This document provides a summary of a lecture on advances in animal nutrition. It discusses key terminology like nutrients, diet, and malnutrition. It also summarizes different feed analysis systems including the proximate analysis system which analyzes feeds into components like dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. The document also discusses the Van Soest detergent analysis system and its components like neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber. Various nutrient analysis techniques are presented including near infrared spectroscopy and atomic absorption spectroscopy. The document concludes with classifications of feeds into roughages and concentrates.
The document discusses the Weende system of proximate feed analysis, which was developed in 1865 at the Weende Experimental Station in Germany. It describes the major components analyzed as part of proximate analysis: moisture, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, ash, and nitrogen free extract. For each component, it provides the analytical principles and significance. Some advantages are that it allows comparison of feeds and is commonly used for ration formulation. However, it also has limitations as the categories are broad and it does not indicate mineral elements or vitamins.
This document discusses proximate analysis, which approximates the nutritive value of feeds without feeding trials. It outlines six proximate principles - moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and ash. While a common basis for feed evaluation, proximate analysis has limitations. It may underestimate dry matter and fiber and assume all nitrogen is from protein. Various methods also have demerits, like loss of volatile compounds during drying. Overall, proximate analysis provides a basic analysis of feeds but does not assess actual nutritive value.
This document provides an introduction to animal nutrition by defining nutrients and discussing their classes and functions. It explains that nutrients are compounds that support animal life and are made up of elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sodium, and chlorine. The major classes of nutrients discussed are water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Each class is further defined in terms of its chemical composition, sources, and roles in the animal body.
This document provides an overview of common food analysis methods used in the food industry. It discusses why food analysis is important for regulatory compliance, quality control, and product development. Key properties that are typically analyzed include chemical composition, physical properties, and sensory properties. Popular analytical techniques are then described for determining moisture, protein, fat, ash, and mineral content in foods. These techniques include Kjeldahl method for protein, solvent extraction for fat, dry ashing for ash, and ion-selective electrodes for minerals. The document provides details on the principles, procedures, advantages, and limitations of these various analytical methods.
Forage seed production is important to establish new pastures and improve existing ones. Quality seed is needed that is well-suited to the local environment and livestock needs. Forage development programs should include local seed production for long-term sustainability. The main objectives of a local seed production program are to meet the seed needs of the forage development initiative. Procedures for forage seed production include initially importing seed to establish programs. Small trials of untested species and cultivars should be conducted on farms. Contract seed production, where farmers grow or collect seed through agreements, has been the most successful method in Ethiopia.
This document presents an overview of several common methods for analyzing proteins:
The Kjeldahl method involves digesting proteins with sulfuric acid to convert nitrogen to ammonium sulfate, then distilling and titrating to determine protein content. The Biuret method uses a color reaction between copper ions and peptide bonds to quantify proteins. The Lowry method combines the Biuret reaction with reduction of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent by amino acids for high sensitivity. Other methods discussed include measuring UV absorption at 280nm and color reactions with ninhydrin or in turbidimetric assays. The document compares the principles, procedures, applications, and advantages/disadvantages of each approach.
Feed sampling is important to obtain accurate diet formulations. Representative samples should be taken from hay, silage, grain, and pasture using various techniques. Laboratory analysis provides measures of dry matter, crude protein, fiber, fat, minerals and calculates values like TDN and DMI. The Van Soest method measures neutral detergent fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose) and acid detergent fiber (cellulose and lignin) to estimate forage quality and digestibility. Calculated values aid in diet formulation and comparing forage quality.
The document discusses the Weende system of proximate feed analysis, which was developed in 1865 at the Weende Experimental Station in Germany. It describes the major components analyzed as part of proximate analysis: moisture, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, ash, and nitrogen free extract. For each component, it provides the analytical principles and significance. Some advantages are that it allows comparison of feeds and is commonly used for ration formulation. However, it also has limitations as the categories are broad and it does not indicate mineral elements or vitamins.
This document discusses proximate analysis, which approximates the nutritive value of feeds without feeding trials. It outlines six proximate principles - moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and ash. While a common basis for feed evaluation, proximate analysis has limitations. It may underestimate dry matter and fiber and assume all nitrogen is from protein. Various methods also have demerits, like loss of volatile compounds during drying. Overall, proximate analysis provides a basic analysis of feeds but does not assess actual nutritive value.
This document provides an introduction to animal nutrition by defining nutrients and discussing their classes and functions. It explains that nutrients are compounds that support animal life and are made up of elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sodium, and chlorine. The major classes of nutrients discussed are water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Each class is further defined in terms of its chemical composition, sources, and roles in the animal body.
This document provides an overview of common food analysis methods used in the food industry. It discusses why food analysis is important for regulatory compliance, quality control, and product development. Key properties that are typically analyzed include chemical composition, physical properties, and sensory properties. Popular analytical techniques are then described for determining moisture, protein, fat, ash, and mineral content in foods. These techniques include Kjeldahl method for protein, solvent extraction for fat, dry ashing for ash, and ion-selective electrodes for minerals. The document provides details on the principles, procedures, advantages, and limitations of these various analytical methods.
Forage seed production is important to establish new pastures and improve existing ones. Quality seed is needed that is well-suited to the local environment and livestock needs. Forage development programs should include local seed production for long-term sustainability. The main objectives of a local seed production program are to meet the seed needs of the forage development initiative. Procedures for forage seed production include initially importing seed to establish programs. Small trials of untested species and cultivars should be conducted on farms. Contract seed production, where farmers grow or collect seed through agreements, has been the most successful method in Ethiopia.
This document presents an overview of several common methods for analyzing proteins:
The Kjeldahl method involves digesting proteins with sulfuric acid to convert nitrogen to ammonium sulfate, then distilling and titrating to determine protein content. The Biuret method uses a color reaction between copper ions and peptide bonds to quantify proteins. The Lowry method combines the Biuret reaction with reduction of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent by amino acids for high sensitivity. Other methods discussed include measuring UV absorption at 280nm and color reactions with ninhydrin or in turbidimetric assays. The document compares the principles, procedures, applications, and advantages/disadvantages of each approach.
Feed sampling is important to obtain accurate diet formulations. Representative samples should be taken from hay, silage, grain, and pasture using various techniques. Laboratory analysis provides measures of dry matter, crude protein, fiber, fat, minerals and calculates values like TDN and DMI. The Van Soest method measures neutral detergent fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose) and acid detergent fiber (cellulose and lignin) to estimate forage quality and digestibility. Calculated values aid in diet formulation and comparing forage quality.
In vivo and in vitro methods are used to determine the digestibility of feeds for ruminants. True digestibility involves correcting for endogenous losses, while apparent digestibility does not. The rumen fluid-pepsin in vitro digestibility method provides accurate predictions of in vivo digestibility for most forages but has issues with variability in rumen fluid composition and activity. Cell-free enzyme methods address some limitations but do not fully represent the microbial activity in the rumen. Validation is needed to improve accuracy and consistency of in vitro digestibility methods.
Dr. Cassie Jones - PEDv Survival: Feed Mitigation StrategiesJohn Blue
PEDv Survival: Feed Mitigation Strategies - Dr. Cassie Jones, from the 2015 Allen D. Leman Swine Conference, September 19-22, 2015, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.
More presentations at http://www.swinecast.com/2015-leman-swine-conference-material
English:
Caution: This slide contains images of animate beings which are used for scientific purposes only.
Hadith:
Sahih Al Bukhari Chapter 89:
Narrated Muslim:
We were with Masruq at the house of Yasar bin Numair. Masruq saw pictures on his terrace and said, "I heard `Abdullah saying that he heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "The people who will receive the severest punishment from Allah will be the picture makers.'"
Bahasa Indonesia:
Perhatian: Slide ini mengandung gambar makhluk bernyawa yang hanya digunakan untuk tujuan ilmu pengetahuan saja.
Lipids are an important structural component of cells and serve as an energy source. They include fatty acids, glycerolipids, phospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols. Lipids are digested in the stomach and small intestine where enzymes break them into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols absorbed by intestinal cells. Chylomicrons transport the products into lymph and blood circulation. Fatty acids are used for energy production or stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and a precursor for bile acids, hormones, and vitamins. Eicosanoids are hormone-like compounds derived from fatty acids that regulate processes like blood pressure, inflammation, and
The document discusses various methods for analyzing lipids in foods. It describes the properties of lipids and how they are classified. Several common extraction and analytical techniques are covered, including solvent extraction methods like Soxhlet extraction, and nonsolvent wet methods like the Babcock method for analyzing milk fat. Accurate lipid analysis is important for nutritional labeling and quality control of food products.
Nutritional profiling and chemical analysis of foodMuzaffarHasan1
Nutritional profiling involves classifying or ranking foods according to their nutritional composition to prevent disease and promote health. It provides descriptions of foods' nutrient levels (e.g. reduced/increased nutrients) and health effects (e.g. healthier/less healthy). Various systems exist for front-of-pack nutrition labeling that consider nutrients individually or combined. Chemical analysis of foods determines their nutritional composition through methods like Soxhlet extraction for fats, gas chromatography for trans fats, Lowry/Bradford methods for proteins, Molisch/Benedict's tests for carbohydrates, and spectroscopy techniques for various applications.
Michael Dom_Presentation_16th AAAP Animal Science Congress_10-15 November 201...Michael Dom
This document summarizes a study on the effects of feeding three forms of blended cassava roots to grower pigs. The study found:
1) Apparent total tract digestibility of nutrients was similar between cassava blends and the standard feed, while nitrogen retained was also similar.
2) Feed intake, efficiency, and growth performance of pigs on cassava-blended diets was equal to or better than those on the standard pig grower feed.
3) Processing cassava effectively reduced anti-nutritional factors, and cassava roots blended at 55% of the diet improved nutrient and energy utilization regardless of preparation method.
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in multiple forms including retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It plays an essential role in vision, cell growth and differentiation. Vitamin A is absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver where it is stored. A deficiency can impair vision and cause dry eyes and corneal ulceration or blindness in severe cases. The recommended daily intake is 400-1000 μg depending on age, sex and life stage.
This document discusses the estimation of nitrogen contents in food. It describes that nitrogen is present in foods in both protein and non-protein forms. The two main methods used to estimate protein nitrogen are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method. The Kjeldahl method involves digestion, distillation, and titration steps, while the Dumas method uses combustion, reduction/separation, and detection. A nitrogen conversion factor is also discussed, which is used to calculate crude protein content from the nitrogen value.
The document provides information on nutrition and dietary requirements. It discusses the major nutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins and minerals. It details the caloric requirements for different age groups and recommends that carbohydrates make up 55-60% of total calories, proteins 10-15% and fats 30-35%. The document also discusses the sources and roles of different macronutrients, protein quality measures like PDCAAS and provides calorie and protein requirements for children.
The document discusses feeding and evaluating the nutrient content of cow feed. It outlines several key points:
1) Effective feeding is important to maintain cow fertility, production and profitability. Feeds must meet cow requirements for energy and nutrients.
2) Feed samples should be taken and tested to determine nutrient composition, including dry matter, protein, fiber and energy levels. Factors like weather and quality can impact nutrient content.
3) Various methods are used to analyze feeds chemically and determine digestibility, including proximate analysis, Van Soest method, and digestibility trials using nylon bags or artificial rumens. This helps evaluate the quality and energy value of different feeds.
This document discusses assessing agro wastes as alternative ingredients for fish feed formulation. The objectives are to compare the nutritive values of sago and soybean hampas, enhance their values through solid state fermentation, and formulate fish feed using different replacement levels of the agro wastes. Current results show that Baker's yeast increased the crude protein in sago hampas by 1.71% while Trichoderma reesei increased crude protein in soy hampas by 5.75%. Next steps involve further solid state fermentation, fish feed formulation using different replacement levels, feeding trials on fish, and analyzing the results.
Novozymes produces two alpha-amylase products - Liquozyme and Termamyl. Liquozyme is designed for ethanol plants and provides improvements in viscosity and liquefaction. Termamyl is highly heat-stable and can be used at temperatures up to 105–110 °C. The document discusses the production, purification, and characterization of alpha-amylases from microbial sources including various fermentation and downstream processing methods.
Chapter 1 is concerned with the analysis of foods, from the early chemical analysis developed in the 1800s to categorize chemical and nutrient groups, through to the sophisticated physical and chemical methods used today to identify individual molecular components.
1. Grain quality factors like test weight, foreign material, broken kernels, and moisture content can impact the value of grain for both trade and animal feeding.
2. Test weight alone has little effect on animal performance if animals can meet their energy needs, but impacts value when grain is sold by volume. Foreign material depends on what it is but can reduce storage quality.
3. Both physical and chemical analyses are important for evaluating grain quality factors and potential issues like mycotoxins that impact animal health and performance. Maintaining proper storage conditions is key to preserving grain quality.
The document discusses lipids, including their types, functions, disorders related to deficiency or excess, and prevention of lipid disorders. It aims to determine the relationship between lipid intake and human physiology, analyze how individuals react to different lipid intakes, and identify the optimal lipid intake to prevent deficiency or excess. It describes that lipids are fats and oils, classified into fats/waxes and cholesterol/steroids. Saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated fats are outlined. Lipid functions include energy reserves, cell membrane structures, hormone synthesis, and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. Deficiency and excess can cause disorders, and optimal intake is outlined to prevent related health issues.
- The document discusses the analysis of carbohydrates in food, including classification, sample preparation methods, and analytical techniques.
- Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides and are either digestible or indigestible.
- Sample preparation often involves defatting, drying, and solvent extractions prior to analysis.
- Chromatography, enzymatic methods, and chemical techniques are commonly used to analyze mono- and oligosaccharides, while gravimetric, enzymatic, and chemical methods are used for polysaccharides and dietary fiber.
This document discusses proximate analysis, which quantitatively analyzes macronutrients in feed. It describes the Weende or proximate analysis method developed in 1860 that partitions compounds in feed into six categories based on chemical properties: moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extracts. The document then provides procedures and calculations for determining the percentages of each component through methods like drying samples to find moisture content or ashing samples in a furnace to determine ash content.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
In vivo and in vitro methods are used to determine the digestibility of feeds for ruminants. True digestibility involves correcting for endogenous losses, while apparent digestibility does not. The rumen fluid-pepsin in vitro digestibility method provides accurate predictions of in vivo digestibility for most forages but has issues with variability in rumen fluid composition and activity. Cell-free enzyme methods address some limitations but do not fully represent the microbial activity in the rumen. Validation is needed to improve accuracy and consistency of in vitro digestibility methods.
Dr. Cassie Jones - PEDv Survival: Feed Mitigation StrategiesJohn Blue
PEDv Survival: Feed Mitigation Strategies - Dr. Cassie Jones, from the 2015 Allen D. Leman Swine Conference, September 19-22, 2015, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.
More presentations at http://www.swinecast.com/2015-leman-swine-conference-material
English:
Caution: This slide contains images of animate beings which are used for scientific purposes only.
Hadith:
Sahih Al Bukhari Chapter 89:
Narrated Muslim:
We were with Masruq at the house of Yasar bin Numair. Masruq saw pictures on his terrace and said, "I heard `Abdullah saying that he heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "The people who will receive the severest punishment from Allah will be the picture makers.'"
Bahasa Indonesia:
Perhatian: Slide ini mengandung gambar makhluk bernyawa yang hanya digunakan untuk tujuan ilmu pengetahuan saja.
Lipids are an important structural component of cells and serve as an energy source. They include fatty acids, glycerolipids, phospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols. Lipids are digested in the stomach and small intestine where enzymes break them into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols absorbed by intestinal cells. Chylomicrons transport the products into lymph and blood circulation. Fatty acids are used for energy production or stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and a precursor for bile acids, hormones, and vitamins. Eicosanoids are hormone-like compounds derived from fatty acids that regulate processes like blood pressure, inflammation, and
The document discusses various methods for analyzing lipids in foods. It describes the properties of lipids and how they are classified. Several common extraction and analytical techniques are covered, including solvent extraction methods like Soxhlet extraction, and nonsolvent wet methods like the Babcock method for analyzing milk fat. Accurate lipid analysis is important for nutritional labeling and quality control of food products.
Nutritional profiling and chemical analysis of foodMuzaffarHasan1
Nutritional profiling involves classifying or ranking foods according to their nutritional composition to prevent disease and promote health. It provides descriptions of foods' nutrient levels (e.g. reduced/increased nutrients) and health effects (e.g. healthier/less healthy). Various systems exist for front-of-pack nutrition labeling that consider nutrients individually or combined. Chemical analysis of foods determines their nutritional composition through methods like Soxhlet extraction for fats, gas chromatography for trans fats, Lowry/Bradford methods for proteins, Molisch/Benedict's tests for carbohydrates, and spectroscopy techniques for various applications.
Michael Dom_Presentation_16th AAAP Animal Science Congress_10-15 November 201...Michael Dom
This document summarizes a study on the effects of feeding three forms of blended cassava roots to grower pigs. The study found:
1) Apparent total tract digestibility of nutrients was similar between cassava blends and the standard feed, while nitrogen retained was also similar.
2) Feed intake, efficiency, and growth performance of pigs on cassava-blended diets was equal to or better than those on the standard pig grower feed.
3) Processing cassava effectively reduced anti-nutritional factors, and cassava roots blended at 55% of the diet improved nutrient and energy utilization regardless of preparation method.
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in multiple forms including retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It plays an essential role in vision, cell growth and differentiation. Vitamin A is absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver where it is stored. A deficiency can impair vision and cause dry eyes and corneal ulceration or blindness in severe cases. The recommended daily intake is 400-1000 μg depending on age, sex and life stage.
This document discusses the estimation of nitrogen contents in food. It describes that nitrogen is present in foods in both protein and non-protein forms. The two main methods used to estimate protein nitrogen are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method. The Kjeldahl method involves digestion, distillation, and titration steps, while the Dumas method uses combustion, reduction/separation, and detection. A nitrogen conversion factor is also discussed, which is used to calculate crude protein content from the nitrogen value.
The document provides information on nutrition and dietary requirements. It discusses the major nutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins and minerals. It details the caloric requirements for different age groups and recommends that carbohydrates make up 55-60% of total calories, proteins 10-15% and fats 30-35%. The document also discusses the sources and roles of different macronutrients, protein quality measures like PDCAAS and provides calorie and protein requirements for children.
The document discusses feeding and evaluating the nutrient content of cow feed. It outlines several key points:
1) Effective feeding is important to maintain cow fertility, production and profitability. Feeds must meet cow requirements for energy and nutrients.
2) Feed samples should be taken and tested to determine nutrient composition, including dry matter, protein, fiber and energy levels. Factors like weather and quality can impact nutrient content.
3) Various methods are used to analyze feeds chemically and determine digestibility, including proximate analysis, Van Soest method, and digestibility trials using nylon bags or artificial rumens. This helps evaluate the quality and energy value of different feeds.
This document discusses assessing agro wastes as alternative ingredients for fish feed formulation. The objectives are to compare the nutritive values of sago and soybean hampas, enhance their values through solid state fermentation, and formulate fish feed using different replacement levels of the agro wastes. Current results show that Baker's yeast increased the crude protein in sago hampas by 1.71% while Trichoderma reesei increased crude protein in soy hampas by 5.75%. Next steps involve further solid state fermentation, fish feed formulation using different replacement levels, feeding trials on fish, and analyzing the results.
Novozymes produces two alpha-amylase products - Liquozyme and Termamyl. Liquozyme is designed for ethanol plants and provides improvements in viscosity and liquefaction. Termamyl is highly heat-stable and can be used at temperatures up to 105–110 °C. The document discusses the production, purification, and characterization of alpha-amylases from microbial sources including various fermentation and downstream processing methods.
Chapter 1 is concerned with the analysis of foods, from the early chemical analysis developed in the 1800s to categorize chemical and nutrient groups, through to the sophisticated physical and chemical methods used today to identify individual molecular components.
1. Grain quality factors like test weight, foreign material, broken kernels, and moisture content can impact the value of grain for both trade and animal feeding.
2. Test weight alone has little effect on animal performance if animals can meet their energy needs, but impacts value when grain is sold by volume. Foreign material depends on what it is but can reduce storage quality.
3. Both physical and chemical analyses are important for evaluating grain quality factors and potential issues like mycotoxins that impact animal health and performance. Maintaining proper storage conditions is key to preserving grain quality.
The document discusses lipids, including their types, functions, disorders related to deficiency or excess, and prevention of lipid disorders. It aims to determine the relationship between lipid intake and human physiology, analyze how individuals react to different lipid intakes, and identify the optimal lipid intake to prevent deficiency or excess. It describes that lipids are fats and oils, classified into fats/waxes and cholesterol/steroids. Saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated fats are outlined. Lipid functions include energy reserves, cell membrane structures, hormone synthesis, and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. Deficiency and excess can cause disorders, and optimal intake is outlined to prevent related health issues.
- The document discusses the analysis of carbohydrates in food, including classification, sample preparation methods, and analytical techniques.
- Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides and are either digestible or indigestible.
- Sample preparation often involves defatting, drying, and solvent extractions prior to analysis.
- Chromatography, enzymatic methods, and chemical techniques are commonly used to analyze mono- and oligosaccharides, while gravimetric, enzymatic, and chemical methods are used for polysaccharides and dietary fiber.
This document discusses proximate analysis, which quantitatively analyzes macronutrients in feed. It describes the Weende or proximate analysis method developed in 1860 that partitions compounds in feed into six categories based on chemical properties: moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extracts. The document then provides procedures and calculations for determining the percentages of each component through methods like drying samples to find moisture content or ashing samples in a furnace to determine ash content.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as t...vijaykumar292010
RoHS stands for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, which is also known as the Directive 2002/95/EC. It includes the restrictions for the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. RoHS is a WEEE (Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment).
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
1. Lecture note on
Advances in Advanced Animal Nutrition
By
Yisehak Kechero (PhD, Associate professor)
1
2. Nutrition:
• Process by which living organism receives
nutrients and uses them to promote it’s vital
activities
– Animals use nutrients to enable them to:
• maintain . grow
• reproduce . lay eggs
• lactate . produce wool
• work
Chapter 1
Terminologies
2
3. Terminologies
Nutrient: Nutrients are chemical substances in food
that body cells use for body function (growth,
maintenance, and repair)
Diet: Selection of food which is normally eaten by
animal or population
Food: Substance when eaten , digested, absorbed
provide at least one nutrient
Balanced diet : Diet that provide adequate amount
of all nutrients
3
4. Terminologies
Malnutrition: Caused by incorrect amount of
nutrient intake
Nutritional status:
Health status that produced by balanced between
requirements and intake
Dietitian/nutritionist: Persons who applies
science of nutrition to animal in health and
disease
4
5. Terminologies
Metabolism :
process by which living systems acquire and use free
energy to carry out vital processes
Anabolism (biosynthesis ):
Complex molecules are synthesized from simpler ones
Catabolism(degradation): Complex molecules are broken
to simpler ones
Digestion: Breakdown of feed nutrients into suitable form
for absorption
Absorption: Transfer of digested nutrients from GIT into
circulating blood or lymph systems
5
6. Role of Metabolism in Nutrition
Definition: the sum of all biochemical changes that take
place in a living organism.
Group these reactions into two types:
anabolic catabolic
Reactions: require energy release energy
Produce: more complex more simple compounds
compounds
Modus
Operandi: Occurs in small steps, each of which is controlled
by specific enzymes.
6
7. Chapter 2
FEED ANALYSIS SYSTEMS
• Feed analysis systems
– Proximate analysis system (Weende system)
• Developed in 1864 at Weende Experiment Station
in Germany
– the analysis of feed into its basic components
• Dry matter or water, crude protein, crude fiber,
ether extract, ash, nitrogen free extract (NFE)
– Detergent analysis system (Van Soest
system)
• Developed in 1964 at USDA Beltsville Research
Center 7
9. • Dry matter (DM)
– Partial DM, Lab. DM, Actual/ total DM
– DM is weight of a feed remaining after a feed is dried in
a 100oC oven for 24 hours/105°C 16 hr etc
• DM,% = wt after drying/wt before drying 100%
• % moisture = 100 – DM,%
Reagents: none
Avg. 2 grams used
– Problems with method
• Errors from losses of volatile components
– Particularly a problem with fermented feeds
– Can be avoided by freeze drying
• Drying at > 100oC destroys sample for further
analysis
– Can be avoided by freeze drying or drying at 50-
65oC for 72-48 hours in preparation for analysis
AOAC 9
10. Dry matter
• Percent DM = (W3-W1)100/W2-W1)
• Where,
– W1= weight of empty container,
– W2= weight of empty container plus sample
– W3 = weight of container and sample after drying
• Varies with types of feeds (ex green feeds, dry
feeds, milk, silage, hay )
• Equipment: paper bag, forced air drying oven,
analytical balance,Desiccator
• Qulity control, Constant weight, duplicate 10
11. • Ash ( Crude ash)
– Material remaining after oxidation of a sample
at 600oC for 2 hours in a muffle furnace
• % Ash = wt after ashing/sample wt x 100%
• % Organic matter = 100 - % ash
– Equipment: Incineration dish, Analytical
balance, Muffle furnace, Desiccator
– % Ash = (W3- W2) x 100/ (W2-W1)
– Problems
• No indication of amounts of individual minerals
• Some minerals (Sulfur, Selenium, Zinc, Iodine are
lost)
– Significance
• May indicate soil contamination or adulteration of
feedstuff or diet. 11
12. • Crude protein (CP)
– % Crude protein = %N x 6.25
– %N determination
• Kjeldahl N
Sample→Boil in conc. H2SO4→(NH4)2SO4→Add conc. NaOH, → Titrate
catalyst distill NH3, and trap NH4 borate
in boric acid
• blue colour....pink colour
Factor of 6.25 assumes that most proteins contain 16% N
CP,% = measured mg N/100 mg sample x 100 mg protein/16 mg N
= measured mg N/100 mg/sample x 6.25
Coversion Factors:
6.25 for all forages, compounded feeds and mixed feeds
5.7 for cereal grains
6.38 for milk
12
13. Crude protein
• % N = (Vs-Vb) x M(HCl) x 1 x 14.007/ (Wx
10)
– Vs= ml Hcl needed to titrate the sample
– Vb = ml Hcl needed for the blank test
– M (HCl) = molarity of HCl
– 1= the acid factor
– 14.007= molecular weight of N,
– 10 = conversion from mg/g to % (1.4007 to
14.007), and weight of the sample (g)
Quality control: control standard should be used, duplicate
analysis,use blank 13
14. • Problems with crude protein procedure
– Sources of N
• True protein
– Chains of amino acids bound by peptide linkages
– Can meet the protein requirements of either nonruminant or
ruminant animals
• Nonprotein nitrogen
– Forms
» Free amino acids
» Nucleic acids
» Ammonia
» Urea
– Can meet the protein requirements of ruminant animals
» Urea and biuret commonly added to ruminant diets
– Can not meet the protein requirements of nonruminant animals
– Says nothing about the amino acid composition of the
feed source
• Commonly assume that the concentration of individual amino
acids is constant within the protein a given feedstuff
• Can analyze for individual amino acids
14
15. – Crude protein says nothing about the digestibility of a
protein
• Varies with feedstuff
% Crude protein % Protein Digestibility
Soybean meal 45 90
Feather meal 80 75
• Varies with heat damage
– When overheated, protein will bind to the cell wall carbohydrates
particularly across lysine
– Causes
» Molding of forages
» Over-heating during processing
» Over-drying of grains or soybeans
– Referred to as the Maillard or Browning Reaction
– Results
% Crude protein % Protein Digestibility
Well-preserved alfalfa hay 18 90
Heat-damaged alfalfa hay 18 60 15
17. • Ether extract (EE)
– Also called crude fat
– Material removed by refluxing ether through a feed
sample for 4 hours
% Ether extract = (Sample wt-residue after ether
extract)/Sample wt x 100%
– Theoretically represents fat content of the feedstuff
• A high ether extract content should indicate a high
energy concentration
– Problem with procedure
• Ether extract consists of:
–True lipids
»Fats and oils
–Non-nutritional ether soluble components
»Fat-soluble vitamins
»Chlorophyll
»Pigments
»Volatile oils
»Waxes 17
18. Crude fiber (CF)
– Procedure
Sample→Extract with dilute H2SO4 →Residue→Burn at 600oC→Ash
followed by dilute NaOH
% CF = (Residue wt-Ash wt)/sample wt x 100%
– Theoretically represents
• the structural carbohydrates (Cellulose and lignin)
– Limited digestibility in ruminants
– Poor digestibility in nonruminants
• Lignin
– Indigestible by ruminants and nonruminants
– Problems with procedure
• Poor recovery of components
% recovered
– Cellulose 90
– Hemicellulose 50-60
– Lignin 13-70 18
19. • Nitrogen-free extract (NFE)
– No actual analysis
– Calculation by difference
• %NFE = %DM – (%ash+%CP+%EE+%CF)
– Theoretically represents:
• Starch
• Sugars
– Problems:
• Contains all of the errors from other analyses
– Largest error is unrecovered lignin will be placed in NFE
19
21. • Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
– Consists of hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, cell wall
bound protein and insoluble ash
– Significe:
• Highly related to feed intake
• DMI, % BW = 120/% NDF
• Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
– Consists of cellulose, lignin, poorly digested protein,
and insoluble ash
– Significance:
• Highly related to digestibility and energy concentration
• DDM% = 88.9 – (.779 x %ADF)
• NEl, Mcal/lb (for legumes) = 1.011 – (0.0113 x %ADF)
– Combination of DDM (determined from ADF) and DMI
(determined from NDF) is used to determine Relative
Feed Value (RFV)
• RFV=DDM x DMI / 1.29
• Used for hay marketing
21
22. – Nitrogen bound to acid detergent fiber is a measure of
heat-damaged protein
• Called ADIN or ADF-CP
– Procedure
Sample→Extract with AD→ADF→Analyze N by
Kjeldahl procedure
ADF-CP, % of total CP= %ADFN x 6.25/%CP x 100%
– Relationship to protein digestibility (called adjusted CP)
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP <14, ADIN is considered digestible
– Adjusted CP = CP
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP is >14 and <20
– Adjusted CP = ((100 – (ADF-CP, % of CP – 7))/100) x CP
• If ADF-CP, % of total CP is > 20
– Adjusted CP = CP – ADF-CP, % of CP
22
23. • N bound to NDF and ADF used to determine
rumen degradable, rumen undegradable, and
indigestible fractions
Rumen degradable protein = Total CP – (NDFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
Rumen undegradable protein = (NDFCP, % of CP xTotal CP) –
(ADFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
Indigestible protein = (ADFCP, % of CP xTotal CP)
23
24. OTHER ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
• Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS)
– Determines the concentrations of protein, amino acids,
lipids, and carbohydrates based on absorption of near
infrared light
– Advantages
• Rapid
• Used by most commercial labs
– Limitations
• Requires calibration
• Inability to measure heterogeneous molecules like lignin
• Inability to measure minerals
24
25. • Atomic absorption spectroscopy
– Used for mineral analysis
– Procedure
• Sample ashed and extracted into a solvent
• Dissolved sample sucked into a flame with a light at a
specific wavelength going through it
• Absorption of light directly proportional to absorption of light
– Limitation
• Expense
• High performance liquid chromatography
– Used of amino acids, lipids and vitamins
– Procedure
• Sample dissolved in organic solvent injected into column
• Column differentially separates components
• Detector measures components as they through the column
– Limitation
• Expense
25
27. Chemical Evaluation
3/Van Soest Fiber Analysis --
replaces the Weende System of
crude fiber analysis with neutral
and acid detergent fiber (NDF
and ADF)
more accurate
more precisely identify the
fiber components
Van Soest Fiber
Air-dry Feed Sample
Boil with neutral
detergent, pH = 7
Neutral Detergent Fiber
cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin
Neutral Detergent Solubles
cell contents and pectin
Boil in acid
detergent, pH = 0
Acid Detergent Fiber
cellulose and lignin
Acid Detergent Solubles
hemicellulose
Lignin
Rinse in 72% sulfuric acid
Cellulose
(dissolved) 27
29. Roughages
• Contains more than 18% crude fiber when
that are dry
Hulls Straw
Silage
Roughage
Hay
Legume/non-
legume forages
Pasture
29
30. Legume Roughages
• Can take nitrogen from the air
• Able to due so because they have nodules on
their roots that contain bacteria
• These bacteria fix the nitrogen from the air in soil
and make it available for the plant to use
– Do so by combining the free nitrogen with other
elements to form nitrogen compounds
• All the clovers, alfalfa, soybeans, peas and
beans etc
• Usually higher in protein than nonlegume
roughages
30
31. Nonlegume Roughages
• Cannot use nitrogen from the air
• Lower in protein
• Many common livestock feeds are
nonlegume
31
32. Concentrates
• Contains less than 18% crude fiber when
dry
• Two classes
– Protein supplements
– Energy feeds
32
34. Protein Supplements
• Animal proteins
– Come from animals or
animal by-products
– Common: meat and
bone meal, fish meal,
dried milk (whole &
skimmed), blood meal,
feather meal
– Most contain more than
47% crude protein
– More balanced essential
amino acids
– Variable quality
compared to origin
proteins
• Plant Proteins
– Come from plants
– Common: soybean oil
meal, cottonseed meal,
linseed oil meal, peanut oil
meal, corn gluten feed,
brewers dried grains,
distillers dried grains
– Most contain less than
47% crude protein
– Soybean oil meal is used
most
• Can supply necessary
amino acids for swine
and poultry 34
35. Commercial Protein
Supplements
• Made by commercial feed
companies
• Mixes of animal and plant
protein feeds
• Usually made for 1 class
of animal
• Often mix of minerals,
vitamins, antibiotics
• Feed tag needs to be
read and feeding
directions followed
35
36. Energy Feeds
• Feeds with less than 20% crude protein
• Most grains
– Oats, corn, sorghum, barley, rye, wheat,
ground ear corn, wheat bran, wheat
middling's, dried citrus pulp, dried beet pulp,
dried whey
– Corn is the most widely used
– Followed by sorghum grain, oats, barley
36
37. Chapter 4
Nutrients
6 major classes
1. Water
2. carbohydrates -
3. lipids -
4. proteins
5. vitamins
6. minerals
Energy
37
39. Water (H2O)
• Overlook when formulating rations—assumed animals
have access to good quality water
– EXTREMELY IMPORTANT
• Cheapest & most abundant nutrient
• May lose 100% of body fat, 50% of body protein and live
• Lose 10% of body water, dehydration occurs and may
result in death (species dependent)
• 65-85% of body weight at birth
• 45-60% of body weight at maturity
• Many tissues contain 70-90% water
39
40. Functions of Water
1. Transport of nutrients and excretions
2. Chemical reactions and solvent
properties
3. Body temperature regulation
4. Aids in cell shape maintenance
5. Lubricates and cushions joints and
organs
40
42. Sources of Water
1. Drinking
– Pigs = 1.5-3 gal/hd/day
– Sheep = 1-3 gal/hd/day
– Cattle = 10-14 gal/hd/day
– Horses = 10-14 gal/hd/day
– Poultry = 2 parts water:1 part feed
42
43. Sources of Water
2. Water contained in feeds
• Highly variable in feedstuffs
• Grains = 9-30% water
• Forages
– Hay <5%
– Silage 65-75%
– Lush young grass >90%
43
44. Calculating Water Content of
Feedstuffs
• 100 kgs of silage (65% moisture) contains
how much actual feed?
• 100 kgs * .65 = 65 kgs of water
• 100 kgs – 65 kgs = 35 kgs of feed
44
45. Sources of Water
3. Metabolic Water
- Results from the oxidation of organic
nutrients in the tissues
- 1 g of carbohydrates = 0.6 g of water
- 1 g of protein = 0.4 g of water
- 1 g of fat = 1 g of water
- May account for 5-10% of total water
intake
45
50. Carbohydrates (CHO)
• Primary component found in livestock feeds
– 70% of DM of forages
– 80% of DM of grains
• Serve as source of energy or bulk (fiber) in the
diet
– Not ESSENTIAL/Technical nutrients
• Synthesized by animals
50
51. Types of CHO
• Monosaccharides: 1 sugar molecule
– Glucose
• Primary sugar body uses for fuel, plants are rich in
glucose
– Fructose
• Found in honey (75%), fruits, and cane sugar
• Sweetest sugar, molasses
– Galactose
• Found many plants tissues
• Present in low concentrations in animal feedstuffs
51
53. 53
Galactose, sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is less
sweet than glucose. It is a C-4 epimer of glucose. Galactan is a polymer of the
sugar galactose found in hemicellulose
54. Types of CHO
• Disaccharides: 2 sugar molecules linked by a
glycosidic bond
– a sugar consisting of two linked monosaccharide units
• Forexample
– Lactose (galactose + glucose),… lactase
• Milk sugar
– Sucrose (fructose + glucose),… sucrase
• Table sugar
– Maltose,…Maltase
• also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed
from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond, formed
from a condensation reaction
54
56. Disaccharides:
(+)-maltose “malt sugar”
two glucose units (alpha)
(+)-cellobiose
two glucose units (beta)
Cellobiose, a reducing sugar, consists of two β-glucose
molecules linked by a β(1→4) bond. It can be
hydrolyzed to glucose enzymatically or with acid
56
C12H22O11
58. O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
glucose alpha C-1
to beta C1 fructose
O
HO
H
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
O
H
O
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH galactose beta C-1
to C-4 glucose
reducing sugar
(+)-lactose
O
O
CH
2
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
HO
H
(+)-sucrose
acetal
non-reducing
58
59. Types of CHO
• Oligosaccharides: group of CHO
consisting of 2-10 sugar groups
• Present in feed ingredients
– Fructooligosaccharides (Inulin): present in
many feedstuffs in variable amounts
– Galactooligosaccharides: present in
soybeans and many feedstuffs
59
60. Types of CHO
• Oligosaccharides
– Not hydrolytically digested or digested by the action of
mammalian or livestock enzymes
– Fermented by beneficial bacteria present in GIT
– “Functional Feed Ingredient”: foodstuffs which, apart from
their normal nutritional value, are said to help promote or
sustain healthiness
• PREBIOTIC
– non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth
and/or activity of bacteria in the digestive system in ways
claimed to be beneficial to health in simple stomach animals
– a dietary supplement in the form of nondigestible
carbohydrate that favors the growth of desirable microflora in
the large bowel
60
61. Probiotic
• substance containing beneficial
microorganisms: a substance containing
live microorganisms that claims to be
beneficial to humans and animals, e.g. by
restoring the balance of microflora in the
digestive tract
61
64. Types of CHO
• Polysaccharides: many sugar
molecules(>10) linked by a glycosidic bond
– Starch: a natural substance composed of
chains of glucose units, made by plants and
providing a major energy source for animals.
• Formula: (C6H10O5)n
– Cellulose: The main constituent of the cell walls
of plants and algae. most abundant CHO in
nature
– Hemicellulose: One of the principle 64
66. Polysaccharides
starch
cellulose
Starch 20% amylose (water soluble)
80% amylopectin (water insoluble)
amylose + H2O (+)-maltose
(+)-maltose + H2O (+)-glucose
starch is a poly glucose (alpha-glucoside to C-4)
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
66
70. ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
ATP
H H
H
H
HO
1
H
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
OH2C
P
ATP
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
1
2
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
ADP
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H H
H
H
HO
H
HO
1
2
3
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
H
H
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
H
H
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
O 1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2
C O Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
P
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
H
H
2 NAD+ + 2 P
+ 2H+
NADH
2 NAD+ + 2
HCOH
C
CH2O
O
COOH
O
2
2 ADP
P
HCOH
CH2O
1, 3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2
3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2OH
HCO 2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
Pyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH2
2
2 ADP
C O Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
(2 molecules)
COOH
CH3
C O
P
P
P
P
P
Phosphofructokinase
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
CH2OH
CH2O
C O
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
HCOH
CH2O
O
H
C
ADP
O
Glucose (1 molecule)
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
4 1
3 2
5
6
Glucose 6-phosphate
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
Fructose 6-phosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C 6
5
4 3
2
1
CH2O
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
O
OH
H
OH2C
ADP
P
P
P
P
P
OH2C
P
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
OH
H
HO
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
H
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
H
H
70
71. Function of CHO
• Source of energy
• Source of heat
• Building block for other nutrients
71
72. Sources of CHO
• Cereal Grains
– Most feedstuffs of plant origin are high in
CHO content
72
73. CHO Digestion
• Dietary CHO must be converted to be absorbed
– Simple sugars (monosaccharides)
• How?
– Action of amylase enzyme
• Salivary amylase (swine, poultry)
• Intestinal amylase
– Action of other disaccharidases
• Produced by mucosal lining of duodenum
73
74. CHO Digestion
• Mammals do not produce enzymes
necessary to digest oligosaccharides and
celluloses (fibrous feedstuffs)
– Digestion occurs as result of bacterial
fermentation
• Where?
– Rumen
– Large Intestine (caecum and colon)
74
75. CHO Digestion
• Fermentation yields:
– CO2
– H2O
– CH4
– Heat (heat increment)
– Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) or also referred
to as Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA)
• 2 to 6 carbons
75
76. VFA Production
• Serve as 70 - 80% of energy
requirement in ruminants
– VFA’s produced in rumen
• Serve as ~16% of Maintenance energy
requirement in swine
– VFA’s produced in large intestine
They are:
1. Acetate/acetic acid (2 carbons)
2. Propionate/propionic acid (3 carbons)
3. Butyrate/butyric acid (4 carbons) 76
77. VFAs
• Acetate
– with higher roughage levels
– Produced by cellulolytic & hemicellulolytic
bacteria
C
H
H
H
C
OH
O
77
78. VFAs
• Propionate
– with higher concentrate levels
– Feed efficiency
– Ionophores increase propionate
production
C
H
H
H
C
O
C
H
H
OH
78
79. VFAs
• Butyrate
– Energy source for rumen wall growth
• Papillae growth
– Energy source for colonic cell growth
• monogastrics
C
H
H
H
C
O
C
H
H
C
H
H OH
79
81. CHO Absorption
• Once simple sugars are formed, they are
absorbed rapidly by small intestine
• Then monosaccharides diffuse into the
portal vein which transports them to sites
of metabolism
81
82. VFA Absorption
• Absorbed through the rumen wall or large
intestine mucosa
• Provide energy source to the animal
82
83. Absorption of VFA
70% of VFA absorbed from rumen-reticulum
60 to 70% of remainder absorbed from omasum
Papillae are important – provide surface area
Absorption from rumen is by passive diffusion
Concentration in portal vein less than rumen
VFA concentrations
Rumen 50 - 150 mM
Portal blood 1 - 2 mM
Peripheral blood 0.5 - 1 mM
Absorption increases at lower pH
H+ + Ac- HAc
Undissociated acids diffuse more readily
At pH 5.7 to 6.7 both forms are present, however most is dissociated
At higher pH, 1 equiv of HCO3 enters the rumen with absorption of
2 equiv of VFA
83
84. VFA Absorption
Absorption of Ac-
Ac- Ac- Portal
HAc blood
H+ Metabolism
HCO3
-
H2O H2CO3
+
CO2 CO2 Carbonic
Metabolism anhydrase
HAc HAc
Rumen
84
85. VFA Absorption
Rate of absorption:
Butyrate > Propionate > Acetate
Absorption greater with increasing concentrations
of acids in the rumen
Absorption increases at lower rumen pH
Absorption greater in grain fed animals
Faster fermentation – More VFA produced
Lower pH
Growth of papillae
85
86. Metabolism of VFA by GIT
Half or more of butyrate converted to
- hydroxybutyric acid in rumen epithelium.
5% of propionate converted to lactic acid by
rumen epithelium.
Some acetate is used as energy by tissues of gut.
VFA and metabolites carried by portal vein to liver.
86
87. Tissue Metabolism
VFA
VFA GIT tissues Liver
Body tissues
Use of VFA
Energy
Carbon for synthesis
Long-chain fatty acids
Glucose
Amino acids
Other
87
88. Utilization of Acetate in Metabolism
1. Acetate (As energy) Energy
Acetate Acetyl CoA Krebs cycle 2 CO2
2 carbons (10 ATP/mole)
2. Acetate (Carbon for synthesis of fatty acids – in adipose)
Acetate Acetyl CoA Fatty acids Lipids
H
+NADPH NADP
+
Glycerol
Pentose PO4 CO2
shunt Glucose
88
89. Utilization of Butryate in Metabolism
Butyrate (As energy)
Butyrate Butyrl CoA B-hydroxybutyrate Acetyl CoA
Krebs
cycle 2 CO2
Energy
(27 ATP/mole)
Some butyrate also used as a primer for short-chain fatty acids
89
90. Utilization of Propionate in Metabolism
Propionate
Propionate Propionyl CoA Methylmalonyl CoA
CO2 Succinyl CoA
Vit B12
Glucose Krebs
cycle 2 CO2
Energy
(18 ATP/mole)
90
91. Utilization of VFA in Metabolism
Summary
Acetate
Energy
Carbon source for fatty acids
Adipose
Mammary gland
Not used for net synthesis of glucose
Propionate
Energy
Precursor of glucose
Butyrate
Energy
Carbon source for fatty acids - mammary
91
92. Effect of VFA on Endocrine System
Propionate
Increases blood glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
Butryate
Not used for synthesis of glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
Stimulates release of glucagon
Increases blood glucose
Acetate
Not used for synthesis of glucose
Does not stimulate release of insulin
Glucose
Stimulates release of insulin
92
93. Energetic Efficiency of VFA in
Metabolism
ATP/mole Energy in ATP % Heat of
(kcal/mole) combustion
Acetate 10 76.0 36.3
Propionate 18 136.8 37.2
Butyrate 27 205.2 39.1
Glucose 38 288.8 42.9
93
94. Energetic Efficiency of VFA
Fermentation and Metabolism
Cellulose
10 Glucose VFA ATP
(6730 kcal) (5240 kcal (1946 kcal)
60A 28.9%
Starch 30P
10B
Absorbed as glucose ATP
(6730 kcal) (2888 kcal)
42.9%
94
95. Lower Energy Value of
Roughage Compared with concentrate
- Less digested
- Lignin limits digestibility of digestible fiber
- Greater energy lost from fermentation
CO2, N2O,CH4, Heat
- Increased rumination
Rumen contractions
Chewing
-More bulk in digestive tract
-Lower passage rate
95
96. Requirements for Glucose
Ruminants
1. Nervous system
Energy and source of carbon
2. Fat synthesis
NADPH
Glycerol
3.Pregnancy
Fetal energy requirement
4. Lactation
Milk sugar - lactose
96
97. Sources of Glucose Carbon
Ruminants
Ruminants dependent on gluconeogenesis (glucose
synthesis) for major portion of glucose
Sources of glucose in metabolism
1. Propionate
2. Amino acids
3. Lactic acid
4. Glycerol
5. Carbohydrate digestion in intestine
Absorption of glucose from intestine
97
98. Glucose Synthesis
Acetate Amino acids
Ketone Acetyl CoA
Bodies
Fatty
Butyrate acids
Citrate
Glycerol
Acetyl CoA
Lactate CO2 2 CO2
Pyruvate Oxaloacetate
PEP
Glucose Succinate
Proteins Amino acids
Propionate
98
99. Consequences of Inadequate Glucose in
Metabolism
1. Low blood glucose
2. High blood ketones
3. High blood concentrations of long-chain fatty acids
(NEFA)
Metabolic disorders
• Causes fatty liver
• ketosis in lactating cows and
• pregnancy toxemia in pregnant ewes
99
100. Pregnancy Toxemia
Pregnant Ewes
• During the last month of pregnancy
• Ewes with multiple faetuses
• Inadequate nutrition of ewe
• High demands for glucose by faetuses
• Low blood glucose and insulin
• Mobilization of body fat
• Increase in nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) in blood
• Increased ketone production by liver
100
101. Fatty Acid Metabolism
Relation to Glucose
Diet fat Adipose Diet CHOH
CO2 Acetate
Malonyl CoA
LCFA NEFA Acetate
CO2
Glycerol LCFA acyl CoA
2 CO2
Triglycerides
Carnitine
FA acyl carnitine
Malonyl CoA
inhibits CO2 (Mitochondria)
Ketones
101
102. Low Blood Glucose and Insulin
• Increased release of nonesterified fatty acids
from adipose.
• Less synthesis of fatty acids
Reduced malonyl CoA
• Reduced sensitivity of carnitine palmitoyl-
transferase-1 to malonyl CoA
Increased transfer of fatty acids into
mitochondria for oxidation
• Increased ketone production
102
103. Fatty Acid Oxidation
FA acyl CoA
Acetyl CoA
CO2
Acetoacetyl CoA
Acetoacetate
(Mitochondria)
3-OH butyrate
FA acyl carnitine
Carnitine
CoA
103
104. Low Milk Fat
Cows fed high concentrate diets:
Reduced milk fat percentage
Early theory
Low rumen pH
Shift from acetate to propionate production
Increased blood insulin
Decrease in blood growth hormone
More recent theory
Increased production of trans fatty acids in
the rumen
Trans fatty acids reduce milk fat synthesis
104
105. Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Ruminants
Synthesis is primarily in adipose or mammary gland
– Limited synthesis in the liver
Ruminants conserve glucose supply
– Glucose not extensively used for long chain
fatty acid synthesis
Most of carbon is supplied by acetate
Some butyrate used in mammary gland
Glucose metabolism supplies some of NADPH
needed for fatty acid synthesis 105
108. Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Citrate Citrate
Isocitrate
NADP Isocitrate
NADPH dehydrogenase
a-Ketoglutarate
Mitochondria Cytosol
Supplies about half of NADPH for fatty acid synthesis
108
109. Long-Chain Fatty Acid Synthesis
Butyrate
• Can be used in mammary gland as primer for
synthesis of fatty acids
• Shorter chain acids
Methylmalonyl (propionate)
• Is used as primer for synthesis of fatty acids
in sheep fed high-concentrate diets
• Branched-chain acids
109
111. Lipids
Lipids (fats & oils)
Most livestock feeds contain 1-5% fat or oil
• Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
• Dense energy source:
– 1 g fat = 9.45 kcal GE
– 1 g protein = 3.5 kcal GE
– 1 g CHO = 4.2 kcal GE
• Thus, fat produces 2.25 times the energy than CHO
111
112. Lipids
1. Triglyceride: primary storage form of lipids
2. Saturated fatty acids: contain no double
bonds
3. Unsaturated fatty acids: contain 1 or more
double bonds
112
114. Lipids
• Fats = solid at room temp = animal origin
– saturated
• Oils = liquid at room temp = plant origin +
fish
– unsaturated
114
115. Functions of Lipids
• Dietary energy supply
• Source of insulation & protection
• Source of essential fatty acids (EFA)
• Carrier for fat soluble vitamins
115
116. Lipids
• Essential fatty acids (EFA): Those fatty acids that an
animal requires, but which it cannot be synthesized in
adequate amounts to meet the animal’s need
– Linoleic C18:2
– Linolenic C18:3
– Arachidonic C20:4
116
117. Oleic Acid (OA): C18:1, n-9 or -9
Good source: Olive oil, Peanut oil, Soy oil
Linoleic Acid (LA): C18:2, n-6 or -6.
Essential Fatty Acid
Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA): C18:3, n-3 or -3.
Essential Fatty Acid
117
118. Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA): C20:5, n-3 or -3. Essential Fatty Acid. Good
source: Fish oil
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): C22:6, n-3 or -3. Essential
Fatty Acid. Good Source: Fish oil
Arachidonic Acid (AA): C20:4, n-6 or -6. Good source:
Liver, Beef. 118
119. EFA
• Physiological needs:
– Cell membrane structure
– Synthesis of prostaglandins which
control blood pressure and smooth
muscle contractions
• Deficiency:
– Scaly, flaky skin (Poor feather growth)
– Poor growth
119
121. Sources of Lipids (EFA)
• Most feeds contain low levels
– > 10%
• Unprocessed oil seeds (soybean, cottonseed,
sunflower seed) contain up to 20% fat
• Forages and Fodders are not good sources
• Traditionally, if additional fat is needed it is added
to the diet
– Animal fats
– Vegetable oils
121
122. Lipid Digestion
• Occurs in the small intestine (duodenum)
• Bile produced by liver emulsifies fat
• Pancreatic lipase (enzyme) breaks apart
fat for absorption
• Monoglycerides (MG)—absorbed into SI
mucosal cells
• Free Fatty Acids (FFA)—absorbed into SI
mucosal cells or enter blood circulation
directly 122
123. Lipid Absorption
• Very efficient
– Absorption rates range from 70-96%
• Generally, oils (unsaturated fats) are
absorbed more completely than fats
(saturated fats)
123
124. Ketosis
• Disorder of metabolism
– Insufficient energy intake in high producing
animals (e.g. Dairy cattle in early lactation and
sheep in late pregnancy)
– Results in catabolism (breakdown) of body
energy (fat) reserves
124
125. Ketosis
• 2 C fragments (ketones) of fat catabolism
(breakdown) build up
• Toxic levels cause
– Body weight loss
– Abortion
– Poor milk production
125
126. Ideal = no limitation to burn fat in the CAC
126
132. Proteins
• Principal constituent of organs and soft
tissues
• Highest concentration of any nutrient,
except water, in the body of all living
organisms and animals
• Required for life
132
133. Nutrients
Function of Proteins
• supply amino acids for body proteins
- muscle; bone; connective tissue; hormones;
enzymes; antibodies; milk components; cell repair
133
134. Proteins
• DEFINITION: Proteins are long chains of
amino acids (AA)
– Formed by peptide linkages
• Amino group + carbon skeleton
134
135. Proteins
Amino Acid (AA) Protein (2 AA joined by peptide
bond between carboxyl
and amino group
135
136. Proteins
• Dietary requirements highest in young,
growing animals and declines at maturity
• Large molecules that vary greatly in size,
shape, and function
– MW = 5000 to millions
136
137. Categories of Protein
1. Essential Amino Acids (EAA):
– required in the diet
– cannot be synthesized at a rate sufficient to
meet the nutritional requirements
137
138. Essential AA
• PVT TIM HALL (KNOW!)
• Phenylalanine
• Valine
• Threonine
• Tryptophan
• Isoleucine
• Methionine
• Histidine
• Arginine
• Lysine
• Leucine
138
139. Categories of Protein
2. Nonessential AA
– animal can produce enough to meet it’s
requirements
3. Semi-essential AA
– Animal can not always produce enough to
meet its requirements
139
140. Functions of Protein
• Basic structural units of animal body
– Collagen, blood, elastin
• Body metabolism
– Enzymes, hormones, immune system,
hereditary transmission
• Production
– Meat, milk, egg, skin/hair
140
142. Sources of Protein
• Most common feedstuffs contain some
protein (the quality is another issue)
– Animal origin diets are the richest sources
– Plant origin diets are also good sources of
proteins
• KEY: to combine feedstuffs into the diet
so that AA requirements are met
– e.g. Using a corn-soybean meal diet for pigs
142
143. Protein Digestion
• Proteins must be broken down into AA for
absorption in the GIT
– Exception! Early in life (> 48 h after birth)
proteins from milk (immunoglobulins) can be
absorbed intact across the intestinal
epithelium
143
145. Monogastric Protein Digestion
• Stomach: HCl unfolds (denatures) proteins
and activates pepsinogen secreted by
stomach to pepsin
– Pepsin begins protein digestion to peptides
(short-chain proteins)
• Small intestine: enzymes (trypsin) break
peptides into AA
145
146. Monogastric Protein
Absorption
• AA are absorbed in anterior part of the
small intestine
– Jejunum and ileum
• AA are absorbed and transported to tissue
via blood
146
148. Ruminant Protein Digestion
• In rumen, microbes break down protein to
peptides and AA and then degraded
further to ammonia, VFAs, and carbon
dioxide
• Ammonia and/or NPN (urea) + CHO
source form microbial proteins
148
149. Ruminant Protein Absorption
• Protein can be absorbed through rumen
wall as ammonia
• Microbial proteins pass to the lower
intestine where they are converted to AA
and absorbed
149
150. RUMEN
BLOOD STREAM
URINE
SALIVA
ABOMASUM &
SMALL INT.
LIVER TISSUES
FECES
N metabolism in ruminants
FEED
protein
NPN
protein
protein
feed
protein
NPN
microbial protein
peptides
amino acids
NH3 NH3
NH3
urea
urea urea
protein
amino acids
amino acids
endogen.
nitrogen
metabolic
fecal
protein
150
151. Fates of Absorbed AA
1. Tissue protein synthesis
2. Synthesis of enzymes, hormones & other
metabolites
3. Use for energy (inefficient energy source)
151
152. Various points at which amino acids enter the
Krebs cycle for oxidation
152
154. Minerals
• Inorganic components of the diet
– inorganic elements (contain no carbon), component left
after ashing
• Can not be synthesized or decomposed by
chemical reactions
• Total mineral content is called “ash”
• Makes up 3-5% of the body weight
154
156. Categories of Minerals
• Macro Minerals: Minerals normally present at
greater levels in animal body or needed in large
amounts in the diet (found in concentrations >
100 ppm)
– Calcium (Ca)
– Phosphorus (P)
– Sodium (Na)
– Chloride (Cl)
– Magnesium (Mg)
– Potassium (K)
– Sulfur (S)
+ C O N
156
157. Categories of Minerals
• Micro (Trace) Minerals: Minerals normally present at low
levels in animal body or needed in small amounts in the
diet (found in concentrations < 100 ppm)
– Cobalt (Co)
– Copper (Cu)
– Fluoride (Fl)
– Iodine (I)
– Iron (Fe)
– Manganese (Mn)
– Molybdenum (Mo)
– Selenium (Se)
– Zinc (Zn)
157
158. General Mineral Functions
• Skeletal formation and maintenance (Ca, P, Mg,
Cu, Mn)
• Protein synthesis (P, S, Zn)
• Oxygen transport (Fe, Cu)
• Fluid balance—osmotic pressure (Na, Cl, K)
• Acid-base balance regulation (Na, Cl, K)
• Activators or components of enzyme systems
(Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn)
• Mineral-Vitamin relationships (Ca, P, Co, Se)
158
159. Macro Mineral Deficiencies
• Ca and P
– Inadequate bone mineralization
• Rickets (young)
• Osteomalacia (adult)
– Phytate P—bound and unavailable to nonruminants
• Mg
– Grass tetany-convulsions, coma, death
• Likely in grazing, lactating females in early spring
or fall
• Mg is there in the plant, just in bound form due to
lack of sunlight
159
160. Macro Mineral Deficiencies
• Fe
– Anemia (insufficient haemoglobin)
– Young pigs (rapid growth, low stores, low Fe
in milk)
160
161. Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Mn
– Poor growth
– Poultry—Perosis—deformed and enlarged
hock joints
• I
– Goiter—swollen thyroid
161
162. Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Cu
– Fading hair coat color (depigmentation)
– Low Cu utilization may result when excess Mo or Zn
• Zn
– Parakeratosis (dermatitis-thickening of skin)
– Poor hair or feather development
– Exacerbated by high Ca
162
163. Trace Mineral Deficiencies
• Se
– White muscle disease-nutritional muscular
dystrophy
• Muscle appears white due to Ca-P deposits
– Due to low concentration of Se in soil
163
164. Mineral Toxicities
• Usually not a problem
• NaCl can be for swine and poultry
– Levels above 8%--causes nervous disorders
• Cu a big problem for sheep and young animals
– Mineral mixes for other species/age groups used
• Se has a small margin between requirement (0.3
ppm) & toxicity (8 ppm)
– Plants grown in regions of high soil Se
164
165. Sources of Minerals
• Forages usually considered good sources
of minerals
– Largely dependant on soil conditions
• Grains are fair source of P, but low in
other minerals
• Mineral premixes
• Mineral blocks
165
167. Mineral Functions
• Part of some amino acids & vitamins
• metabolic reactions
• enzyme function
• body structure
• transport oxygen
Deficiency examples
White muscle
=selenium
Grass Tetany
=magnesium
Rickets
=calcium
White hair on black cattle
=copper
Anemia
=iron
Retained Placenta
=selenium and Vitamin E
167
168. Vitamins
• What are vitamins?
• What are their roles in animal production?
168
169. small amounts for specific body
functions
a. 2 classifications
1. water soluble – C & B-
complex (see Fig 5-1)
– microbes synthesize in
ruminants & horses
2. fat soluble – A, D, E, K
– A & E required in
diets of all animals
– D – produced by
effects of sun on skin
– K – synthesis by
rumen/cecum
microbes
169
170. Types of Vitamins
• Fat-soluble vitamins
– Vit A (carotene): vision
– Vit D: Ca, P absorption
– Vit E (tocopherol): antioxidant
– Vit K (menadione): blood clotting
• Short shelf life (3-4 months)
• Need lipids for absorption
• Destroyed by heat, minerals
170
175. Most likely deficient…
• In practical situations:
– Ruminants: A, E, D (limited circumstances)
– Swine: riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid,
choline, B12, A, D, and sometimes E
– Poultry: All vitamins except Vitamin C, inositol
175
177. Sources of Vitamins
• A: green, leafy forages, corn, fish oil
• D: fish oils, sun-cured hay
• E: seed germ oils, green forage or hay
• K: green forage, fish meal, synthetic menadione
177
178. Sources of Vitamins
• B Vitamins: green forages usually
– Niacin: present in grains, but unavailable to
nonruminants
• B12: protein feeds of animal origin, fermentation
products
• C: citrus fruits, green, leafy forages, well-cured
hay
178
179. Sources of Vitamins
• Most nonruminants rations contain a
vitamin premix
– Consume basically no forages and B vitamins
are poorly available from cereal grains
179
180. Vitamin Absorption
• Most vitamins are absorbed in the upper
portion of the small intestine
• Water soluble vitamins are rapidly
absorbed
• Fat soluble vitamin absorption relies on fat
absorption mechanisms
180
181. Vitamins
• Organic substances required by the animal in
very small amounts
• Necessary for metabolic activity but not part of
body structure
• Content varies greatly in the feed
• Requirements depend on species
– Monogastrics = a lot b/c cannot synthesize
– Ruminants = few vitamins due to microbial synthesis
181
183. Formulation of Feeds
Feed formulation: the preparation of
nutritionally-complete diets for feeding animals
Least-cost feed formulation:
a feed formula that is both nutritionally-complete and,
with a minimum ingredient cost
Now-a-days is developed and completed
through the use of computers using linear-
programming software
Manual feed formulations (pearson square,
algebiric, trial error)
-Nutrient composition (proximate + detergent fiber)
basic for formulation of feeds 183
184. Least-cost Formulation
• Least-cost feed formulations require that the
following information be provided:
cost of feed ingredients
nutrient content of feed ingredients
nutrient requirement of the animal
availability of the nutrient to the animal
minimum-maximum restrictions on levels
184
185. Least-cost Formulations
Costs of feed ingredients and nutrient content are fairly
available for most commercial feedstuffs
costs can be evaluated on a daily basis
nutrient requirements are fairly well known
the most critical piece of information regards
digestibility/availability of nutrients within the feed
ingredient
various indices: digestible energy (DE), metabolisable
energy (ME), apparent protein digestibility (APD), etc.
these can be set in formula with restrictions
Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content (DM/as-
is-bases)
185
186. Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
A) Dry matter (DM) basis - The amount contained in only the
DM portion of the feed ingredient/diet, i.e., without water.
[Because feeds contain varying amounts of DM, perhaps,
simpler and more accurate if both the composition and
nutrient requirements are expressed on a DM basis!?]
B) As-fed basis - The amount contained in the feed
ingredient/diet as it would be fed to the animal; including
water.
C) Air-dry basis:
1) Usually, assumed to be approximately 90% DM.
2) Most feeds will equilibrate to about 90% DM after a
prolonged, aerobic storage.
3) Air-dry and as-fed basis may be the same for many
common feeds. 186
187. Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
1)Percent dry matter?
Determined by drying a sample to remove all
the moisture, and the weight of the remaining
is expressed as a percent of the original
weight.
Example - "1.0 g of maize grain is dried and
0.90 g of maize grain remained after drying,"
then:
0.9/1.0*100=90% DM
187
188. 2/As-Fed Basis Converted to DM
Basis
a) Can be converted by:
188
Nutrient % on as-fed basis = Nutrient % on DM
basis
% DM in the feed expressed as
decimal fraction
% Nutrient (as-fed basis) = % Nutrient (DM basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM
OR
189. As-Fed Basis Converted to DM Basis
• Example - "Alfalfa silage analyzed to contain
7% CP on an as-fed basis and contained 40%
DM. What would be the CP content on DM
basis?"
• (0.07 ÷ 0.40)*100 = 17.5% CP on DM basis, or
189
7 = X = 17.5% CP on DM basis
40 100
190. 3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
Can be converted by:
A) Nutrient % on DM basis x % DM in the
feed expressed as decimal fraction =
Nutrient % on as-fed basis
OR
190
% Nutrient (as-fed
basis)
= % Nutrient (DM
basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM
191. 3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
• Example? - "Alfalfa silage analyzed contain
10% crude fiber (CF) on a DM basis. If the
linseed meal contains 91% DM, what would be
the % CF expressed on an as-fed basis?“
– 10.0 x 0.91 = 9.1, thus 9.1% on as-fed basis, or
191
x 10 = 9.1% Crude fiber on as-fed
basis
91 100
192. 4/DM/as-fed basis Converted to
Air-Dry Basis
A) DM basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):
Nutrient % on DM basis x 0.90 = Nutrient
% on air-dry basis
B) As-fed basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):
= (90/ % Feed DM)x Nutrient % on as-fed
basis = Nutrient % on air-dry basis
192
193. 5/Amount in DM and as-fed?
A) Amount in DM = Amount in as-fed DM
content (decimal)
B) Amount in DM = X (amount in as-fed)
DM content (decimal)
Amount in as-fed?
X = Amount in DM/ DM content (Decimal)
193
194. 6/ Rule of thumb for conversions
A. When converting from "as-fed to DM?"
• 1) The nutrient content will increase.
• 2)The weight will decrease
B. When converting from "DM to as-fed?"
• 1) The nutrient content will decrease.
• 2) The weight will increase.
194
195. Balancing rations-using the
Pearson Square
• EXAMPLE
• 1,000 kg of feed is needed to feed a 50-kg
growing calves. A feeding standards table
shows that a 14% crude protein ration is
needed. Maize and Soybean oil meal
(SBOM) are selected as feeds. A feed
composition table shows that maize has
8.9% and SBOM has 45.8% CP on DM
basis. How much maize and soybean oil
meal need to be mixed together for 1,000 kg
of feed? 195
196. STEP 1
• Draw a square with lines connecting the
opposite corners.
• Write the percent of crude protein (14) in the
center of the square.
14
196
197. STEP 2
• Write the feeds to be used and their crude
protein percents at the left hand corners of
the square.
14
Maize 8.9
Soybean oil meal 45.8
197
198. STEP 3
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,
along the diagonal lines. Write the
differences at the opposite end of the
diagonals.
14
Corn 8.9
Soybean
oil meal 45.8
31.8= 45.8-14
5.1 =14-8.9
198
199. STEP 3
• The difference between the percent protein in
the soybean oil meal and the percent protein in
the ration are the parts of maize needed.
• The difference between the percent protein in
the maize and the percent protein in the ration
are the parts of soybean oil meal needed.
• The sum of the numbers on the right equals the
difference in the numbers on the left. This fact
is used as a check to see if the square is set up
correctly.
199
201. STEP 4
• Divide the parts of each feed by the total
parts to find the percent of each feed in
the ration
–Maize 31.8/36.9 x100 = 86.2%
–Soybean oil meal =5.1/36.9x100=13.8%
201
202. STEP 5
• It is known that 1,000 kg of the mixture is
needed. To find the kg of each feed in the
mix, the percent of each feed is multiplied by
the total kilograms of the mix
– Maize 1,000 x 0.862= 862 kg
– SBOM 1,000 x 0.138= 138 kg
*Numbers have been rounded to full pounds.
202
203. STEP 6
• Check the mix to ensure that the protein need
is met. Multiply the pounds of the feed in the
it’s precent protein .
– Maize 862 kg 0.089= 77 kg of maize protein
– SBOM 138kg 0.458= 63 kg of SBOM protein
• Add the kgs of protein together
– 77kg + 63kg = 140kg
• Divide by the total weight of the mix
– 140kg/1,000kg x 100= 14%
• The mix is balanced for crude protein content!
203
204. Using Algebraic Equation to
Balance Ration
• May be used instead of Pearson Square
• Basic equations are
X= kilograms of grain needed
Y= kilograms of supplement
• Equation #1
X+Y= total kilogram of mix needed
• Equation # 2
(% Nutrient in grain) (X) + (% Nutrient in
supplement) (Y) = kilograms of nutrient desired
204
205. EXAMPLE
• Same example as the 1st Pearson Square
Example
• Mix of 1,000 kg is to be balanced for protein
using two feeds.
• Place the desired values in equation 2
– REMEMBER TO EXPRESS % AS DECIMALS
• 0.089X+0.458Y=140
– 140 is found by multiplying the quantity of feed
(1,000 kg) by the percent (14) [or the amount] of
nutrient desired: 1,000 x 0.14
205
206. EXAMPLE cont…
• Either X or Y must be canceled by the
multiplication of equation 1 by the
percentage of nutrients for either X or Y, and
the resulting equation 3 is subtracted from
equation 2.
• This example uses the percentage crude
protein for maize (0.089), giving equation 3
0.089X+0.089Y = 89 (89 is found by multiplying
0.089 1,000 kg)
206
207. EXAMPLE cont…
SUBTRACT equation 3 from equation 2
0.089X + 0.458Y =140
-0.089X - 0.089Y = -89
0+ 0.369Y= 51
Y= 138 kilograms soybean meal
X may then be found by substituting the value of Y in
equation or 2 and solving
X+138 = 1,000
X=1,000-138
X= 862 kg of maize
OR , you can use equation 2:
(0.089X + 0.458 (138) =140
207
208. Algebraic Equations
• Get the same result as Pearson square
• May be used to balance rations using 3 or
more feeds
• Same initial step must be taken as when
using the Pearson Square—group similar
feeds into two groups and determine the
proportions of each to be used in each
group
– After this is done the same procedure as above
is followed. 208
209. Algebraic diet formulation (equation with one unknown, X)
(A)
Example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using corn (8.8% CP) and
a protein supplement (35% CP), with 3% rye (11.9% CP) and
7.5% milo (11.0% CP)."
2) Known quantities?
3% rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus the remaining 89.5% to
be balanced!
3) Procedure & check? Algebraic equation with one un known, X:
If % supplement = X
% corn = 89.5 - X
0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) + 0.088 (89.5 - X) + 0.35X = 0.12 (100)
From left, lb CP from rye, lb CP from milo, lb CP from corn, lb
CP from supplement, and lb CP in 100 lb of diet.
209
211. B. Algebraic diet formulation (using
equations with two unknowns, X & Y)
The same example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using
corn (8.8% CP) and a protein supplement (35% CP), with
3% rye (11.9% CP) and 7.5% milo (11.0% CP).”
Known quantities & fixed amount of CP?
a) 3% Rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus remaining 89.5%
to be balanced.
b) 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5)
= 0.357 + 0.825 = 1.182, or 1.182 lb of CP per 100 lb
of diet (or 1.182%) is fixed.
Thus, the remaining protein (10.818 lb/100 lb feed)
must be balanced with corn and supplement., 1.182+
10.818=12
3) Procedure & check? - See below 211
212. Algebraic equation with two unknowns, X & Y:
• X = lb corn in the diet
• Y = lb supplement in the diet
• Equation 1: X + Y = 89.5 lb diet
• Equation 2: 0.088X + 0.35Y = 10.818 lb CP
• Equation 3: -0.088X + -0.088Y = -7.876 (=0.08889.5)
0 + 0.262Y = 2.942
Y= 11.229 (lb supplement)
X = 89.5 - 11.229 = 78.271 (lb corn)
• Check?
• 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) + 0.088 (78.271) + 0.35 (11.229) = ?
• 0.357 + 0.825 + 6.888 + 3.930 = 12
212
213. C. Pearson square
1) The same example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using corn
(8.8% CP) and a protein supplement (35% CP), with 3% rye
(11.9% CP) and 7.5% milo (11.0% CP)."
2) Known quantities & fixed amount of CP?
a) 3% Rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus remaining 89.5% to be
balanced.
b) 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) = 0.357 + 0.825 = 1.182, or 1.182 lb of
CP per 100 lb of diet (or 1.182%) is fixed.
Thus, the remaining protein (10.818 lb/100 lb of feed or
10.818%) must be balanced with corn and supplement.
c) Need to determine the % CP necessary in corn supplement
combination to provide 10.818 lb/100 lb of feed . . .
10.818/89.5 x 100 = 12.087%.
3) Procedure & check? - See below
213
214. Pearson square
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,
along the diagonal lines. Write the differences
at the opposite end of the diagonals.
12.08%
Corn 8.8
Supplement 35 %
22.913 parts corn
3.287 parts supplement
26.2 total parts
214
216. Formulate a supplement (500 kg) to be fed with
1,500 kg of maize of complete diet."
%CP, % Ca, , % P,
Maize 8.8 0.03 0.27
SBOM 50.9 0.26 0.62
Dical - 23.35 18.21
Lime - 35.8 -
Use SBOM, Dical, Lime, salt, Vit premix, TM premix and maize as a carrier, and
Pigs need 14% CP, 0.5% Ca, 0.4% P, 0.5% salt, 0.1% TM (trace mineral) premix &
1.0% Vit premix. 216
217. Determine the "specifications" for the supplement
a) Complete diet is:
– 1500/2000100 = 75% maize
– 500/2000100 = 25% supplement
b) % CP in supplement:
– 0.088 (0.75) + X(25) = 0.14
0.066 + 0.25X = 0.14
0. 25X = 0.074
X = 0.296
[Thus, 0.296 x 100 = 29.6% (% CP in
supplement)]
217
218. c) % Ca in supplement:
0.0003 (0.75) + X (0. 25) = 0.005
0.000225 + 0.25X = 0.005
0.25X = 0.4775
X = 0.0191
[Thus, 0.0191 x 100 = 1.91% (% Ca in supplement)]
d/ % P in supplement:
0.0027 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.004
0.2025 + 25X = 0.004
0.25X = 0.001975
X = 0.0079
[Thus, 0.0079 X100 = 0.79% (% P in supplement)]
218
219. e) % salt in supplement:
0 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.005
X = 0.02
[Thus, 0.02 x 100 = 2% (% salt in supplement)]
f) % TM in supplement:
0 (0.75) + X (0.25) = 0.001
X = 0.004
[Thus, 0.004 x 100 = 0.4% (% TM premix in
supplement)]
219
Supplement specification, %
CP 29.6
Ca 1.9
P 0.8
Salt 2.0
TM premix 0.4
Vit premix 4
220. Ration formulation, Example 4
• In this example, a ration will be balanced using corn,
wheat hay, and cotton seed meal (feed values are listed
as: maize, 88% DM, 88.9% TDN, 9.8% CP, 0.03% Ca,
0.31% P; wheat hay: 84% DM, 53% TDN, 9.1% CP,
0.16% Ca, 0.24% P; cottonseed meal: 92% DM, 75%
TDN, 46.1% CP, 0.20% Ca, 1.16%P) for a 350-kg heifer
calf with a desired gain of 2.5 lb/day. Her daily
requirements are (heifer: weight 700, DMI (lb/d, 16.4),
ADG (lb/d, 2.5), TDN, lb/day (12.6 lb), CP, lb/day (1.68),
Ca, lb/day (28), P, lb/day (16):
– 16.4 lb daily dry matter intake
– 76.8% TDN (12.6 lb TDN ÷ 16.4 lb dry matter intake)
– 10.2% CP (1.68 lb CP ÷ 16.4 lb dry matter intake)
220
221. To balance this ration:
1) Balance for TDN
1.Draw a square and write 76.8 (the desired TDN
concentration) in the middle of the square (fig. 4)
2.At the upper left corner of the square, write “wheat
hay = 53%”.
3.At the lower left corner, write “corn = 88.9%”. These
numbers represent the TDN percentage in each
feedstuff.
Note: The nutrient requirement in the middle of the
square must be between the nutrient concentrations
of the two ingredients. 221
222. Balance for TDN
4/ Subtract diagonally across the square, converting
negative answers to positive, and write the numbers on
the right side of the square (top value = 11.2, bottom
value = 23.8%)
5/ Sum the numbers on the right side of the square (11.2 +
23.8 = 35%). These numbers indicate that a ration of
11.2 parts wheat hay and 23.8 parts corn (a total of 35
parts) will result in a ration with 76.8 percent TDN.
6/ Divide the wheat hay and corn “parts” by 35 to get the
percentages of wheat hay (11.2 ÷ 35 = 32%) and corn
(23.8 ÷ 35 = 68%). 222
223. Balancing for TDN using the Pearson Square method
Balacing:
76.8%
Wheat hay 53%
Whole corn 88.9 %
11.2 ÷ 35 = 0.32 (32%
23.8 ÷ 35 = 0.68 (68%)
35 total parts 100%
223
224. 2. Determine if crude protein is adequate
a) Multiply the percent of each feedstuff in the mix by its
crude protein content. Wheat hay is 32 percent of the mix
and contains 9.1 percent crude protein. Corn is 68 percent
of the mix and contains 9.8 percent crude protein.
Therefore, the crude protein concentration in the mix is:
– Wheat hay: 0.32 × 9.1 = 2.91%
– Corn: 0.68 × 9.8 = 6.66%
– 2.91 + 6.66 = 9.57%, crude protein is not adequate
(is < 10.2%)
224
225. b) The crude protein content of the diet needs to be
increased by adding a protein supplement (cotton seed
meal for this example).
• Another Pearson Square will be used to determine the
correct amount of cotton seed meal.
225
226. 3. Determine amount of protein supplement needed
a. Draw a square and write 10.2 (the desired CP
concentration) in the middle of the square.
226
wheat hay: corn mix 9.57
%
Cotton seed meal
46.1%
35.9 ÷ 36.53 = .983
(98.3%)
0.63 ÷ 36.53 = 0.017
(1.7%)
10.2%
227. • b. At the upper left corner of the square, write
“wheat hay:corn mix = 9.57”. At the lower left
corner, write “cottonseed meal = 46.1”.
• These numbers represent the CP percentage
in each feedstuff.
• Note: The nutrient requirement in the middle
of the square must be between the nutrient
concentrations of the two ingredients.
227
228. • c. Subtract diagonally across the square,
converting negative answers to positive,
and write the numbers on the right side of
the square (top value = 35.9, bottom value
= 0.63).
228
229. d). Sum the numbers on the right side of the
square (35.9 + 0.63 = 36.53). These numbers
indicate that a ration of 35.9 parts wheat hay:
corn mix and 0.63 parts cottonseed meal (a
total of 36.53 parts) will result in a ration with
10.2 percent CP.
e). Divide the wheat hay: corn mix and
cottonseed meal “parts” by 36.53 to get the
percentages of wheat hay: corn mix (35.9 ÷
36.53 = 98.3%) and cottonseed meal (0.63 ÷
36.53 = 1.7%).
229
230. 4. Determine the pounds of dry matter that each feedstuff
contributes to the total, and convert from dry matter to as-fed
basis.
A)
Multiply the dry matter intake of the heifer (16.4 lb) by the
percentage of cotton seed meal in the ration (16.4 × 0.017 =
0.28 lb cottonseed meal).
Subtract this amount from total dry matter intake to determine
how much of the dry matter intake remains for the wheat hay
: corn mix (16.4 – 0.28 = 16.12).
Then multiply 16.12 by the relative amounts of wheat hay
and corn obtained from the first Pearson square (32 percent
wheat hay and 68 percent corn).
• Wheat hay: 16.12 × 0.32 = 5.16 lb wheat hay, dry
matter basis 230
231. b)
• Convert the individual amounts from dry
matter to as-fed basis. This step is required in
order to know how much of each ingredient to
feed to the heifer. The pounds of dry matter of
each feed are divided by the percentage of
dry matter in each feed.
– Cotton seed meal: 0.28 lb ÷ 0.92 = 0.30 lb CSM,
as fed
– Wheat hay: 5.16 ÷ 0.84 = 6.14 lb alfalfa hay, as-
fed
– Corn: 10.96 ÷ 0.88 = 12.45 lb whole corn, as-fed
basis
231
232. Example 5.Using the Pearson Square to Mix
Two Grains with a Supplement (START)
• Can be used to find out how much of two
grains should be mixed with a supplement
• Proportions of grain must be known first
232
233. EXAMPLE
• 2,000 pound mix of corn, oats and
soybean oil meal is needed. The mix is to
contain 16% Digestible Protein. A decision
is made to use ¾ corn and ¼ oats in the
mix. Thus, the proportion of corn to oats is
3:1. SBOM has 41.7% CP. How many
pounds of corn, oats and soybean oil meal
are needed?
233
234. STEP 1
• Need to find the weighted average percent of
protein in the corn and oats first.
• To do this
– Multiply the proportion of corn (3) by the percent
digestible protein in corn (7.1). Do the same for
oats. Then add the two answers together and
divide by the total parts (4). This answer is the
weighted average percentage of digestible protein
in the corn oats mix.
– Take 7.1% TDN for corn, 9.9% TDN for oats
234
235. STEP 1 cont…
• 3 x 7.1=21.3 (Corn)
• 1 x 9.9= 9.9 (Oats)
31.2
• 31.2/4= 7.8% Digestible Protein in the corn-
oats mix
235
236. Using the Pearson Square X
• Used in the same method as before to mix two
feeds.
• On a sheet of paper, work out this problem
16
3 parts Corn, 1 part oats 7.8%
Soybean oil meal 41.7%
236