Nutrition and respiration are essential life processes. Nutrition involves taking in nutrients from food to provide energy and materials for growth through processes like ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. There are two main types of nutrition - autotrophic where organisms produce their own food (like plants) and heterotrophic where food is obtained from other organisms. Respiration is the process by which living beings break down food to release energy. It involves breaking down glucose and pyruvate through aerobic and anaerobic pathways to produce energy molecules like ATP. Exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide is also crucial for aerobic respiration.
Lect. 3 (microbial nutrition and cultivation)Osama Rifat
Microbial growth conditions depend on various nutrients and environmental factors. Microorganisms require macronutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients in small amounts. They also need growth factors like vitamins and amino acids. Temperature, pH, and oxygen levels influence microbial growth. Pure cultures can be isolated using techniques like streak plating that allow single microbial cells to grow into separate colonies.
This document discusses different modes of nutrition in living organisms. It describes autotrophic nutrition, which occurs in organisms like plants that can synthesize their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. It also describes heterotrophic nutrition, where organisms obtain organic carbon from other living things. Heterotrophic nutrition includes saprophytic, parasitic, and holozoic (animal) modes. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds like carbohydrates. It takes place in chloroplasts in plant cells.
This document summarizes key concepts from chapters 6-8 of a microbiology textbook including:
- The essential nutrients required by microbes including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
- The chemical composition of E. coli and what microbes use as energy and carbon sources, categorizing them as autotrophs and heterotrophs.
- The processes of osmosis, diffusion, and endocytosis that transport substances into and out of cells.
- Temperature categories for microbes like psychrophiles, psychrotrophs and how gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide influence microbial growth.
This document discusses microbial nutrition, including macronutrients, micronutrients, growth factors, and environmental factors that influence microbial growth. It explains that microbes require carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and other minerals as macronutrients, and trace amounts of metals like iron and zinc as micronutrients. The document also classifies microbes based on their carbon, energy, and electron sources, and lists examples like phototrophs, chemotrophs, lithotrophs, and organotrophs. Finally, it describes various mechanisms that microbes use to transport nutrients into cells, such as passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, group translocation, and
The document discusses classifying microbes based on their metabolic requirements and laboratory techniques used for culturing bacteria. It covers Robert Koch's pioneering work developing strategies for cultivating bacteria. It describes the four phases of bacterial growth in laboratory conditions. Key techniques discussed include obtaining pure cultures using streak plating on semi-solid agar media, and maintaining and storing stock cultures.
This document provides information about biochemical processes and molecules involved in living organisms. It discusses how molecular biology explains living processes in terms of chemical substances like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It also describes the roles of anabolism in building complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions, and catabolism in breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones through hydrolysis reactions. Key molecules involved in these processes like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are illustrated through molecular diagrams.
Lect. 3 (microbial nutrition and cultivation)Osama Rifat
Microbial growth conditions depend on various nutrients and environmental factors. Microorganisms require macronutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients in small amounts. They also need growth factors like vitamins and amino acids. Temperature, pH, and oxygen levels influence microbial growth. Pure cultures can be isolated using techniques like streak plating that allow single microbial cells to grow into separate colonies.
This document discusses different modes of nutrition in living organisms. It describes autotrophic nutrition, which occurs in organisms like plants that can synthesize their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. It also describes heterotrophic nutrition, where organisms obtain organic carbon from other living things. Heterotrophic nutrition includes saprophytic, parasitic, and holozoic (animal) modes. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds like carbohydrates. It takes place in chloroplasts in plant cells.
This document summarizes key concepts from chapters 6-8 of a microbiology textbook including:
- The essential nutrients required by microbes including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
- The chemical composition of E. coli and what microbes use as energy and carbon sources, categorizing them as autotrophs and heterotrophs.
- The processes of osmosis, diffusion, and endocytosis that transport substances into and out of cells.
- Temperature categories for microbes like psychrophiles, psychrotrophs and how gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide influence microbial growth.
This document discusses microbial nutrition, including macronutrients, micronutrients, growth factors, and environmental factors that influence microbial growth. It explains that microbes require carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and other minerals as macronutrients, and trace amounts of metals like iron and zinc as micronutrients. The document also classifies microbes based on their carbon, energy, and electron sources, and lists examples like phototrophs, chemotrophs, lithotrophs, and organotrophs. Finally, it describes various mechanisms that microbes use to transport nutrients into cells, such as passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, group translocation, and
The document discusses classifying microbes based on their metabolic requirements and laboratory techniques used for culturing bacteria. It covers Robert Koch's pioneering work developing strategies for cultivating bacteria. It describes the four phases of bacterial growth in laboratory conditions. Key techniques discussed include obtaining pure cultures using streak plating on semi-solid agar media, and maintaining and storing stock cultures.
This document provides information about biochemical processes and molecules involved in living organisms. It discusses how molecular biology explains living processes in terms of chemical substances like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It also describes the roles of anabolism in building complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions, and catabolism in breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones through hydrolysis reactions. Key molecules involved in these processes like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are illustrated through molecular diagrams.
This document discusses chemolithotrophs, which are organisms that obtain energy from oxidizing inorganic or organic compounds. It notes that chemolithotrophs, also called chemolithoautotrophs, were first studied by Sergei Winogradsky in sulfur bacteria. Chemolithotrophs face challenges due to the lower energy availability from oxidizing inorganic compounds compared to organics, and solutions include oxidizing more substrate and using reverse electron flow. The document categorizes chemolithotrophs as aerobic, using oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, or anaerobic, using other compounds besides oxygen.
1) Living things are made up of carbon-containing molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules are made through metabolic pathways that involve breaking down (catabolism) and building up (anabolism) smaller molecules.
2) Water is essential for life due to its unique properties. It is polar and can form hydrogen bonds between molecules. It also has a high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, allowing it to absorb and release large amounts of heat without major temperature changes.
3) Metabolism involves both anabolic and catabolic pathways. Anabolism uses energy to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones through condensation reactions. Catabolism breaks down larger
The document provides an overview of key concepts in ecology and living environment including:
1) Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment, which can be studied at different levels from organisms to ecosystems.
2) Abiotic and biotic factors influence the distribution of organisms and determine an ecosystem's carrying capacity.
3) Photosynthesis uses light energy to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water, while cellular respiration releases energy from sugars to produce ATP.
1) Life exists at the intersection of biology and chemistry, with carbon-based macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids being key to life.
2) These biomolecules are extremely complex and made up of carbon bonded to other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in various arrangements.
3) While life manifests at the micro scale of cells and the mega scale of the biosphere, it is sustained at the nano scale through the interactions of biomolecules and the process of metabolism that utilizes energy to maintain order.
Chemoautotrophs and photosynthetic eubacteriaramukhan
Chemolithotrophs are bacteria or archaea that derive energy from inorganic chemical reactions. They can synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide using inorganic energy sources like hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, ferrous iron, or molecular hydrogen. Most chemolithotrophs are found in extreme environments like deep sea vents or volcanoes. They include nitrifying bacteria that play a key role in the nitrogen cycle, as well as bacteria that oxidize hydrogen, iron, or sulfur. The process of chemolithotrophy allows these organisms to act as primary producers in ecosystems where organic material is scarce.
Energy from visible radiation-Cyanobacteria JerimonPJ
Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are photosynthetic prokaryotes that evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. They contain chlorophyll and accessory pigments that allow them to perform oxygenic photosynthesis using two photosystems. This generates ATP through cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation. Cyanobacteria have diverse applications including nitrogen fixation in agriculture, production of anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial compounds, and use as a nutritional supplement.
This document discusses sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and their chemolithotrophic metabolism. It provides details on various sulfur-oxidizing bacteria such as Beggiatoa, Thiobacillus, Sulfolobus, and Thiomicrospira. It explains that these bacteria are able to use reduced inorganic sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide as electron donors to generate energy through electron transport phosphorylation. The oxidation of these compounds produces sulfuric acid. It also notes that while most sulfur oxidation is aerobic, some bacteria can perform this process anaerobically using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor.
This document summarizes the key topics covered in Chapter 1 of a biochemistry textbook. It introduces the basic chemical elements that make up living organisms, important biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. It describes the structures of DNA and RNA, as well as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure. It also discusses energy flow in living systems, the evolution of life, and how biochemistry draws from other disciplines like chemistry, physics, genetics and more.
The document provides an overview of the Regents Exam for Living Environment in New York State. It is broken into four parts worth a total of 85 points. Part A covers general knowledge multiple choice, Part B applies knowledge through multiple choice and drawing graphs, Part C applies material to real world situations through short answer, and Part D pertains to labs performed during the school year through multiple choice and short answer. The exam covers 10 main topics including chemistry of living things, cells, nutrition/photosynthesis/respiration, the human body, reproduction, genetics, evolution, ecology, and state labs. Answers must be written in permanent pen without errors.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology including:
- The chemical basis of life including organic/inorganic compounds and the role of energy from photosynthesis and respiration.
- Ecosystems are made up of communities of interacting species and their abiotic environment. Food chains and ecological pyramids show how energy and matter are transferred between trophic levels.
- Material cycles like the carbon and water cycles recycle nutrients and maintain the flow of matter and energy in ecosystems.
This document discusses the nutritional requirements of microbes. It explains that microbes require a variety of essential elements for growth and development, including carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Nutrients can be classified as macro or micronutrients. Macro nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus make up 95% of a microbial cell's dry weight. Carbon is particularly important as the main constituent of organic materials. Microbes also require trace elements and growth factors. The document describes different types of microbes based on their carbon, energy, and electron sources, including photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, heterotrophs, and more. Saprophytic, symbiotic, and
Light energy is converted to chemical energy through photosynthesis. In the light-dependent reactions, light is absorbed by chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes which generates excited electrons. These electrons are used to produce ATP and NADPH. In the light-independent reactions that occur in the chloroplast stroma, CO2 is fixed into carbohydrates using ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions. The structure of the chloroplast, including the thylakoid membranes, is adapted to efficiently carry out these photosynthetic reactions.
The document provides an overview of the key topics covered on the Regents Exam for Living Environment. It is broken down into 4 parts testing different skills. Part A covers general knowledge multiple choice, Part B applies knowledge through multiple choice and drawing a graph, Part C applies material to real world situations through short answer, and Part D pertains to labs through multiple choice and short answer. The exam must be taken in permanent pen and mistakes cannot be erased. The rest of the document outlines 10 main topics that will be covered on the exam, providing details on the key concepts within each topic like chemistry of living things, cells, nutrition, and genetics.
Biology - 101 things to know about biologyMr. Walajtys
This document provides a 101-item list summarizing key concepts in biology. Some of the main topics covered in the first few items include the seven main life functions, the levels of biological classification from kingdom to species, and the basic components and functions of cells. The list then delves into various biological concepts such as photosynthesis, the three main macromolecules, enzyme function, plant and animal nutrition, cell transport mechanisms, and human digestive and circulatory systems.
Bacteria require a variety of nutrients including carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, metal ions, vitamins, and water. They obtain these nutrients through different modes of nutrition. Autotrophic bacteria can synthesize their own nutrients from inorganic sources using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophic bacteria rely on organic compounds from other organisms. Heterotrophs include saprophytes that decompose dead matter, parasites that live in or on other organisms, and symbionts that have mutualistic relationships.
The document discusses life processes and nutrition in living organisms. It defines seven life processes - movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion and nutrition. There are two main modes of nutrition - autotrophic nutrition, where organisms produce their own food (e.g. photosynthesis in plants), and heterotrophic nutrition, where food is obtained from other organisms. The human digestive system is also described, which takes in food and breaks it down through a series of organs so nutrients can be absorbed and waste removed.
The process of nutrition in amoeba involves ingestion of food particles using pseudopodia, digestion of the food within a food vacuole by enzymes, absorption of digested materials into the cytoplasm, assimilation of nutrients to gain energy and materials for growth and repair, and egestion of undigested waste. Nutrition in humans similarly involves ingestion through the mouth, digestion of food through secretion of enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, absorption of digested nutrients in the small intestine, assimilation of nutrients by cells, and egestion of undigested waste through the large intestine and rectum.
The document discusses several life processes including nutrition, respiration, and transportation. It describes in detail:
- The different modes of nutrition including autotrophic, heterotrophic, saprotrophic, parasitic, and holozoic.
- How photosynthesis and respiration work in plants and animals, including the processes, reactants, and products.
- How the circulatory system transports nutrients, gases, and wastes throughout the body using the heart and blood vessels. Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood to efficiently deliver oxygen to tissues.
This document provides an overview of various life processes including nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, and reproduction. It describes in detail the processes of nutrition, photosynthesis, respiration, and the human digestive and circulatory systems. For nutrition, it explains the different types of nutrients, the steps of digestion and absorption in humans, and photosynthesis in plants. For respiration, it discusses the gas exchange in animals and plants, and aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. It also provides a brief introduction to the transportation and circulation systems in humans.
This document discusses chemolithotrophs, which are organisms that obtain energy from oxidizing inorganic or organic compounds. It notes that chemolithotrophs, also called chemolithoautotrophs, were first studied by Sergei Winogradsky in sulfur bacteria. Chemolithotrophs face challenges due to the lower energy availability from oxidizing inorganic compounds compared to organics, and solutions include oxidizing more substrate and using reverse electron flow. The document categorizes chemolithotrophs as aerobic, using oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, or anaerobic, using other compounds besides oxygen.
1) Living things are made up of carbon-containing molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules are made through metabolic pathways that involve breaking down (catabolism) and building up (anabolism) smaller molecules.
2) Water is essential for life due to its unique properties. It is polar and can form hydrogen bonds between molecules. It also has a high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, allowing it to absorb and release large amounts of heat without major temperature changes.
3) Metabolism involves both anabolic and catabolic pathways. Anabolism uses energy to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones through condensation reactions. Catabolism breaks down larger
The document provides an overview of key concepts in ecology and living environment including:
1) Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment, which can be studied at different levels from organisms to ecosystems.
2) Abiotic and biotic factors influence the distribution of organisms and determine an ecosystem's carrying capacity.
3) Photosynthesis uses light energy to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water, while cellular respiration releases energy from sugars to produce ATP.
1) Life exists at the intersection of biology and chemistry, with carbon-based macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids being key to life.
2) These biomolecules are extremely complex and made up of carbon bonded to other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in various arrangements.
3) While life manifests at the micro scale of cells and the mega scale of the biosphere, it is sustained at the nano scale through the interactions of biomolecules and the process of metabolism that utilizes energy to maintain order.
Chemoautotrophs and photosynthetic eubacteriaramukhan
Chemolithotrophs are bacteria or archaea that derive energy from inorganic chemical reactions. They can synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide using inorganic energy sources like hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, ferrous iron, or molecular hydrogen. Most chemolithotrophs are found in extreme environments like deep sea vents or volcanoes. They include nitrifying bacteria that play a key role in the nitrogen cycle, as well as bacteria that oxidize hydrogen, iron, or sulfur. The process of chemolithotrophy allows these organisms to act as primary producers in ecosystems where organic material is scarce.
Energy from visible radiation-Cyanobacteria JerimonPJ
Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are photosynthetic prokaryotes that evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. They contain chlorophyll and accessory pigments that allow them to perform oxygenic photosynthesis using two photosystems. This generates ATP through cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation. Cyanobacteria have diverse applications including nitrogen fixation in agriculture, production of anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial compounds, and use as a nutritional supplement.
This document discusses sulfur-oxidizing bacteria and their chemolithotrophic metabolism. It provides details on various sulfur-oxidizing bacteria such as Beggiatoa, Thiobacillus, Sulfolobus, and Thiomicrospira. It explains that these bacteria are able to use reduced inorganic sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide as electron donors to generate energy through electron transport phosphorylation. The oxidation of these compounds produces sulfuric acid. It also notes that while most sulfur oxidation is aerobic, some bacteria can perform this process anaerobically using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor.
This document summarizes the key topics covered in Chapter 1 of a biochemistry textbook. It introduces the basic chemical elements that make up living organisms, important biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. It describes the structures of DNA and RNA, as well as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure. It also discusses energy flow in living systems, the evolution of life, and how biochemistry draws from other disciplines like chemistry, physics, genetics and more.
The document provides an overview of the Regents Exam for Living Environment in New York State. It is broken into four parts worth a total of 85 points. Part A covers general knowledge multiple choice, Part B applies knowledge through multiple choice and drawing graphs, Part C applies material to real world situations through short answer, and Part D pertains to labs performed during the school year through multiple choice and short answer. The exam covers 10 main topics including chemistry of living things, cells, nutrition/photosynthesis/respiration, the human body, reproduction, genetics, evolution, ecology, and state labs. Answers must be written in permanent pen without errors.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology including:
- The chemical basis of life including organic/inorganic compounds and the role of energy from photosynthesis and respiration.
- Ecosystems are made up of communities of interacting species and their abiotic environment. Food chains and ecological pyramids show how energy and matter are transferred between trophic levels.
- Material cycles like the carbon and water cycles recycle nutrients and maintain the flow of matter and energy in ecosystems.
This document discusses the nutritional requirements of microbes. It explains that microbes require a variety of essential elements for growth and development, including carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Nutrients can be classified as macro or micronutrients. Macro nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus make up 95% of a microbial cell's dry weight. Carbon is particularly important as the main constituent of organic materials. Microbes also require trace elements and growth factors. The document describes different types of microbes based on their carbon, energy, and electron sources, including photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, heterotrophs, and more. Saprophytic, symbiotic, and
Light energy is converted to chemical energy through photosynthesis. In the light-dependent reactions, light is absorbed by chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes which generates excited electrons. These electrons are used to produce ATP and NADPH. In the light-independent reactions that occur in the chloroplast stroma, CO2 is fixed into carbohydrates using ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions. The structure of the chloroplast, including the thylakoid membranes, is adapted to efficiently carry out these photosynthetic reactions.
The document provides an overview of the key topics covered on the Regents Exam for Living Environment. It is broken down into 4 parts testing different skills. Part A covers general knowledge multiple choice, Part B applies knowledge through multiple choice and drawing a graph, Part C applies material to real world situations through short answer, and Part D pertains to labs through multiple choice and short answer. The exam must be taken in permanent pen and mistakes cannot be erased. The rest of the document outlines 10 main topics that will be covered on the exam, providing details on the key concepts within each topic like chemistry of living things, cells, nutrition, and genetics.
Biology - 101 things to know about biologyMr. Walajtys
This document provides a 101-item list summarizing key concepts in biology. Some of the main topics covered in the first few items include the seven main life functions, the levels of biological classification from kingdom to species, and the basic components and functions of cells. The list then delves into various biological concepts such as photosynthesis, the three main macromolecules, enzyme function, plant and animal nutrition, cell transport mechanisms, and human digestive and circulatory systems.
Bacteria require a variety of nutrients including carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, metal ions, vitamins, and water. They obtain these nutrients through different modes of nutrition. Autotrophic bacteria can synthesize their own nutrients from inorganic sources using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophic bacteria rely on organic compounds from other organisms. Heterotrophs include saprophytes that decompose dead matter, parasites that live in or on other organisms, and symbionts that have mutualistic relationships.
The document discusses life processes and nutrition in living organisms. It defines seven life processes - movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion and nutrition. There are two main modes of nutrition - autotrophic nutrition, where organisms produce their own food (e.g. photosynthesis in plants), and heterotrophic nutrition, where food is obtained from other organisms. The human digestive system is also described, which takes in food and breaks it down through a series of organs so nutrients can be absorbed and waste removed.
The process of nutrition in amoeba involves ingestion of food particles using pseudopodia, digestion of the food within a food vacuole by enzymes, absorption of digested materials into the cytoplasm, assimilation of nutrients to gain energy and materials for growth and repair, and egestion of undigested waste. Nutrition in humans similarly involves ingestion through the mouth, digestion of food through secretion of enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, absorption of digested nutrients in the small intestine, assimilation of nutrients by cells, and egestion of undigested waste through the large intestine and rectum.
The document discusses several life processes including nutrition, respiration, and transportation. It describes in detail:
- The different modes of nutrition including autotrophic, heterotrophic, saprotrophic, parasitic, and holozoic.
- How photosynthesis and respiration work in plants and animals, including the processes, reactants, and products.
- How the circulatory system transports nutrients, gases, and wastes throughout the body using the heart and blood vessels. Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood to efficiently deliver oxygen to tissues.
This document provides an overview of various life processes including nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, and reproduction. It describes in detail the processes of nutrition, photosynthesis, respiration, and the human digestive and circulatory systems. For nutrition, it explains the different types of nutrients, the steps of digestion and absorption in humans, and photosynthesis in plants. For respiration, it discusses the gas exchange in animals and plants, and aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. It also provides a brief introduction to the transportation and circulation systems in humans.
The document discusses the process of photosynthesis in plants. It begins by defining photosynthesis as the process by which plants produce glucose and release oxygen using carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight through the action of chlorophyll. It then describes the key components and stages of photosynthesis, including how raw materials are absorbed by the plant, the light-dependent and light-independent reactions, and the role of stomata in gas exchange. It concludes by explaining the importance of photosynthesis in providing food and maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
Hello guys this is the notes of the chapter life processes in detail with all the diagrams of this chapter. I hope this PPT will help you to prepare for your examinations.
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The document discusses the process of nutrition in organisms. There are two main types of nutrition - autotrophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophs like plants can synthesize their own food using photosynthesis, requiring carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. Heterotrophs obtain food from other sources and break it down using enzymes. The human digestive system breaks down ingested food through a multi-step process involving several organs like the mouth, stomach and small intestine to extract nutrients for absorption and use in the body.
Life processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this Earth.
Generally these are the life processes that are basic and common in all living organisms-
Nutrition
Respiration
Transportation
Excretion
1. This document summarizes the process of nutrition in living things. It describes two main types of nutrition: autotrophic nutrition, where organisms produce their own food (e.g. photosynthesis in plants), and heterotrophic nutrition, where organisms obtain food from other living things (e.g. herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).
2. The document then focuses on autotrophic nutrition in plants, explaining the process of photosynthesis and how plants take in carbon dioxide through stomata in their leaves.
3. It also describes heterotrophic nutrition in organisms like amoebas, which obtain nutrition through endocytosis or phagocytosis, engulfing food particles for digestion.
The document discusses various life processes including nutrition, respiration, and transport in living organisms. It provides details on the different types of nutrition like photosynthesis in plants, heterotrophic nutrition in animals and humans. The seven life processes - movement, respiration, sensitivity, nutrition, growth, excretion and reproduction are defined. Respiration occurs aerobically with oxygen or anaerobically without oxygen. The document also explains gas exchange and transport in humans via the respiratory and circulatory systems.
This document discusses various life processes including nutrition, respiration, and transportation in living organisms. It provides details on the different modes of nutrition like autotrophic, heterotrophic, saprotrophic, parasitic, and holozoic nutrition. It describes nutrition in plants, humans, amoeba and paramecium. It also explains aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and the processes of digestion and absorption of food in humans.
The document discusses the key life processes including nutrition, respiration, transportation, growth and reproduction. It describes the different modes of nutrition like photosynthesis, heterotrophic nutrition and human nutrition. The passage also explains the process of respiration through aerobic and anaerobic pathways and gas exchange in humans via the respiratory and circulatory systems.
The document discusses different types of nutrition including autotrophic, heterotrophic, parasitic, saprotrophic, and holozoic nutrition. It then provides details on the human digestive system, describing how food moves through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and is eliminated through the anus. Key parts of the digestive system like the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are also mentioned. Enzymes and processes involved in breaking down food at each stage are explained.
The document discusses different types of nutrition in living organisms. It describes two main types - autotrophic nutrition, where organisms produce their own food through photosynthesis like plants, and heterotrophic nutrition, where organisms obtain food from other sources. Heterotrophic nutrition is further divided into saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic and insectivorous. The document also provides details about the nutrition process in animals, including ingestion, digestion in different organs like the stomach and intestines, absorption in the small intestine, and egestion of waste.
The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and associated glands. The alimentary canal runs from the mouth to the anus and is around 9 meters long. Food is ingested through the mouth and digestion begins with enzymes in saliva breaking down starches. The food is then swallowed and passes through the esophagus to the stomach where proteins are further digested. The partially digested food then moves to the small intestine, where bile and pancreatic juices break down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. The absorbed nutrients then pass into the bloodstream while undigested waste moves to the large intestine to have water absorbed before being excreted as feces through
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Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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1. Nutrition
Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called
nutrition.
Need of nutrition: Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is
supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair.
These raw materials are provided by nutrients.
Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients.
Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients.
Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts and hence are called
micronutrients.
Types of Nutrition:
(a) Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own
food is called autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae follow the
autotrophic mode of nutrition.
(b) Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food
from another organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms; other than green
plants and blue-green algae follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Heterotrophic
nutrition can be further divided into two types, viz. saprophytic nutrition and holozoic
nutrition.
(1) Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition; the organism secretes the digestive
juices on the food. The food is digested while it is still to be ingested. The digested food
is then ingested by the organism. All the decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition.
Some insects; like houseflies; also follow this mode of nutrition.
(2) Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition; the digestion happens inside the body of
the organism, i.e. after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of
nutrition.
Nutrition in Animal
Heterotrophic Nutrition: When an organism takes food from another organism, it is
called heterotrophic nutrition. Different heterotrophic organisms follow different methods
to take and utilize food. Based on this, heterotrophic nutrition can be divided into two
types:
2. (a) Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the digestion of food takes place
before ingestion of food. This type of nutrition is usually seen in fungi and some other
microorganisms. The organism secretes digestive enzymes on the food and then
ingests the simple substances. Saprophytes feed on dead materials and thus help in
decomposition dead remains of plants and animals.
(b)Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the
ingestion of food. Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of the organism. Holozoic
nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion.
(1) Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.
(2) Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules
is called digestion. Simple molecules; thus obtained; can be absorbed by the body.
(3) Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
(4) Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food; for energy and for growth
and repair is called assimilation.
(5)Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.
Nutrition in Amoeba:
Amoeba is a unicellular
animal which follows
holozoic mode of nutrition.
The cell membrane of
amoeba keeps on
protruding into
pseudopodia. Amoeba
surrounds a food particle
with pseudopodia and
makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains the food particle and water. Digestive
enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes place. After that,
digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near
the cell membrane and undigested food is expelled out.
Nutrition in Humans
Human beings are complex animals; which have a complex digestive system. The
human digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory
glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, viz. oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are
the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.
3. Structure of the Human Digestive System:
Mouth or Buccal Cavity: The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also
present in the mouth. The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of
taste. Tongue helps in turning over the food, so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller
particles so that swallowing of food becomes easier.
There are four types of teeth in human beings. The
incisor teeth are used for cutting the food. The canine
teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard
substances. The premolars are used for coarse grinding
of food. The molars are used for fine grinding of food.
Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva makes the food
slippery which makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva
also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin.
Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into
sucrose.
Oesophagus: Oesophagus is also known as food pipe. It
begins from the neck and ends in the stomach. No
digestion takes place in oesophagus.
Stomach: Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in
churning the food. The walls of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid
kills the germs which may be present in food. Moreover, it makes the medium inside
stomach as acidic. The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work. The
enzyme pepsin; secreted in stomach; does partial digestion of protein. The mucus;
secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of stomach from getting
damaged from hydrochloric acid.
Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is longer than
the large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small
intestine is divided into three parts, viz. duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. Liver manufactures bile; which gets
stored in gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.
Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which
contains many digestive enzymes.
Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepato-pancreatic duct. Bile
breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is called emulsification of fat. After
4. that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Trypsin and
chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids. Complex
carbohydrates are digested into glucose. The major part of digestion takes place in the
duodenum.
No digestion takes place in jejunum. The inner wall in the ileum is projected into
numerous finger-like structures; called villi. Villi increase the surface area inside the
ileum so that optimum absorption can take place. Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen
of the ileum so that food can stay for longer duration in it; for optimum absorption.
Digested food is absorbed by villi.
Large Intestine: Large intestine is smaller than small intestine. Undigested food goes
into the large intestine. Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large
intestine. After that, the undigested food goes to the rectum; from where it is expelled
out through the anus.
Respiration
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is called
respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to
produce energy. Mitochondrion is the site of respiration and the energy released is
stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and
is released as per need.
Steps of Respiration:
(a) Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose
molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon
atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
(b) Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in
mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular
organism. Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
(1)Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid
is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the
end of this process.
(2)Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually
formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes; like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is
formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
5. The equations for above reactions can be written as follows:
Pain in Leg Muscles on Running: When someone runs too fast, he may experience a
throbbing pain the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking
place in the muscles. During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells
increases. This is compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the
process. The deposition of lactic acid causes the pain the leg muscles. The pain
subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of Gases: For aerobic respiration; organisms need a continuous supply of
oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from the
body. Different organisms use different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of
carbon dioxide. Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple
organisms for this purpose. In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases. In
complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases. Gills are the
respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen; which is dissolved in water; through
gills. Since availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment so the breathing rate
of aquatic organisms is faster. Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is
used for taking in oxygen.
Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases. Availability of
oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower
compared to what it is in fishes.
Human Respiratory System:
The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a
system of tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils. Following are the main
structures in the human respiratory system:
6. Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of
the nostrils is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and
the hairs help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up
when it enters the nasal passage.
Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice box.
Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse
of trachea in the absence of air.
Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus going to each
lung.
Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches; inside the lung.
Alveoli: These are air-sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of a very
thin membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus; where
oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of
gases; in alveoli; takes place due to pressure differential.
7. Breathing Mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the
diaphragm and the intercostalis muscles. Diaphragm is a membrane which
separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal cavity. When diaphragm
moves down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled. When diaphragm moves up, the
lungs contract and air is exhaled.