVE IN THE FACE
OF UNCERTAINTY AND INCAPABLE OF BEHAVING IN PLANNED AND PREDICTABLE
WAYS? CONCLUDING THAT NEITHER MODEL ALONE PROVIDES AN ADEQUATE
UNDERSTANDING OF COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS
24. • HE PROPOSED A SYNTHESIS OF THE TWO PERSPECTIVES: ORGANIZATIONS ARE
SIMULTANEOUSLY PROBLEM-FACING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING ENTITIES.
• THIS SYNTHESIS CREATED A THIRD PERSPECTIVE TOWARD ORGANIZATIONAL
ANALYSIS THAT THOMPSON REFERRED TO GENERALLY AS THE OPEN SYSTEMS
PERSPECTIVE:
"FOR PURPOSES OF THIS VOLUME, THEN, WE WILL CONCEIVE OF COMPLEX
ORGANIZATIONS AS OPEN SYSTEMS, HENCE INDETERMINATE AND FACED WITH
UNCERTAINTY, BUT AT THE SAME TIME AS SUBJECT TO CRITERIA OF RATIONALITY
AND HENCE NEEDING DETERMINATENESS AND CERTAINTY."
25. • THOMPSON PROVIDED CONCRETENESS TO HIS SYNTHESIS OF RATIONAL AND
NATURAL SYSTEMS THEORY BY DRAWING UPON TALCOTT PARSON'S DISTINCTION
BETWEEN THREE ORGANIZATIONAL LEVELS OF RESPONSIBILITY AND CONTROL.
DECISIONS.
• THE TECHNICAL LEVEL, WHERE THE PRODUCTIVE WORK IS CARRIED OUT, ARE
GOVERNED BY THE NATURE OF THE PRODUCTIVE TASK. THIS LEVEL IS THE MOST
CLOSED OFF FROM EXTERNAL INFLUENCES AND A CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF
CERTAINTY AND CONTROL IS POSSIBLE.
• THE MANAGERIAL LEVEL REPRESENTS AN INTERMEDIATE LEVEL AT WHICH MANAGERS
ADDRESS INPUT AND OUTPUT IRREGULARITIES SO THAT THE TECHNICAL CORE CAN
OPERATE AS EFFICIENTLY AND PREDICTABLY AS POSSIBLE.
• THE INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL IS THAT LEVEL WHERE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE
ORGANIZATION AS A WHOLE IS HIGHEST AND THE POSSIBILITIES FOR CERTAINTY
AND CONTROL ARE THE LOWEST. AT THIS LEVEL EXECUTIVES PERFORM A
BOUNDARY-SPANNING ROLE IN WHICH THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR OBTAINING
RESOURCES, BUILDING ALLIANCES, AND DEALING WITH OUTPUT DISPOSAL PROBLEMS
BY ADJUSTING, OR ADAPTING TO, EXTERNAL FORCES.
• HE EMPHASIZED THAT, WHEREAS IT IS APPROPRIATE TO EMPLOY CLOSED SYSTEM
THINKING AT THE TECHNICAL LEVEL, IT IS NECESSARY TO EMPLOY OPEN SYSTEM
THINKING AT HIGHER LEVELS.
26. SOCIOTECHNICAL THEORY
• DEVELOPED IN THE 1950S OUT OF THE WORK OF FRED EMERY, ERICTRIST, AND THEIR
COLLEAGUES AT THE TAVISTOCK INSTITUTE OF HUMAN RELATIONS IN LONDON
• IN 1949 THE RECENTLY NATIONALIZED COAL INDUSTRY ASKED THE TAVISTOCK INSTITUTE TO
INVESTIGATE SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARISING FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
IN THE MINES.
• A SERIES OF STUDIES WERE CONDUCTED OVER A PERIOD OF TEN YEARS, RESULTING IN
TWENTY-FOUR PAPERS AND REPORTS, AND CULMINATING WITH THE PUBLICATION OF
ORGANIZATIONAL CHOICE BYTRIST AND HIS COLLEAGUES IN 1963.
• ALONG WITH RICE'S PARALLEL STUDY OF TEXTILE MILLS IN INDIA, THE COAL-MINING STUDIES
PRODUCED A METHOD FOR DIAGNOSING AND ADDRESSING ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEMS
THAT CAME TO BE KNOWN AS SOCIOTECHNICAL THEORY.
• IN A CONFERENCE PAPER DELIVERED IN 1959, EMERY AND TRIST PLACED THEIR RESEARCH
FINDINGS IN THE CON- TEXT OF OPEN SYSTEMS THEORY AND URGED FURTHER STUDY OF
ORGANIZATIONS AS "OPEN SOCIO-TECHNICAL SYSTEMS.“
• THE LATTER, THEY SUGGESTED, CONSTITUTED A NEW FIELD OF STUDY FOCUSING ON THE
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TECHNICAL AND HUMAN ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN THE
ORGANIZATION OF WORK ACTIVITIES.
27. SOCIOTECHNICAL THEORY FOCUSES
• THAT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS MUST BE VIEWED NOT AS TECHNICAL SYSTEMS,
NOR AS SOCIAL SYSTEMS, BUT AS BOTH AT ONCE.
• EACH PRODUCTION SYSTEM IS DEFINED BY THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
TWO SUBSYSTEMS, THE TECHNICAL ORGANIZATION, WHICH INCLUDES
MACHINERY, EQUIPMENT, AND SPECIFIC WORK PROCESSES, AND THE WORK
ORGANIZATION, WHICH STRUCTURES HOW WORKERS RELATE TO EACH OTHER
SOCIALLY AND PSYCHOLOGICALLY.
• THE DEGREE OF FIT BETWEEN THE WORK TECHNOLOGY AND THE
SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS BUILT INTO THE WORK ORGANIZATION.
• HIGH LEVELS OF PRODUCTIVITY CAN BE OBTAINED FROM A TECHNOLOGICAL
SYSTEM ONLY IF THE WORK ORGANIZATION IS DESIGNED IN A WAY THAT
PROVIDES COMPATIBLE SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL INCENTIVES AND
SATISFACTIONS.
28. SOCIOTECHNICAL THEORY
• EMPHASIS ON THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF TECHNICAL SYSTEMS (THE
SUBJECT OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY) AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS (THE
SUBJECT OF HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY).
• RELYING AS IT DOES ON THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE, IT EMPHASIZES THAT
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS REQUIRES AN OPTIMAL FIT BETWEEN THESE
TWO IMPORTANT SUBSYSTEMS.
• ALSO BROUGHT RENEWED ATTENTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF WORK DESIGN IN
GENERAL AND TO THE VALUE OF AUTONOMOUS WORK GROUPS IN PARTICULAR.
• CONCLUDED, FOR MANAGEMENT TO JOINTLY OPTIMIZE THE ORGANIZATION'S
HUMAN AND TECHNICAL SYSTEMS THROUGH THE CAREFUL DESIGN OF WORK
PROCESSES; MANAGEMENT MUST ALSO DO SO IN A WAY THAT POSITIONS THE
ORGANIZATION FOR CONTINUED SUCCESS IN ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.
29. STRUCTURAL CONTINGENCY THEORY
• UNDERLYING PREMISE OF STRUCTURAL CONTINGENCY THEORY IS THAT CHOICES ABOUT
STRUCTURE ARE CONTINGENT UPON IDENTIFIABLE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FACTORS.
• GOAL IS TO DETERMINE HOW TO STRUCTURE AN ORGANIZATION, GIVEN
CONTINGENCIES SUCH AS SIZE, TECHNOLOGY, STRATEGY FOR SUCCESS, AND DEGREE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITY.
• INVOLVES A SEARCH FOR THE OPTIMAL FIT BETWEEN THE STRUCTURE OF THE
ORGANIZATION AS A WHOLE, INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONTINGENCY FACTORS, AND
THE GOALS OF THE ORGANI- ZATION.
• HOLDS OUT HOPE THAT SOMEDAY IT MAY BE POSSIBLE TO PRESCRIBE A SPECIFIC
STRUCTURAL FORM FOR AN ORGANIZATION FROM ORGA-NIZATION-SPECIFIC
KNOWLEDGE OF ITS CONTINGENCY FACTORS.
• STRUCTURAL CONTINGENCY THEORY, WHICH HAS BECOME NEARLY SYNONYMOUS WITH
THE TERM MODERN ORGANIZATION THEORY, NOW COMPRISES AN ENORMOUS BODY OF
RESEARCH.
30. DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL
CONTINGENCY THEORY
• TOM BURNS: MECHANISTIC AND ORGANIC MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
• TOM BURNS, A RESEARCHER AT THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, STUDIED TWENTY ENGLISH
AND SCOTTISH FIRMS DURING THE 1950S, SEVERAL OF THEM IN PARTNERSHIP WITH G. M.
STALKER. MOST OF THESE WERE WELL-ESTABLISHED MANUFACTURING FIRMS ENTERING THE
FIELD OF ELECTRONICS FOR THE FIRST TIME. THE TASK BEFORE THEM WAS TO CONVERT THE
TECHNOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES OF THE WAR YEARS, SUCH AS RADAR, INTO ENTIRELY NEW
PRODUCTS FOR WHICH THERE WERE AS YET NO MARKETS OR CUSTOMERS.
• THIS UNIQUE SITUATION PROVIDED BURNS AND STALKER WITH AN OPPORTUNITY TO STUDY
WHAT HAPPENS TO ORGANIZATIONS WHEN THEY MOVE FROM AN ENVIRONMENT
CHARACTERIZED BY RELATIVE STABILITY TO ONE CHARACTERIZED BY CONSTANT
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE AND UNCERTAINTY.
• THEIR FINDINGS WERE PUBLISHED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF INNOVATION IN 1961.
• THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN THEIR STUDY IS THE ORGANIZATION'S MANAGEMENT SYSTEM,
WHEREAS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, OR CONTINGENCY FACTOR, IS THE DEGREE OF
STABILITY IN THE ORGANIZATION'S EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
31. BURNS AND STALKER
• IDENTIFIED WHAT THEY BELIEVED WAS A CONTINUUM OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS WITH TWO
"IDEAL TYPES" AT EITHER END: MECHANISTIC AND ORGANIC.
• NO FIRM CONFORMED COMPLETELY TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EITHER OF THESE TYPES,
BUT THEY TENDED TOWARD ONE OR THE OTHER DEPENDING UPON WHETHER THEIR
ENVIRONMENTS WERE RELATIVELY STABLE OR CONSTANTLY CHANGING
• CONCLUDED THAT THE MECHANISTIC SYSTEM IS APPROPRIATE TO STABLE CONDITIONS, BEING
BOTH EFFICIENT IN ITS USE OF INDIVIDUAL EFFORT AND EFFECTIVE IN SECURING DESIRED
LEVELS OF PRODUCTIVITY. IT DOES NOT WORK WELL, HOWEVER, WHERE CONDITIONS ARE
CONSTANTLY CHANGING.
• CONCLUDED THAT ORGANIC SYSTEMS ARE APPROPRIATE WHERE DECISIONS CANNOT BE
PROGRAMMED BY THOSE AT THE TOP BECAUSE OF THE RAPID PACE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGE. IT IS A SYSTEM FOR HANDLING NONPROGRAMMED DECISION MAKING IN WHICH
COORDINATION IS ACHIEVED THROUGH SHARED BELIEFS AND A SENSE OF COLLECTIVE
RESPONSIBILITY. BECAUSE WORKERS CLOSEST TO THE PROBLEM CAN RESPOND TO CHANGING
CONDITIONS QUICKLY AND FLEXIBLY, THE ORGANIC SYSTEM IS CAPABLE OF MUCH GREATER
ADAPTATION TO CHANGE THAN THE MECHANISTIC SYSTEM.
• INSISTED THAT EACH ORGANIZATION MUST FIND A PLACE ON THE CONTINUUM BETWEEN THE
TWO EXTREMES THAT IS MOST APPROPRIATE TO ITS SITUATION
32. JOAN WOODWARD: TECHNOLOGY'S INFLUENCE ON
STRUCTURE
• IN 1953 JOAN WOODWARD, AN INDUSTRIAL SOCIOLOGIST AT SOUTH EAST ESSEX
COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ENGLAND, RECEIVED A FOUR-YEAR GRANT FROM
THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RELATIONS IN INDUSTRY TO INVESTIGATE THE
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS ARISING FROM THE USE OF NEW
TECHNOLOGIES.
• THE RESEARCH PROJECT TOOK THE FORM OF A BROAD SURVEY OF THE
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ONE HUNDRED FIRMS IN SOUTH ESSEX.
• A REPORT OF THE INITIAL FINDINGS, PUBLISHED IN 1958, CREATED QUITE A STIR.
• INDICATED THAT FIRMS ORGANIZED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES OF
CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORY WERE NOT ALWAYS THE MOST SUCCESSFUL
AND THAT ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNERS WHO FOLLOWED CLASSICAL PRINCIPLES
OFTEN DID MORE HARM THAN GOOD.
33. • IN 1965 WOODWARD PUBLISHED INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE,
WHICH PRESENTED THE FINDINGS OF THE ORIGINAL STUDY ALONG WITH FOLLOW-UP
STUDIES COMPLETED AFTER SHE MOVED TO THE IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN 1958.
• THE NOW WELL-KNOWN CONCLUSION DERIVED FROM WOODWARD'S STUDY IS THAT THERE
IS NO ONE BEST WAY TO ORGANIZE.
• COMMERCIAL SUCCESS DEPENDS NOT ON ANY ONE TYPE OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
BUT ON THE DEGREE OF FIT BETWEEN A FIRM'S ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND
TECHNICAL MEANS OF PRODUCTION.
• HER FINDINGS SUGGESTED THAT, IF THERE IS NO ONE BEST ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE,
THERE IS ONE THAT IS BEST SUITED TO EACH TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY.
• WOODWARD CONCLUDED THAT "DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES IMPOSED DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DEMANDS ON INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS, AND THESE DEMANDS HAD TO BE MET
THROUGH AN APPROPRIATE STRUCTURE.“
• WOODWARD NOTED THAT ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE HAS TWO FUNCTIONS: TO
DISTRIBUTE AUTHORITY AND COORDINATE WORK, AND TO CREATE A NETWORK OF SOCIAL
RELATIONSHIPS. HER RESEARCH INDICATED THAT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE TWO
FUNCTIONS VARIES WITH TECHNOLOGY.
34. STRUCTURAL CONTINGENCY FACTORS
• A CONTINGENCY FACTOR IS A VARIABLE THAT SPECIFIES WHAT STRUCTURAL
ARRANGEMENTS ARE BEST SUITED TO AN ORGANIZATION, GIVEN THE
SITUATION IN WHICH IT FINDS ITSELF.
• THIS MEANS THAT FOR ANY LEVEL OF A CONTINGENCY FACTOR, HIGH OR LOW,
THERE IS A CORRESPONDING LEVEL OF SOME STRUCTURAL DIMENSION THAT IS
MOST APPROPRIATE.
CONTINGENCY FACTORS
• ENVIRONMENTAL UNCERTAINTY
• TECHNOLOGY
• SIZE
• STRATEGY
• RESOURCE DEPENDENCE
• PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY
35. STRUCTURAL DIMENSIONS
• MANAGEMENT LEVELS
• SPAN OF CONTROL
• CENTRALIZATION
• FORMALIZATION
• STANDARDIZATION
• SPECIALIZATION (ROLE AND FUNCTION)
• WORK DESIGN
• CONFLICT RESOLUTION METHODS
• REWARD AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
• INFORMATION PROCESSING METHODS
• MANAGEMENT STYLE
• APEX STRUCTURE (EG, DIVISIONALIZATION)
36. • CONTINGENCY THEORY ALSO REINFORCED THE VIEW THAT ORGANIZATIONS ARE
• BOTH RATIONAL, PURPOSEFUL SYSTEMS SEEKING TO ACHIEVE ESTABLISHED
OBJECTIVES AND OPEN SYSTEMS ADAPTING THEIR GOALS AND STRUCTURES AS
NEEDED TO FUNCTION EFFECTIVELY IN AN UNCERTAIN ENVIRONMENT.
ALTHOUGH ORGANIZATION THEORY MOVED IN NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE 1970S AND
1980S, MANY THEORISTS CONTINUE TO VIEW STRUCTURAL CONTINGENCY THEORY AS
THE CENTRAL, OVERARCHING PARADIGM IN ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
CONTINGENCY THEORY BROUGHT AN END TO THE DOMINANCE OF CLASSICAL
MANAGEMENT THEORY, AND ALSO RENEWED INTEREST IN THE FIELD OF
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN.
THE CENTRAL PREMISE OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN SCHOOL IS THAT MANAGERS
CAN AND SHOULD DESIGN THEIR OR- GANIZATIONS SO AS TO MAINTAIN AN
APPROPRIATE FIT BETWEEN TASK ENVIRONMENT, STRATEGY, AND STRUCTURE, THEREBY
ASSURING CONTINUED ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS.
37. OPEN SYSTEM THEORY
• A MODERN SYSTEMS-BASED CHANGED MANAGEMENT THEORY
• DESIGNED TO CREATE A HEALTHY, INNOVATIVE AND RESILIENT ORGANIZATIONS
AND COMMUNITIES IN TODAY’S FAST CHANGING AND UNPREDICTABLE
ENVIRONMENT
• ORGANIZATIONS CONDUCT THEIR TASK AND INFLUENCE OR CHANGE THEIR
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT ALSO BEING INFLUENCED BY EXTERNAL CHANGES IN
LOCAL OR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
• TWO WAY INFLUENTIAL CHANGE CALLED ACTIVE ADAPTIVE CHANGE.
• AN OPEN SYSTEM MUST HAVE AN OPEN AND ADAPTIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH ITS
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT TO ENSURE VIABILITY.
38. • A DIRECT CORRELATION WITH RESPECT TO CHANGING VALUES AND
EXPECTATIONS OVER TIME WITH ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.
• THIS SYSTEM IS BEING UTILIZED BY MANY SUCCESSFUL ORGANISATIONS,
INCLUDING CORPORATE GIANTS SUCH AS MICROSOFT AND HEWLETT PACKARD.
• PEOPLE TOO ARE OPEN SYSTEMS THROUGH THEIR ACTIONS THEY INFLUENCE OR
CHANGE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ALSO CONSTANTLY BEING INFLUENCED
BY THE ENVIRONMENT
• FROM AN EMPLOYEE’S PERSPECTIVE, THE ORGANIZATION ITSELF IS THERE
IMMEDIATE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
• AGGREGATED EFFECT OF THIS INFLUENTIAL CHANGE BETWEEN PEOPLE, THEIR
ORGANIZATION AND THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT IS CALLED SOCIO-
ECOLOGICAL CHANGE.
• SOCIO ECOLOGICAL CHANGE IS RELENTLESS AND INCREASING EXPONENTIALLY
IN TODAY’S GLOBALIZED AND NETWORKED WORLD.
39. RELEVANCE TO THE PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
• THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE RECOGNIZES THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF
ALL FOUR MODELS OF EFFECTIVENESS IN QUINN'S COMPETING VALUES
FRAMEWORK.
• FROM THE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE THE EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION IS ONE
THAT SATISFIES ALL OF PARSONS' FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES IN A BALANCED
FASHION, DEPENDING ON THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES THAT IT
FACES.
40. MECHANISMS FOR COORDINATING
AND CONTROLLING WORK ACTIVITIES
• NO PARTICULAR MECHANISM FOR COORDINATING AND CONTROLLING WORK
ACTIVITIES IS HIGH- LIGHTED BECAUSE SYSTEMS ANALYSIS ASSUMES THAT ALL
SUCH MECHANISMS OR SOME COMBINATION OF THEM MUST BE EMPLOYED TO
ACHIEVE AN OPTIMAL FIT AMONG THE ORGANIZATION'S SUBSYSTEMS AND
BETWEEN THE ORGANIZATION AND ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.
SIX MECHANISMS FOR COORDINATING AND CONTROLLING WORK ACTIVITIES
41. MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
• NO PARTICULAR MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGY IS HIGHLIGHTED BECAUSE OPEN
SYSTEMS THEORY HOLDS THAT IT IS MANAGEMENT'S TASK TO IDENTIFY THE
COMBINATION OF STRATEGIES THAT IS MOST APPROPRIATE TO THE
ORGANIZATION'S INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL REALITIES.
42. IMPLICATIONS
• CONTINGENCY THINKING.
• PUBLIC MANAGERS SHOULD THINK CAREFULLY ABOUT THE CONTINGENCIES
AFFECTING HOW THEY ORGANIZE FOR SUCCESS. THEY SHOULD, FOR EXAMPLE,
THINK ABOUT THE NATURE OF THEIR AGENCY'S CORE TECHNOLOGY.
• THEY SHOULD THINK CAREFULLY ABOUT THEIR BOUNDARY-SPANNING
• IT REMINDS PUBLIC MANAGERS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING COALITIONS
OF POLITICAL SUPPORT AND SUCCESSFULLY MANAGING THE MANY
DEPENDENCIES THAT ARE A NATURAL AND NECESSARY COMPONENT OF
OPERATING IN HIGHLY POLITICIZED ENVIRONMENTS.
43. STRATEGIC PLANNING.
• PUBLIC MANAGERS NEED TO LEARN TO THINK AND PLAN STRATEGICALLY.
• THROUGH DELIBERATE AND THOUGHTFUL STRATEGIC PLANNING, PUBLIC
MANAGERS CAN ENGAGE MEMBERS OF THE AGENCY IN FINDING AND
SUSTAINING A GOOD FIT BETWEEN ITS MISSION AND STRATEGIES, ITS INTERNAL
SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES, AND THE FORCES IN ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
THAT CREATE BOTH OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS.
44. • THE EDUCATIONAL REFORMS OF THE 1980S AND 1990S, IN BRITAIN AND
ELSEWHERE, HAVE INCREASED THE SALIENCE OF THE OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL.
• SCHOOLS HAVE TO COMPETE FOR PUPILS AND THEIR INCOME IS TIED CLOSELY
TO THEIR LEVELS OF RECRUITMENT.
• TO BE ATTRACTIVE TO POTENTIAL PARENTS, IT IS IMPORTANT TO BE
RESPONSIVE TO THEIR REQUIREMENTS.
• THIS CAN LEAD TO PERMEABLE BOUNDARIES WITH PARENTS AND OTHERS
INFLUENCING SCHOOL POLICIES AND PRIORITIES.
45. CONCLUSION
• ALTHOUGH SYSTEMS RESEARCH HAS INCREASED OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
RELATION- SHIPS AMONG ENVIRONMENT, STRUCTURE, AND PERFORMANCE, IT
HAS ALSO INCREASED OUR APPRECIATION OF THE DIFFICULTIES INHERENT IN
SEEKING TO UNDERSTAND ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS HOLISTICALLY.
• BUT IF OPEN SYSTEMS THEORY HAS FAILED THUS FAR TO PRODUCE A GENERAL
SYSTEMS MODEL CAPABLE OF PREDICTING AND CONTROLLING
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, IT NONETHELESS PROVIDES PUBLIC MANAGERS
WITH AN IMPLICIT THEORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVE- NESS. THE
SUCCESSFUL AGENCY IS ONE THAT FINDS AN "OPTIMAL FIT" BETWEEN ITS
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, ITS ENVIRONMENT, AND WHAT IT SEEKS TO
ACHIEVE.
Nonetheless, organization theorists were greatly influenced by the concepts of feedback and self-regulation and by the assumption that organizational performance cannot be predicted or controlled with certainty.