NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-8 2
NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-8 1
Hello Elton,
I appreciate your note. YES. Keep trying. I know that making the transition to doctoral-level reasoning can be hard! It was very hard for me in some areas because it seemed … unnatural. Does that make sense? Some aspects of this type of thinking seemed “clunky” and hard to explain in plain language. I wanted research problems, research purpose statements, etc. to simply flow. In the beginning of my journey there was very little flow (more like trickles) and lots of missteps!
For this assignment, you were asked to build on your assignment last week to further explore how you might examine your research problem using a quantitative methodology. You were required to respond to these questions:
· Please restate the research problem, purpose, and research questions you developed previously and incorporate any faculty feedback as appropriate. This week be sure to also include hypotheses for each of your research questions.
· How might surveys be used to answer your research questions? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using surveys to collect data?
· How might you use an experiment or quasi-experiment to answer your research questions? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using (quasi)experiments to collect your data?
· It is also important to consider how you might analyze the potential data you collect and factors that could affect those analyses. Specifically, what are Type I and Type II errors? How might these impact your study? What is statistical power? How might this impact your study? What steps can you take ahead of time to help avoid issues related to Type I & II errors as well as power?
As part of our standard, you were also required to use scholarly sources to support all assertions and research decisions.
Length: 5 to 7 pages, not including title and reference pages
I used the rubric below to assess your submission. As I moved through each section of your paper, I looked for information that demonstrated you understood important research terms such as hypothesis, null hypothesis, Type I and Type II Errors and statistical power. In most instances you demonstrated some understanding of these concepts or terms. In several instances your understanding hindered your ability to create rigorous hypotheses because there were aspects of these terms that remained unclear. I added several prompts and questions to help you in these areas.
Grading Rubric
Criteria
Content (4 points)
Points
1
State research problem, purpose, research questions and hypotheses
1.5/2
2
Discussed in detail the advantages and disadvantages of using surveys to collect data
.75/ 1
3
Explained how you could use experiments or quasi-experiments to collect data for your study and the advantages and disadvantages of these designs
.75/1
Organization (1 point)
4
Organized and presented in a clear manner. Included a minimum of five scholarly references, with appropri.
Running head SURVEY METHODS1SURVEY METHODS 2,.docxtodd521
Running head: SURVEY METHODS 1
SURVEY METHODS 2
,
I appreciate the online submission of the assignment. I want to remind you of the importance of submitting assignments on-time to avoid late penalties. This is particularly true with the signature assignment that is worth a significant portion of your overall course grade.
In a 6-9-page paper using a minimum of 5 scholarly sources, you are to complete a three- part assignment. In the first, you are to select a method of survey administration and the provide the rationale for that selection for each of 4 different research objectives. In part 2, you are to provide a list of questions that would be used on a questionnaire to meet the objectives. Finally, assuming that you may be using a survey in your research, you are to decide on and explain the method of administration you would use.
You met the assignment requirements with respect to the use of scholarly sources and meeting page expectations. I was surprised to not see the textbook on the reference page given that this should be your primary source for basic information. The text was selected by the faculty due to both content and level. That is why this is required, not optional, reading.
There is an issue with respect to APA formatting that is somewhat surprising given this is the fifth week in the course. First, you are not adhering to the required line spacing. Second, you need to be applying feedback on past assignments. For instance, how the assignment should be spaced is shown below as an example. Finally, while you want to use headings to organize your paper, this can be overdone. In the first part 1 of the assignment, you are asked to decide on the method of survey administration for a number of scenarios. In part 2, you are being asked to provide a list of questions that would meet the objective. Together, these are not mini-papers for each scenario. Therefore, it is not necessary or appropriate to have an introduction and conclusion for each one with is often redundant and repetitive. It is important to remember that scholarly writing is to be both precise and concise. That is, you want to provide the necessary information without excess verbiage and repetition. A brief introduction to the paper overall or even each part might be appropriate but is not necessary. You were advised of this previously.
Overall, in part one, you are not providing a sufficient rationale for the selection of your survey method. As advised in the feedback on the last assignment, this involves examining the specifics of the information needs, who are the target respondents and availability of sampling frames and the criteria to be used in the selection of a method. This is discussed at length in the required reading. As noted in the assignment instructions, “The researcher needs to carefully consider the objectives of the study, the questions that need to be asked and the target respondents in addition to the pros/cons of the alternatives.”
It.
Example 1Research MethodologyTranscendental phenomenology is a.docxcravennichole326
Example 1
Research Methodology
Transcendental phenomenology is a research methodology where researchers gain first-hand information about the participant’s experience with the specific phenomenon. The researcher then reports that information just as the participant expressed it, without adding in any biases or interpretations (Percy & Kostere, 2008). Creswall and Poth (2018) have said that transcendental phenomenology would be best used when the goal is to obtain the participant’s raw feelings and lived experience about a phenomenon.
The sampling strategy that will be utilized is utilization focused sampling. In this sampling strategy, cases are selected in order to provide researchers with in-depth information that can lead to better decision-making in the future (Patton, 2015). This sampling strategy was chosen because they study will focus on parent experiences with token economies, which will provide practitioners with better direction on token economy implementation. If researchers find out what the families liked and didn’t like about the token economy, then future implementation could potentially exclude some of those disliked portions to make the token economy more likely to be implemented by families.
Data will be collected through interview. In order to ensure that researcher bias is not included, the researcher will bracket her own beliefs in the margin (Capella, 2006). The sample size will be approximately 8 participants. Creswall and Poth (2018) reported that a sample size for phenomenology ranges from 3-15. By choosing 8 participants, there leaves room for participants to drop out, hopefully without falling below the recommended minimum.
Interview Questions
1. Prior to this study, what were some experiences you have had with a token economy?
2. What are your feelings about the token economy?
3. What did you like about the token economy?
4. What did you dislike about the token economy?
5. Can you describe a time where you experienced a complication with the token economy?
6. What were some things that were particularly easy about the token economy?
7. What were some things that were particularly difficult about the token economy?
8. How would you feel if you were asked to implement a token economy for another month?
9. How did your child adjust to the token economy?
10. What were some changes you had to make in order to develop the token economy?
Professor feedback
Below is general feedback that I am going to try to share with everyone:
Researchers have to be sure that they identify an appropriate sampling strategy and sample size, and then provide support for the choices that are made (support from primary sources, not textbooks). The decisions that are made regarding the strategies that are used to conduct the study need to be presented with a well-supported rationale. In other words, after you have read about the various sampling methods used within qualitative research, choose the method that best fits your study, .
Example 1Research MethodologyTranscendental phenomenology is a.docxelbanglis
This study examines self-esteem in suicide among young men through interviews with connected individuals and suicide notes. The researchers found that for these men, the transition to adulthood brought personal failures and intolerable discrepancies between their actual performances and ideal self-standards. Four themes emerged: striving to find their path as adult men, experiencing failure by their own standards, restricting emotions in relationships, and feeling lonely and rejecting themselves. Understanding suicide outside of mental illness may improve prevention strategies.
This document discusses various methods of exploratory marketing research. It defines exploratory research as initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a problem without providing conclusive evidence. Some common exploratory research methods discussed include secondary data analysis, expert surveys, case studies/ethnographies, pilot studies, and focus groups. The document provides examples and details about how and why each of these methods may be used in exploratory marketing research.
ACTIVITY 1
Chosen Research Design: Qualitative
Why do you think this design is appropriate to your research interest?
Based on my understanding of qualitative research, I believe it can be appropriate for certain types of research questions. In my view, qualitative research is particularly useful for exploring complex phenomena, gaining insights into people's experiences and perspectives, and developing theory. I also recognize that it can be valuable in applied settings, such as healthcare or social work, where understanding people's experiences is crucial for improving practice.
Guide Questions
1. Did you remember the research design listed in the table?
YES, I have remembered all the research design listed in the table.
2. What other research designs did you recall which is/ are not listed in the table?
Longitudinal Study
Cross-sectional Study
Survey Research
Action Research
Participatory Action Research
Grounded Theory
Ethnographic Research
3. Was it easy or hard to determine the research design to be used in your selected topic or interest?
For me, it is easy because in the first place I already have an idea where to start. I believe when you select a topic, you already considered what design you will use.
4. What are the factors that you consider in selecting a research design for your study?
As a researcher, I must consider various factors when selecting a qualitative research design for my study. These include the research question, the purpose of the study, the nature of the phenomenon being studied, and the available resources and time frame. Additionally, I must reflect on my own philosophical and theoretical perspectives to ensure that the chosen design aligns with my worldview and research goals.
Reflection
How does research design make your study colorful/ interesting?
As a researcher, I have come to appreciate how qualitative research design can add color and interest to a study. By using methods such as open-ended interviews, observations, and document analysis, I can capture the rich and complex experiences, perspectives, and contexts of the participants. This type of research allows me to delve deeper into the phenomenon being studied and gain a more nuanced understanding of it.
One of the benefits of using qualitative research is the ability to create vivid descriptions, quotes, and narratives that add depth and meaning to the study. It's fascinating to see how the data can come to life and offer a unique perspective on the topic. Additionally, I've found that unexpected findings often emerge during qualitative research, which can add to the intrigue and interest of the study.
Overall, I believe that qualitative research design offers a powerful way to explore the intricacies and nuances of human experience. It enables me to create a study that is more compelling and engaging, as well as provides insights that cannot be obtained through other research methods.
ACTIVITY 2: TELL ME THE QUANTITY
Directions: Read the qu
The document discusses various considerations for research methods and design, providing an overview of key differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches. It outlines criteria for evaluating each type of research, such as purpose, sample size, variables studied, data collection and analysis methods. Guidelines are also provided for choosing appropriate research tools and designing surveys, with examples of common pitfalls to avoid like leading questions, ambiguous response options, and double-barreled questions.
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3LASA 1.docxDIPESH30
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3
LASA 1: FINAL PROJECT EARLY METHODS SECTION
THE ROLE OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION
PERSONALITY TRAITS ON MARITAL BLISS
STUDENT
_______ UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 15, 2015
Author Note:
This research was carried out as a partial fulfillment towards research methods course by.
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
1. What is your research question?
What is the significance of extroversion and introversion in marriage?
1. What is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis?
Null Hypothesis: Extroversion brings along successful family institution and marital bliss.
Alternate hypothesis: Extroversion does not bring along successful family institution and marital bliss.
1. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not?
20 participants will be engaged in the research study. This is a small number that is easier to manage as well as coordinate their activities during the data collection exercise. Ideally, participants are required and are normally sampled from a large population to be a representative. The nature of the study will require the researcher to get participants who have experiences in marriage. On gender, I will sample equal number of men and women to act as the representative of the general population. The approach is guided by the population in the community where the number of women and men is at par. On age, I will pick individuals from across ages although the highest percentage will constitute of married individuals between the age of 30 and 40 years. Further, I will also pick four individuals who have divorced with the aim of understanding whether introversion or extroversion contributed to their divorce. I will also look at the personal traits of individuals; hence will both social and anti-social individuals. The target participants will precise, representative and homogeneous. They will then be divided into different sets or strata that are mutually exclusive in order to aid it obtaining a systematic process of research.
1. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does yoursample generalize to?
Being a qualitative research, the research will utilize the sampling method in the collection of data. Surveying and questionnaire are the main data collection methods that are normally used in quantitative research. The methods aids in understanding the behavior and effects from different members of the focus groups. The approach helps to reduce biases that may emerge when using a bigger population size while at the same time gu ...
OverviewAs a social science student, it is vitally important t.docxkarlhennesey
Overview
As a social science student, it is vitally important that you become an educated consumer of social science research, even if you never get to conduct an actual research study.
You need to have a basic understanding of the steps in the scientific process, a familiarity with commonly used social science research designs and methods, and a knowledge of procedures for collecting and analyzing social science data.
This module provides very basic information about these topics. It addresses the following subjects:
· the scientific method
· qualitative and quantitative research
· data analysis and presentation
· discipline-specific research designs and methods The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a form of inquiry that was originally developed to answer questions in the natural sciences. The scientific method uses systematic observation and measurement to confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that most often are derived from underlying theories.
When a hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the underlying theory. When it is not confirmed, researchers must reformulate the theory and come up with other explanations. Scientists share their findings by presenting at conferences or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Sharing results with the research world is an important part of the scientific method because science is an iterative activity.
As social scientists, we have a great challenge. Because we cannot exert complete control over human behavior, it is not possible to conduct true experiments. Real life cannot be captured in a lab, and human behavior cannot be explained by one or even two causes. This makes it difficult to determine "cause and effect." For example, if we are interested in knowing why poor people have compromised health outcomes, we would need to account for an impossibly large number of factors or variables such as race, ethnicity, genetic markers, income, education level, access to health care services, and living conditions.
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Figure 4.1
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Source: UMUC PSYC 100.
The use of the scientific method allows researchers to develop explanations of social science phenomena. The steps of the research process are explained from a psychological perspective in this tutorial (Bradley, 2000).
Step 1: Make an Observation
The starting place for any research study is an observation (idea) regarding a topic of interest to you, the researcher. It may come from a conversation with a friend, a book or television program, or the conclusion of a related research project. All that is needed at this point is your interest in pursuing the topic further.
Let's take an example that we will use for all of the steps in the process. You observe that you are able to memorize items such as telephone numbers better when you eat candy. Because of this, you wonder if there is a connection between the primary component of candy (sugar) and memory.
Step 2: Propose a Hypoth ...
Running head SURVEY METHODS1SURVEY METHODS 2,.docxtodd521
Running head: SURVEY METHODS 1
SURVEY METHODS 2
,
I appreciate the online submission of the assignment. I want to remind you of the importance of submitting assignments on-time to avoid late penalties. This is particularly true with the signature assignment that is worth a significant portion of your overall course grade.
In a 6-9-page paper using a minimum of 5 scholarly sources, you are to complete a three- part assignment. In the first, you are to select a method of survey administration and the provide the rationale for that selection for each of 4 different research objectives. In part 2, you are to provide a list of questions that would be used on a questionnaire to meet the objectives. Finally, assuming that you may be using a survey in your research, you are to decide on and explain the method of administration you would use.
You met the assignment requirements with respect to the use of scholarly sources and meeting page expectations. I was surprised to not see the textbook on the reference page given that this should be your primary source for basic information. The text was selected by the faculty due to both content and level. That is why this is required, not optional, reading.
There is an issue with respect to APA formatting that is somewhat surprising given this is the fifth week in the course. First, you are not adhering to the required line spacing. Second, you need to be applying feedback on past assignments. For instance, how the assignment should be spaced is shown below as an example. Finally, while you want to use headings to organize your paper, this can be overdone. In the first part 1 of the assignment, you are asked to decide on the method of survey administration for a number of scenarios. In part 2, you are being asked to provide a list of questions that would meet the objective. Together, these are not mini-papers for each scenario. Therefore, it is not necessary or appropriate to have an introduction and conclusion for each one with is often redundant and repetitive. It is important to remember that scholarly writing is to be both precise and concise. That is, you want to provide the necessary information without excess verbiage and repetition. A brief introduction to the paper overall or even each part might be appropriate but is not necessary. You were advised of this previously.
Overall, in part one, you are not providing a sufficient rationale for the selection of your survey method. As advised in the feedback on the last assignment, this involves examining the specifics of the information needs, who are the target respondents and availability of sampling frames and the criteria to be used in the selection of a method. This is discussed at length in the required reading. As noted in the assignment instructions, “The researcher needs to carefully consider the objectives of the study, the questions that need to be asked and the target respondents in addition to the pros/cons of the alternatives.”
It.
Example 1Research MethodologyTranscendental phenomenology is a.docxcravennichole326
Example 1
Research Methodology
Transcendental phenomenology is a research methodology where researchers gain first-hand information about the participant’s experience with the specific phenomenon. The researcher then reports that information just as the participant expressed it, without adding in any biases or interpretations (Percy & Kostere, 2008). Creswall and Poth (2018) have said that transcendental phenomenology would be best used when the goal is to obtain the participant’s raw feelings and lived experience about a phenomenon.
The sampling strategy that will be utilized is utilization focused sampling. In this sampling strategy, cases are selected in order to provide researchers with in-depth information that can lead to better decision-making in the future (Patton, 2015). This sampling strategy was chosen because they study will focus on parent experiences with token economies, which will provide practitioners with better direction on token economy implementation. If researchers find out what the families liked and didn’t like about the token economy, then future implementation could potentially exclude some of those disliked portions to make the token economy more likely to be implemented by families.
Data will be collected through interview. In order to ensure that researcher bias is not included, the researcher will bracket her own beliefs in the margin (Capella, 2006). The sample size will be approximately 8 participants. Creswall and Poth (2018) reported that a sample size for phenomenology ranges from 3-15. By choosing 8 participants, there leaves room for participants to drop out, hopefully without falling below the recommended minimum.
Interview Questions
1. Prior to this study, what were some experiences you have had with a token economy?
2. What are your feelings about the token economy?
3. What did you like about the token economy?
4. What did you dislike about the token economy?
5. Can you describe a time where you experienced a complication with the token economy?
6. What were some things that were particularly easy about the token economy?
7. What were some things that were particularly difficult about the token economy?
8. How would you feel if you were asked to implement a token economy for another month?
9. How did your child adjust to the token economy?
10. What were some changes you had to make in order to develop the token economy?
Professor feedback
Below is general feedback that I am going to try to share with everyone:
Researchers have to be sure that they identify an appropriate sampling strategy and sample size, and then provide support for the choices that are made (support from primary sources, not textbooks). The decisions that are made regarding the strategies that are used to conduct the study need to be presented with a well-supported rationale. In other words, after you have read about the various sampling methods used within qualitative research, choose the method that best fits your study, .
Example 1Research MethodologyTranscendental phenomenology is a.docxelbanglis
This study examines self-esteem in suicide among young men through interviews with connected individuals and suicide notes. The researchers found that for these men, the transition to adulthood brought personal failures and intolerable discrepancies between their actual performances and ideal self-standards. Four themes emerged: striving to find their path as adult men, experiencing failure by their own standards, restricting emotions in relationships, and feeling lonely and rejecting themselves. Understanding suicide outside of mental illness may improve prevention strategies.
This document discusses various methods of exploratory marketing research. It defines exploratory research as initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a problem without providing conclusive evidence. Some common exploratory research methods discussed include secondary data analysis, expert surveys, case studies/ethnographies, pilot studies, and focus groups. The document provides examples and details about how and why each of these methods may be used in exploratory marketing research.
ACTIVITY 1
Chosen Research Design: Qualitative
Why do you think this design is appropriate to your research interest?
Based on my understanding of qualitative research, I believe it can be appropriate for certain types of research questions. In my view, qualitative research is particularly useful for exploring complex phenomena, gaining insights into people's experiences and perspectives, and developing theory. I also recognize that it can be valuable in applied settings, such as healthcare or social work, where understanding people's experiences is crucial for improving practice.
Guide Questions
1. Did you remember the research design listed in the table?
YES, I have remembered all the research design listed in the table.
2. What other research designs did you recall which is/ are not listed in the table?
Longitudinal Study
Cross-sectional Study
Survey Research
Action Research
Participatory Action Research
Grounded Theory
Ethnographic Research
3. Was it easy or hard to determine the research design to be used in your selected topic or interest?
For me, it is easy because in the first place I already have an idea where to start. I believe when you select a topic, you already considered what design you will use.
4. What are the factors that you consider in selecting a research design for your study?
As a researcher, I must consider various factors when selecting a qualitative research design for my study. These include the research question, the purpose of the study, the nature of the phenomenon being studied, and the available resources and time frame. Additionally, I must reflect on my own philosophical and theoretical perspectives to ensure that the chosen design aligns with my worldview and research goals.
Reflection
How does research design make your study colorful/ interesting?
As a researcher, I have come to appreciate how qualitative research design can add color and interest to a study. By using methods such as open-ended interviews, observations, and document analysis, I can capture the rich and complex experiences, perspectives, and contexts of the participants. This type of research allows me to delve deeper into the phenomenon being studied and gain a more nuanced understanding of it.
One of the benefits of using qualitative research is the ability to create vivid descriptions, quotes, and narratives that add depth and meaning to the study. It's fascinating to see how the data can come to life and offer a unique perspective on the topic. Additionally, I've found that unexpected findings often emerge during qualitative research, which can add to the intrigue and interest of the study.
Overall, I believe that qualitative research design offers a powerful way to explore the intricacies and nuances of human experience. It enables me to create a study that is more compelling and engaging, as well as provides insights that cannot be obtained through other research methods.
ACTIVITY 2: TELL ME THE QUANTITY
Directions: Read the qu
The document discusses various considerations for research methods and design, providing an overview of key differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches. It outlines criteria for evaluating each type of research, such as purpose, sample size, variables studied, data collection and analysis methods. Guidelines are also provided for choosing appropriate research tools and designing surveys, with examples of common pitfalls to avoid like leading questions, ambiguous response options, and double-barreled questions.
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3LASA 1.docxDIPESH30
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3
LASA 1: FINAL PROJECT EARLY METHODS SECTION
THE ROLE OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION
PERSONALITY TRAITS ON MARITAL BLISS
STUDENT
_______ UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 15, 2015
Author Note:
This research was carried out as a partial fulfillment towards research methods course by.
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
1. What is your research question?
What is the significance of extroversion and introversion in marriage?
1. What is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis?
Null Hypothesis: Extroversion brings along successful family institution and marital bliss.
Alternate hypothesis: Extroversion does not bring along successful family institution and marital bliss.
1. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not?
20 participants will be engaged in the research study. This is a small number that is easier to manage as well as coordinate their activities during the data collection exercise. Ideally, participants are required and are normally sampled from a large population to be a representative. The nature of the study will require the researcher to get participants who have experiences in marriage. On gender, I will sample equal number of men and women to act as the representative of the general population. The approach is guided by the population in the community where the number of women and men is at par. On age, I will pick individuals from across ages although the highest percentage will constitute of married individuals between the age of 30 and 40 years. Further, I will also pick four individuals who have divorced with the aim of understanding whether introversion or extroversion contributed to their divorce. I will also look at the personal traits of individuals; hence will both social and anti-social individuals. The target participants will precise, representative and homogeneous. They will then be divided into different sets or strata that are mutually exclusive in order to aid it obtaining a systematic process of research.
1. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does yoursample generalize to?
Being a qualitative research, the research will utilize the sampling method in the collection of data. Surveying and questionnaire are the main data collection methods that are normally used in quantitative research. The methods aids in understanding the behavior and effects from different members of the focus groups. The approach helps to reduce biases that may emerge when using a bigger population size while at the same time gu ...
OverviewAs a social science student, it is vitally important t.docxkarlhennesey
Overview
As a social science student, it is vitally important that you become an educated consumer of social science research, even if you never get to conduct an actual research study.
You need to have a basic understanding of the steps in the scientific process, a familiarity with commonly used social science research designs and methods, and a knowledge of procedures for collecting and analyzing social science data.
This module provides very basic information about these topics. It addresses the following subjects:
· the scientific method
· qualitative and quantitative research
· data analysis and presentation
· discipline-specific research designs and methods The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a form of inquiry that was originally developed to answer questions in the natural sciences. The scientific method uses systematic observation and measurement to confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that most often are derived from underlying theories.
When a hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the underlying theory. When it is not confirmed, researchers must reformulate the theory and come up with other explanations. Scientists share their findings by presenting at conferences or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Sharing results with the research world is an important part of the scientific method because science is an iterative activity.
As social scientists, we have a great challenge. Because we cannot exert complete control over human behavior, it is not possible to conduct true experiments. Real life cannot be captured in a lab, and human behavior cannot be explained by one or even two causes. This makes it difficult to determine "cause and effect." For example, if we are interested in knowing why poor people have compromised health outcomes, we would need to account for an impossibly large number of factors or variables such as race, ethnicity, genetic markers, income, education level, access to health care services, and living conditions.
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Figure 4.1
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Source: UMUC PSYC 100.
The use of the scientific method allows researchers to develop explanations of social science phenomena. The steps of the research process are explained from a psychological perspective in this tutorial (Bradley, 2000).
Step 1: Make an Observation
The starting place for any research study is an observation (idea) regarding a topic of interest to you, the researcher. It may come from a conversation with a friend, a book or television program, or the conclusion of a related research project. All that is needed at this point is your interest in pursuing the topic further.
Let's take an example that we will use for all of the steps in the process. You observe that you are able to memorize items such as telephone numbers better when you eat candy. Because of this, you wonder if there is a connection between the primary component of candy (sugar) and memory.
Step 2: Propose a Hypoth ...
A Guide To Using Qualitative Research MethodologyJim Jimenez
This document provides a guide to using qualitative research methodology. It begins by defining qualitative research as aiming to understand social phenomena through words rather than numbers. It notes that qualitative research is appropriate when seeking to understand people's experiences, beliefs, and perspectives. The document outlines important ethical considerations like consent and confidentiality. It then discusses how to develop a qualitative research design, including defining the research question, developing a protocol, and sampling methods. It also details different qualitative data collection methods like interviews and observations. Finally, it addresses practical issues of data management and analysis, including thematic and narrative analysis techniques.
Unpacking Nutrition Research and being an effective Science CommunicatorTim Crowe
Understand what can make nutrition research confusing in the conclusions it reaches and appreciate the key questions to ask when critiquing a research study. Then discover the principles of clear and effective science communication and how to maintain credibility and engage people in different ways on social media,
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This document discusses research design and quantitative versus qualitative studies. It explains that research design establishes a plan to explore a research question. Qualitative studies tend to rely on descriptions and open-ended questions, while quantitative studies deal with measurable data. Sample sizes are smaller for qualitative studies, limiting generalizability. Literature reviews provide context for a study and its treatment of prior work. Sampling allows researchers to make inferences about populations but the sample must be representative.
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Mba724 s3 2 elements of research design v2Rachel Chung
The document discusses research design and different types of research studies. It explains that the research design depends on the research questions being asked and objectives. Descriptive studies aim to describe characteristics while explanatory studies examine relationships between variables. Key research design considerations include whether the study is exploratory or formal, experimental or non-experimental, uses surveys, observations or experiments, and is descriptive or aims to explain relationships. Control and random assignment to conditions are important for causal inferences from experimental designs.
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles.docxdickonsondorris
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles: a quantitative methods article and a qualitative methods article. These do not need to be on the same topic, but if you have a research topic in mind for your proposal (see Assessment 5), you may wish to pick something similar for this assessment. Read each article carefully.
Then, in a 2–3-page assessment, address the following elements:
1 Summarize the research question and hypothesis, the research methods, and the overall findings.
2 Compare the research methodologies used in each study. In what ways are the methodologies similar? In what ways are they different? (Be sure to use the technical psychological terms we are studying.)
3 Describe the sample and sample size for each study. Which one used a larger sample and why? How were participants selected?
4 Describe the data collection process for each study. What methods were used to collect the data? Surveys? Observations? Interviews? Be specific and discuss the instruments or measures fully—what do they measure? How is the test designed?
5 Summarize the data analysis process for each study. How was the data analyzed? Were statistics used? Were interviews coded?
6 In conclusion, craft 1–2 paragraphs explaining how these two articles illustrate the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research.
Additional Requirements
· Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
· APA formatting: Your assessment should be formatted according to APA (6th ed.) style and formatting.
· Length: A typical response will be 2–3 typed and double-spaced pages.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.
Research Methods
There are many different types of research studies, and the type of study that is done depends very much on the research question. Some studies demand strictly numerical data, such as a comparison of GPA among different college majors or weight loss among different types of eating programs. Others require more in-depth data, like interview responses. Such studies might include the lived experience of people that have been through a terrorist attack or understanding the experience of being physically disabled on a college campus. While there are a number of different types of studies that can be done, all of them fall under two basic categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research deals with numerical data. This means that any topic you study in a quantitative study must be quantifiable—grades, weight, height, depression, and intelligence are all things that can be quantified on some scale of measurement. Quantitative data is often considered hard data—numbers are seen as concrete, irrefutable evidence, but we have to take into account a number of factors that could impact such data. Errors in measurement and recording of such data, as well as the influence of other factors outside those in the study, make for ...
Running Head LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section .docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: LASA 1: Final Project: Early Methods Section 1
USE AND MISUSE OF INFORMATION PRESENTED AS PERCENTAGE 2
LASA 1: Final Project: Early Methods Section
Name
Class
Instructor
School.
Date
1. What is your research question? My research question for this study is, what is the relationship between peer pressure and underage drinking?
2. at is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis? There is a positive correlation between peer pressure and underage drinking. My null hypothesis is There is no correlation between peer pressure and underage drinking.
3. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not? For this study I think I would use about 200 students from 4 different schools in the same general area. I would get 25 students from each school, my inclusion characteristics would be female and male students ages 10-20, different social groups, grades levels, and those who have had an alcoholic drink. Some Exclusion characteristics would be kids who are too old, homeschooled, or have never had a drink. The sample for this study needs to be diverse because I don’t believe one could get an accurate reading and or estimation of which students are under the influence and which aren’t without a large population of samples. The samples do not need to be completely diverse however because I am still looking for a certain type of person in a limited group.
4. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does your sample generalize to? The sampling technique which will be used to collect my sample isconvenience sampling. Convenience sampling is a non-probability statistical method of drawingrepresentativedata by selecting people because of the ease of their volunteering or selecting units because of their availability or easy access. Convenience sampling is limited when generalizing. Since the sample is not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population. This results to a low external validity of the study.
5. What are the variables in your study? The two variables in my study are peer pressure and underage drinking.
6. Provide operational definitions for each variable.
Peer pressure is the influence you feel from a person or group of people to do something you might not otherwise consider doing. Peer pressure isn’t always a negative thing. It can be a positive influence and help challenge or motivate you to do your best. However, it’s helpful to recognize that peer pressure can also be negative. It can result in yo.
Bivariate RegressionRegression analysis is a powerful and comm.docxhartrobert670
Bivariate Regression
Regression analysis is a powerful and commonly used tool in business research. One important step in regression is to determine the dependent and independent variable(s).
In a bivariate regression, which variable is the dependent variable and which one is the independent variable?
· What does the intercept of a regression tell? What does the slope of a regression tell?
· What are some of the main uses of a regression?
Provide an example of a situation wherein a bivariate regression would be a good choice for analyzing data.
Justify your answers using examples and reasoning. Comment on the postings of at least two peers and state whether you agree or disagree with their views.
Types of Regression Analyses
There are two major types of regression analysis—simple and multiple regression analysis. Both types consist of dependent and independent variables. Simple linear regression has two variables—dependent and independent. Multiple regression consists of dependent variable and two or more independent variables.
· How does a multiple regression compare with a simple linear regression?
· What are the various ways to determine what variables should be included in a multiple regression equation?
· Compare and contrast the following processes: forward selection, backward elimination, and stepwise selection.
Justify your answers using examples and reasoning.
Critical Analysis
Critical analysis involves thinking about what you're reading and interpreting it and evaluating it.
Critical analysis of the books, papers, articles, and research that you read for your classes is an important skill. It is also an important skill in the workplace. Generally speaking, when you engage in critical analysis, you do the following things:
Critical Analysis Principles
Example Questions or Statements
Identify and challenge starting assumptions
Questions:
Did the authors base their conclusions on the appropriate facts? Did the author consider the social conditions of the appropriate time period? Did the author use the appropriate resources to adequately address the question?
Example:
The author used widely-held social beliefs in 2007 to explain social changes that occurred in 1910.
Distinguish facts from opinions, and distinguish objectivity from bias
Questions:
Has the author stated the facts from a research study, or did he just give us his opinion? Has the author explained the situation fairly? Did the author allow her personal opinion or involvement to prejudice her explanation and cloud her judgment?
Example:
This drug has been reported to be an effective treatment. However, all the reports come from the company that created and is selling the drug. There are no independent reports from uninvolved parties that support this claim.
Make inferences from the facts
Questions:
What do these findings mean? What are the implications of these findings? Do these findings impact other areas or concepts? Did the author interpret the findings in a reas ...
This document summarizes a presentation on best practices for polling and survey data. It cautions against simply aggregating polls, noting that doing so risks losing nuance and precision. It emphasizes the importance of representative sampling, transparency, and minimizing errors. Key points include carefully evaluating coverage and potential biases in samples, especially for international data, and considering how factors like question wording, response options, and population studied can affect results. The overall message is that high-quality methodology, transparency, and understanding sources of error are needed to ensure survey accuracy.
Qualitative Research Methods Essay
What Is The Generic Qualitative Approach? Essay
Qualitative Reflection
Qualitative Research Essay
Importance Of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Exploratory Essay
Qualitative Research Strategy
Qualitative Research Evaluation Essay
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Essay
Qualitative Research Questions
Qualitative Research
Essay on Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Methodology Qualitative And Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research Essay
The Goal Of Qualitative Research Essay
Essay On Qualitative Research
Here are the key characteristics of correlational research:
- Shows the relationship or connection between two or more variables or factors. It indicates if a relationship exists but does not determine causation.
- Measures the extent to which two variables are related through statistical analysis. This allows researchers to predict changes in one variable based on changes in another.
- Relationships can be positive (changes in one variable correspond to changes in the same direction for the other), negative (changes correspond in opposing directions), or there may be no correlation.
- Does not describe causal relationships like experimental research or determine what specifically causes changes like descriptive research. It can only indicate a relationship exists.
Some examples of correlational research questions include examining
Experimental design aims to describe or explain how variables change under hypothesized conditions. However, it has some weaknesses and issues. It can only examine the direct impact of one or two factors rather than complex relationships. Randomization removes the effects of other variables but also removes important contextual information. There are also threats to internal validity like history effects, maturation, testing, and selection bias. External validity can be undermined if samples are not representative or conditions are artificial. Practical challenges include how much to disclose to participants, sample sizes, recruitment methods, and ensuring interventions are applied consistently. Ethical issues involve voluntary and informed consent, avoiding harm, and maintaining anonymity and confidentiality.
NPV, IRR, Payback period,— PA1Correlates with CLA2 (NPV portion.docxpicklesvalery
NPV, IRR, Payback period,—> PA1
Correlates with CLA2 (NPV portion)
Real world examples
Which method is used more commonly?
Reference
**************
make 4 PPT slides. bullet points on the slides. speech notes on note area needed references
.
Now that you have had the opportunity to review various Cyber At.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have had the opportunity to review various Cyber Attack Scenarios, it is now your turn to create one. As a Group you will identify a Scenario plagued with Cyber Threats. Each team will then be required to create a Threat Model (Logic Diagram) with various options. Selections will result in another option.
Below are some examples of possible Threat Modeling activities.
https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/sei_blog/2018/12/threat-modeling-12-available-methods.html
Each team will be required to present their Threat Model via Powerpoint and present to the class on Day 3. Each member of the team will be required to submit a copy of their teams powerpoint.
Subject :
Spring 2020 - Emerging Threats & Countermeas (ITS-834-25) - Full Term
Documentation :
https://www.cs.montana.edu/courses/csci476/topics/threat_modeling.pdf
Example :
https://www.helpsystems.com/blog/break-time-6-cybersecurity-games-youll-love
1. Targeted Attack: The Game
2. Cybersecurity Lab
3. Cyber Awareness Challenge
4. Keep Tradition Secure
What you need to do:
Write one page abstract
DO one page PPT
Write 2 pages main paper for this two topics( Library users and librarian & User credentials )
Draw a diagram if possible
.
Now that you have completed a series of assignments that have led yo.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have completed a series of assignments that have led you into the active project planning and development stage for your project "
Work Overload in Healthcare System"
, briefly describe your proposed solution to address the problem, issue, suggestion, initiative, or educational need and how it has changed since you first envisioned it. What led to your current perspective and direction?
.
Now that you have completed your paper (ATTACHED), build and deliver.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have completed your paper (ATTACHED), build and deliver a presentation that details your solution to the healthcare issue that serves as your topic.
In your presentation, you should:
Exhibit comprehensive research and understanding by referencing important points and insights from the perspectives of inquiry papers.
Present your issue and your argument for your solution
Demonstrate effective oral communication skills:
Exhibit competency in using virtual presentation tools and techniques.
Demonstrate planning, preparation, and practice.
Employ effective visual elements (multimedia).
.
Now that you have identified the revenue-related internal contro.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have identified the revenue-related internal control that relates to the five assertions (existence, completeness, accuracy or valuation, rights and obligations, and presentation and disclosure), the test of controls will need to be identified for each assertion and internal control.
For this assignment, you will write and submit 400–500 words that set specific tests of internal controls for the 5 internal controls related to management assertions that you identified for the Unit 4
.
Now that you have read about Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have read about Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens, do you think that peoples' attitudes towards Neandertals in the past (and some today) was and is racist in nature? If you do, do you think the view is changing?
Answer the above question in an essay between 125 and 150 words.
.
Now that you have had an opportunity to explore ethics formally, cre.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have had an opportunity to explore ethics formally, create a reflective assessment of your learning experience and the collaborations you engaged in throughout this session. You will submit
both
of the following:
A written reflection
For the written reflection, address Jane Doe's and respond to the following:
Articulate again your moral theory from week eight discussion (You can revise it if you wish). What two ethical theories best apply to it? Why those two?
week 8 discussion :’’The ethical philosophy chosen is utilitarianism. This philosophy is attributable to happiness if identified actions are right or harmful if the actions are considered to be wrong regardless of the prevailing conditions (Sen, 2019). It is meaningful to me since it is focused on contentment. Thus its moral obligation and importance is that it advocates for the satisfaction of the parties involved. The precedents of utilitarianism philosophy entail the following; that happiness of everyone counts uniformly, that actions are right if they result in pleasure otherwise wrong if they render unhappiness and that pleasure is the only thing that matters.
John Doe's involves a fiction scenario tailored at protecting the identity of witnesses in a case. Thus it is a slang name that informally represents the witnesses in a case to prevent them from manipulation by the defendant as their identity is rendered secretive (Smart, 2018). By application of the utilitarianism philosophy, a witness is considered to be happy (contented) if the identity is not revealed before the case for law during prosecution and hence we aspire to gain useful evidence. The morality of the theory revolves around its reliability as its only main obligation is to render witnesses pleasured. However, it might be termed immoral in situations where faithful information is required about every detail of the underlying case since no matter what; identity of the witnesses ought not to be revealed. Thus compromises its integrity.
Veil of ignorance constitutes the ethical reasoning whereby fair ruling is anticipated from a case by denying the parties involved any information that might bias them into suspecting who might benefit more from the ruling(Heen,2020). Thus in John Doe's case, when the identity of the witnesses is hidden, it is hard to identify possible relations of them with the plaintiff or defendant. This makes the judges seek justice independent of any information are sympathy to one of the parties at the expense of the other.’’
Apply to Jane Doe's case your personal moral philosophy as developed in week eight discussion and now. Use it to determine if what Jane Doe did was ethical or unethical per your own moral philosophy.
Consider if some of these examples are more grave instances of ethical transgressions than others. Explain.
Propose a course of social action and a solution by using the ethics of egoism, utilitarianism, the "veil of ignorance" method, deontological pr.
Novel Literary Exploration EssayWrite a Literary Exploration Ess.docxpicklesvalery
Novel Literary Exploration Essay
Write a Literary Exploration Essay for
Crow Lake
and additional texts on the following topic:
What is your opinion of the idea that the past can affect whom people become as adults?
.
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The document discusses research design and different types of research studies. It explains that the research design depends on the research questions being asked and objectives. Descriptive studies aim to describe characteristics while explanatory studies examine relationships between variables. Key research design considerations include whether the study is exploratory or formal, experimental or non-experimental, uses surveys, observations or experiments, and is descriptive or aims to explain relationships. Control and random assignment to conditions are important for causal inferences from experimental designs.
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles.docxdickonsondorris
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles: a quantitative methods article and a qualitative methods article. These do not need to be on the same topic, but if you have a research topic in mind for your proposal (see Assessment 5), you may wish to pick something similar for this assessment. Read each article carefully.
Then, in a 2–3-page assessment, address the following elements:
1 Summarize the research question and hypothesis, the research methods, and the overall findings.
2 Compare the research methodologies used in each study. In what ways are the methodologies similar? In what ways are they different? (Be sure to use the technical psychological terms we are studying.)
3 Describe the sample and sample size for each study. Which one used a larger sample and why? How were participants selected?
4 Describe the data collection process for each study. What methods were used to collect the data? Surveys? Observations? Interviews? Be specific and discuss the instruments or measures fully—what do they measure? How is the test designed?
5 Summarize the data analysis process for each study. How was the data analyzed? Were statistics used? Were interviews coded?
6 In conclusion, craft 1–2 paragraphs explaining how these two articles illustrate the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research.
Additional Requirements
· Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
· APA formatting: Your assessment should be formatted according to APA (6th ed.) style and formatting.
· Length: A typical response will be 2–3 typed and double-spaced pages.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.
Research Methods
There are many different types of research studies, and the type of study that is done depends very much on the research question. Some studies demand strictly numerical data, such as a comparison of GPA among different college majors or weight loss among different types of eating programs. Others require more in-depth data, like interview responses. Such studies might include the lived experience of people that have been through a terrorist attack or understanding the experience of being physically disabled on a college campus. While there are a number of different types of studies that can be done, all of them fall under two basic categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research deals with numerical data. This means that any topic you study in a quantitative study must be quantifiable—grades, weight, height, depression, and intelligence are all things that can be quantified on some scale of measurement. Quantitative data is often considered hard data—numbers are seen as concrete, irrefutable evidence, but we have to take into account a number of factors that could impact such data. Errors in measurement and recording of such data, as well as the influence of other factors outside those in the study, make for ...
Running Head LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section .docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: LASA 1: Final Project: Early Methods Section 1
USE AND MISUSE OF INFORMATION PRESENTED AS PERCENTAGE 2
LASA 1: Final Project: Early Methods Section
Name
Class
Instructor
School.
Date
1. What is your research question? My research question for this study is, what is the relationship between peer pressure and underage drinking?
2. at is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis? There is a positive correlation between peer pressure and underage drinking. My null hypothesis is There is no correlation between peer pressure and underage drinking.
3. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not? For this study I think I would use about 200 students from 4 different schools in the same general area. I would get 25 students from each school, my inclusion characteristics would be female and male students ages 10-20, different social groups, grades levels, and those who have had an alcoholic drink. Some Exclusion characteristics would be kids who are too old, homeschooled, or have never had a drink. The sample for this study needs to be diverse because I don’t believe one could get an accurate reading and or estimation of which students are under the influence and which aren’t without a large population of samples. The samples do not need to be completely diverse however because I am still looking for a certain type of person in a limited group.
4. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does your sample generalize to? The sampling technique which will be used to collect my sample isconvenience sampling. Convenience sampling is a non-probability statistical method of drawingrepresentativedata by selecting people because of the ease of their volunteering or selecting units because of their availability or easy access. Convenience sampling is limited when generalizing. Since the sample is not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population. This results to a low external validity of the study.
5. What are the variables in your study? The two variables in my study are peer pressure and underage drinking.
6. Provide operational definitions for each variable.
Peer pressure is the influence you feel from a person or group of people to do something you might not otherwise consider doing. Peer pressure isn’t always a negative thing. It can be a positive influence and help challenge or motivate you to do your best. However, it’s helpful to recognize that peer pressure can also be negative. It can result in yo.
Bivariate RegressionRegression analysis is a powerful and comm.docxhartrobert670
Bivariate Regression
Regression analysis is a powerful and commonly used tool in business research. One important step in regression is to determine the dependent and independent variable(s).
In a bivariate regression, which variable is the dependent variable and which one is the independent variable?
· What does the intercept of a regression tell? What does the slope of a regression tell?
· What are some of the main uses of a regression?
Provide an example of a situation wherein a bivariate regression would be a good choice for analyzing data.
Justify your answers using examples and reasoning. Comment on the postings of at least two peers and state whether you agree or disagree with their views.
Types of Regression Analyses
There are two major types of regression analysis—simple and multiple regression analysis. Both types consist of dependent and independent variables. Simple linear regression has two variables—dependent and independent. Multiple regression consists of dependent variable and two or more independent variables.
· How does a multiple regression compare with a simple linear regression?
· What are the various ways to determine what variables should be included in a multiple regression equation?
· Compare and contrast the following processes: forward selection, backward elimination, and stepwise selection.
Justify your answers using examples and reasoning.
Critical Analysis
Critical analysis involves thinking about what you're reading and interpreting it and evaluating it.
Critical analysis of the books, papers, articles, and research that you read for your classes is an important skill. It is also an important skill in the workplace. Generally speaking, when you engage in critical analysis, you do the following things:
Critical Analysis Principles
Example Questions or Statements
Identify and challenge starting assumptions
Questions:
Did the authors base their conclusions on the appropriate facts? Did the author consider the social conditions of the appropriate time period? Did the author use the appropriate resources to adequately address the question?
Example:
The author used widely-held social beliefs in 2007 to explain social changes that occurred in 1910.
Distinguish facts from opinions, and distinguish objectivity from bias
Questions:
Has the author stated the facts from a research study, or did he just give us his opinion? Has the author explained the situation fairly? Did the author allow her personal opinion or involvement to prejudice her explanation and cloud her judgment?
Example:
This drug has been reported to be an effective treatment. However, all the reports come from the company that created and is selling the drug. There are no independent reports from uninvolved parties that support this claim.
Make inferences from the facts
Questions:
What do these findings mean? What are the implications of these findings? Do these findings impact other areas or concepts? Did the author interpret the findings in a reas ...
This document summarizes a presentation on best practices for polling and survey data. It cautions against simply aggregating polls, noting that doing so risks losing nuance and precision. It emphasizes the importance of representative sampling, transparency, and minimizing errors. Key points include carefully evaluating coverage and potential biases in samples, especially for international data, and considering how factors like question wording, response options, and population studied can affect results. The overall message is that high-quality methodology, transparency, and understanding sources of error are needed to ensure survey accuracy.
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Here are the key characteristics of correlational research:
- Shows the relationship or connection between two or more variables or factors. It indicates if a relationship exists but does not determine causation.
- Measures the extent to which two variables are related through statistical analysis. This allows researchers to predict changes in one variable based on changes in another.
- Relationships can be positive (changes in one variable correspond to changes in the same direction for the other), negative (changes correspond in opposing directions), or there may be no correlation.
- Does not describe causal relationships like experimental research or determine what specifically causes changes like descriptive research. It can only indicate a relationship exists.
Some examples of correlational research questions include examining
Experimental design aims to describe or explain how variables change under hypothesized conditions. However, it has some weaknesses and issues. It can only examine the direct impact of one or two factors rather than complex relationships. Randomization removes the effects of other variables but also removes important contextual information. There are also threats to internal validity like history effects, maturation, testing, and selection bias. External validity can be undermined if samples are not representative or conditions are artificial. Practical challenges include how much to disclose to participants, sample sizes, recruitment methods, and ensuring interventions are applied consistently. Ethical issues involve voluntary and informed consent, avoiding harm, and maintaining anonymity and confidentiality.
Similar to NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-82NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-81.docx (14)
NPV, IRR, Payback period,— PA1Correlates with CLA2 (NPV portion.docxpicklesvalery
NPV, IRR, Payback period,—> PA1
Correlates with CLA2 (NPV portion)
Real world examples
Which method is used more commonly?
Reference
**************
make 4 PPT slides. bullet points on the slides. speech notes on note area needed references
.
Now that you have had the opportunity to review various Cyber At.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have had the opportunity to review various Cyber Attack Scenarios, it is now your turn to create one. As a Group you will identify a Scenario plagued with Cyber Threats. Each team will then be required to create a Threat Model (Logic Diagram) with various options. Selections will result in another option.
Below are some examples of possible Threat Modeling activities.
https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/sei_blog/2018/12/threat-modeling-12-available-methods.html
Each team will be required to present their Threat Model via Powerpoint and present to the class on Day 3. Each member of the team will be required to submit a copy of their teams powerpoint.
Subject :
Spring 2020 - Emerging Threats & Countermeas (ITS-834-25) - Full Term
Documentation :
https://www.cs.montana.edu/courses/csci476/topics/threat_modeling.pdf
Example :
https://www.helpsystems.com/blog/break-time-6-cybersecurity-games-youll-love
1. Targeted Attack: The Game
2. Cybersecurity Lab
3. Cyber Awareness Challenge
4. Keep Tradition Secure
What you need to do:
Write one page abstract
DO one page PPT
Write 2 pages main paper for this two topics( Library users and librarian & User credentials )
Draw a diagram if possible
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Now that you have completed a series of assignments that have led yo.docxpicklesvalery
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Now that you have completed your paper (ATTACHED), build and deliver a presentation that details your solution to the healthcare issue that serves as your topic.
In your presentation, you should:
Exhibit comprehensive research and understanding by referencing important points and insights from the perspectives of inquiry papers.
Present your issue and your argument for your solution
Demonstrate effective oral communication skills:
Exhibit competency in using virtual presentation tools and techniques.
Demonstrate planning, preparation, and practice.
Employ effective visual elements (multimedia).
.
Now that you have identified the revenue-related internal contro.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have identified the revenue-related internal control that relates to the five assertions (existence, completeness, accuracy or valuation, rights and obligations, and presentation and disclosure), the test of controls will need to be identified for each assertion and internal control.
For this assignment, you will write and submit 400–500 words that set specific tests of internal controls for the 5 internal controls related to management assertions that you identified for the Unit 4
.
Now that you have read about Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have read about Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens, do you think that peoples' attitudes towards Neandertals in the past (and some today) was and is racist in nature? If you do, do you think the view is changing?
Answer the above question in an essay between 125 and 150 words.
.
Now that you have had an opportunity to explore ethics formally, cre.docxpicklesvalery
Now that you have had an opportunity to explore ethics formally, create a reflective assessment of your learning experience and the collaborations you engaged in throughout this session. You will submit
both
of the following:
A written reflection
For the written reflection, address Jane Doe's and respond to the following:
Articulate again your moral theory from week eight discussion (You can revise it if you wish). What two ethical theories best apply to it? Why those two?
week 8 discussion :’’The ethical philosophy chosen is utilitarianism. This philosophy is attributable to happiness if identified actions are right or harmful if the actions are considered to be wrong regardless of the prevailing conditions (Sen, 2019). It is meaningful to me since it is focused on contentment. Thus its moral obligation and importance is that it advocates for the satisfaction of the parties involved. The precedents of utilitarianism philosophy entail the following; that happiness of everyone counts uniformly, that actions are right if they result in pleasure otherwise wrong if they render unhappiness and that pleasure is the only thing that matters.
John Doe's involves a fiction scenario tailored at protecting the identity of witnesses in a case. Thus it is a slang name that informally represents the witnesses in a case to prevent them from manipulation by the defendant as their identity is rendered secretive (Smart, 2018). By application of the utilitarianism philosophy, a witness is considered to be happy (contented) if the identity is not revealed before the case for law during prosecution and hence we aspire to gain useful evidence. The morality of the theory revolves around its reliability as its only main obligation is to render witnesses pleasured. However, it might be termed immoral in situations where faithful information is required about every detail of the underlying case since no matter what; identity of the witnesses ought not to be revealed. Thus compromises its integrity.
Veil of ignorance constitutes the ethical reasoning whereby fair ruling is anticipated from a case by denying the parties involved any information that might bias them into suspecting who might benefit more from the ruling(Heen,2020). Thus in John Doe's case, when the identity of the witnesses is hidden, it is hard to identify possible relations of them with the plaintiff or defendant. This makes the judges seek justice independent of any information are sympathy to one of the parties at the expense of the other.’’
Apply to Jane Doe's case your personal moral philosophy as developed in week eight discussion and now. Use it to determine if what Jane Doe did was ethical or unethical per your own moral philosophy.
Consider if some of these examples are more grave instances of ethical transgressions than others. Explain.
Propose a course of social action and a solution by using the ethics of egoism, utilitarianism, the "veil of ignorance" method, deontological pr.
Novel Literary Exploration EssayWrite a Literary Exploration Ess.docxpicklesvalery
Novel Literary Exploration Essay
Write a Literary Exploration Essay for
Crow Lake
and additional texts on the following topic:
What is your opinion of the idea that the past can affect whom people become as adults?
.
Notifications My CommunityHomeBBA 3551-16P-5A19-S3, Inform.docxpicklesvalery
Notifications My CommunityHome
BBA 3551-16P-5A19-S3, Information Systems Management
Unit VIII
Unit VIII Introduction
During this term we have introduced many
different aspects of information systems
management. I hope you have learned lots of
new terms and concepts that will help you in
school and your career. In this unit we will
cover how systems are developed or created.
Organizations have a variety of tools,
methodologies, and processes that can be
used to assist in the development and
deployment of their information system.
Keep up the good work. Let me know if you
have any questions or issues.
Professor Bulloch
Unit VIII Study Guide
Click the link above to open the unit study
guide, which contains this unit's lesson and
reading assignment(s). This information is
necessary in order to complete this course.
Unit VIII Discussion Board
Weight: 2% of course grade
Grading Rubric
Comment Due: Saturday, 05/18/2019
11:59 PM (CST)
Response Due: Tuesday, 05/21/2019
11:59 PM (CST)
Go to Unit VIII Discussion Board »
Unit VIII Essay
Weight: 12% of course grade
Grading Rubric
Due: Tuesday, 05/21/2019 11:59 PM
(CST)
Instructions
Identify the components of an
information system (IS) using the five-
component framework, and provide a
brief summary of each.
Explain Porter’s five forces model.
Management IS (MIS) incorporate
software and hardware technologies to
provide useful information for decision-
making. Explain each of the following IS,
and use at least one example in each to
support your discussion:
a collaboration information system,
a database management system,
a content management system,
a knowledge management/expert
system,
a customer relationship
management system,
an enterprise resource planning
system,
a social media IS,
a business intelligence/decision
support system, and
an enterprise IS.
Identify and discuss one technical and
one human safeguard to protect against
IS security threats.
There are several processes that can be
used to develop IS and applications
such as systems development life cycle
(SDLC) and scrum (agile development).
Provide a brief description of SDLC and
scrum, and then discuss at least one
similarity and one difference between
SDLC and scrum
Sum up your paper by discussing the
importance of MIS.
In this final assignment, you will develop a
paper that reviews some of the main topics
covered in the course. Compose an essay
to address the elements listed below.
Your paper must be at least three pages in
length (not counting the title and reference
pages), and you must use at least two
resources. Be sure to cite all sources used
in APA format, and format your essay in
APA style.
Submit Unit VIII Essay »
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� Logout�� Mary Katz
5/15/19, 12(27 PM
Page 1 of 1
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. .
November-December 2013 • Vol. 22/No. 6 359
Beverly Waller Dabney, PhD, RN, is Associate Professor, Southwestern Adventist University,
Keene, TX.
Huey-Ming Tzeng, PhD, RN, FAAN, is Professor of Nursing and Associate Dean for Academic
Programs, College of Nursing, Washington State University, Spokane, WA.
Service Quality and Patient-Centered
Care
L
eaders of the U.S. Depart -
ment of Health & Human
Services (2011) urge providers
to improve the overall quality of
health care by making it more
patient centered. Patient-centered
care (or person-centered care) refers
to the therapeutic relationship
between health care providers and
recipients of health care services,
with emphasis on meeting the
needs of individual patients. Al -
though the term has been used
widely in recent years, it remains a
poorly defined and conceptualized
phenomenon (Hobbs, 2009).
Patient-centered care is believed
to be holistic nursing care. It pro-
vides a mechanism for nurses to
engage patients as active partici-
pants in every aspect of their health
(Scott, 2010). Patient shadowing
and care flow mapping were used to
create a sense of empathy and
urgency among clinicians by clarify-
ing the patient and family experi-
ence. These two approaches, which
were meant to promote patient-cen-
tered care, can improve patient sat-
isfaction scores without increasing
costs (DiGioia, Lorenz, Greenhouse,
Bertoty, & Rocks, 2010). A better
under standing of attributes of
patient-centered care and areas for
improvement is needed in order to
develop nursing policies that in -
crease the use of this model in health
care settings.
The purpose of this discussion is
to clarify the concept of patient-cen-
tered care for consistency with the
common understanding about pa -
tient satisfaction and the quality of
care delivered from nurses to
patients. Attributes from a customer
service model, the Gap Model of
Service Quality, are used in a focus
on the perspective of the patient as
the driver and evaluator of service
quality. Relevant literature and the
Gap Model of Service Quality
(Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Leonard,
1985) are reviewed. Four gaps in
patient-centered care are identified,
with discussion of nursing implica-
tions.
Background and Brief
Literature Review
Patient-Centered Care
The Institute of Medicine (IOM,
2001a) and Epstein and Street (2011)
identified patient-centeredness as
one of the areas for improvement in
health care quality. The IOM (2001b)
defined patient-centeredness as
…health care that establishes a
partnership among practition-
ers, patients, and their families
(when appropriate) to ensure
that decisions respect patients’
wants, needs, and preferences
and that patients have the edu-
cation and support they require
to make decisions and partici-
pate in their own care… (p. 7)
Charmel and Frampton (2008)
defined patient-centered care as
…a healthcare setting in which
patients are encouraged to be
actively involved in their care,
with a physical environment
t.
NOTEPlease pay attention to the assignment instructionsZero.docxpicklesvalery
NOTE:
Please pay attention to the assignment instructions
Zero plagiarism
Five references
The Assignment: (1- to 2-page Comparison Grid; 1- to 2-page Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement)
Part 1: Legislation Comparison Grid
Based on the health-related bill (proposed, not enacted) you selected, complete the Legislation Comparison Grid Template. Be sure to address the following:
Determine the legislative intent of the bill you have reviewed.
Identify the proponents/opponents of the bill.
Identify the target populations addressed by the bill.
Where in the process is the bill currently? Is it in hearings or committees?
Is it receiving press coverage?
Part 2: Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement
Based on the health-related bill you selected, develop a 1- to 2-page Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement that addresses the following:
Advocate a position for the bill you selected and write testimony in support of your position.
Describe how you would address the opponent to your position. Be specific and provide examples.
Recommend at least one amendment to the bill in support of your position.
.
NOTE Everything in BOLD are things that I need to turn in for m.docxpicklesvalery
NOTE: Everything in
BOLD
are things that I need to turn in for my part.
Think of how many risks come into play when you decide to conduct a simple project, such as painting your living room. The following are some examples of risks:
What type of paint will you use (and can you afford high-quality paint)?
Who will move that brand new, big screen TV?
Who is going to paint?
Do you have the time, money, and resources?
Have you ever considered any of this, or do you simply cover up as much things as you can and start painting?
Risks exist regardless of whether people acknowledge it or not. Depending on the complexity of the project, the number and type of risk multiplies. Everyone has their own solution to each risk, but when working with a group within an organization, fragmentation such as this becomes counterproductive and a major risk in the end.
Scenario :
I have come with an Idea called ROSE which stands for Reserve on Site Easily, its a application that can be used on any phone. How it works is by lets say someone doesn't have a Wi-Fi connection or is not by Wi-Fi. What would happen is once by or near Wi-Fi their reservations will be saved and than will be sent to the hotel they would like to stay at, this will save a lot of time for not only them but the hotel as well. This will also save their spot until they have reached Wi-Fi, this will also be able to show what's available and what's not available when not on Wi-Fi.
Assignment:
Group Portion
As a group, you are to describe a project that all of you will participate in, and include the following:
Define the goal of the project
List the project's duration
Explain who are the stakeholders (those who participate)
*** Review benefits by the project implementation *** (My Portions)
Explain your need for resources
You need not go into in-depth details on the project.
Individual Portion
Each group member is to come up with 2 risks to this project. Each risk must include the following elements:
What technique(s) was used to identify the risk?
What type of risk is it, and does it have specific IT elements and considerations?
How was the risk assessed, and how does it rank with all of the risks identified by the group?
Is the risk qualitative or quantitative, and does it work with an EMV or Pareto analysis with all of the risks identified by the group?
What is the response to this risk, assuming it occurs during the project's lifecycle?
Provide at least 2 contingency plans for this risk (one primary and a second backup).
Group Portion
Combine the individual portion into a cohesive 6–8-page report that also includes the following:
A summary of the project (as discussed in the 1st group discussion)
How will the risks be monitored and controlled?
How will risks be communicated to all project participants?
*** What EVM comes from the risk management plan? *** (My Portion)
Are there any special tools utilized by the plan to manage all identified risks?
.
Note Be sure to focus only on the causes of the problem in this.docxpicklesvalery
Note: Be sure to focus only on the causes of the problem in this paper; do not consider effects or solutions.
A. Write a causal analysis essay (
suggested length of 3–7 pages
). In your essay, do the following:
1. Address an appropriate topic.
2. Provide an effective introduction.
3. Provide an appropriate thesis statement that previews
two
to
four
causes.
4. Explain the causes of the problem.
5. Provide evidence to support your claim.
6. Provide an effective conclusion.
B. Include
at least
two
academically credible sources in the body of your essay.
1. For your sources, include all in-text citations and references in APA format.
C. Demonstrate professional communication in the content and presentation of your submission.
.
Note I’ll provide my sources in the morning, and lmk if you hav.docxpicklesvalery
Note: I’ll provide my sources in the morning, and lmk if you have any questions since the instructions aren’t very detailed.
Objective
This research paper is an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of issues and theories in critical Canadian Communication Studies. It is also an opportunity to demonstrate and practise scholarly research, critical thinking and good writing. Your paper will present an identifiable argument, a clear thesis and scholarly research.
Evaluation (20% of final grade)
Evaluation will be based on evidence that you have used
10 scholarly sources
to support and interpret your thesis. Use sources from your annotated bibliography. Include any number of additional popular sources (e.g., government documents, news item, film, web material) in addition to your 10 scholarly sources. The latter (in brackets above) are not scholarly sources.
Format
Margins: 2.5cm (one inch)
Length: 6-8 pages (not including title page or bibliography), double-spaced text
Font: 12-point, Times New Roman
APA format
Topic:
Fake news
is a recently-named genre in our contemporary media landscape. With reference to a specific example, argue for or against the idea that fake news harms democracy in Canada. Potential examples include disinformation tactics during an election campaign or deep fakes of notable people. Consider questions such as these: What is fake news? What are the implications for democracy in Canada and for the “marketplace of ideas” if we cannot distinguish fake news? Does objective and balanced journalism lose validity in the face of fake news?
.
Note Here, the company I mentioned was Qualcomm 1. Email is the.docxpicklesvalery
Note: Here, the company I mentioned was Qualcomm
1. Email is the most commonly used form of communication for businesses. To what degree does your company use email?
2. Imagine that this internship position is your long-term place of employment. What computer or technology equipment would you change and why?
.
Note Please follow instructions to the T.Topic of 3 page pape.docxpicklesvalery
Note: Please follow instructions to the T.
Topic of 3 page paper : a brief presentation on the corona virus on the U.S economy. I am asking for a 3 page summary presentation on the current status of the corona virus as it effects those working in government emergency management positions --focus on the emergency management operations centers (EOCs) in the state of Florida. This report paper will discuss the current involvement of the EOC in working with the businesses and other industries in the state of Florida that are dealing with the closing of businesses and other either forced closing of certain businesses and industries . Please provide information on what you are finding in your 3 page report are the effects of the corona virus on the closing of commerce and the potential repercussion of these forced shut downs by our government that will effect the economy. Make the paper a research type paper of interest to you and what you are concerned about as it may effect you and your job should a force closing be made that effects you.
PLEASE READ THIS ARTICLE BELOW AND USE THE SUBJECT MATTER IN THIS ARTICLE AS DIRECTION FOR YOUR PAPER
Example of a report as follows-- please do not copy an printed document/ article or other publication --make this your work and a report with your opinions and concerns.
Coronavirus triggers cancellations, closures and contingency planning across the country
With daily reports of the deadly coronavirus spreading (Links to an external site.) into communities across the country, schools (Links to an external site.), companies, religious organizations and local governments are grappling with whether to shut down facilities and cancel events or to proceed, cautiously, as planned.
Increasingly, organizations are opting to cancel large gatherings, encourage remote work or take other steps (Links to an external site.) reflecting an abundance of caution about the virus, according to interviews with officials in several states. Others are making contingency plans about more-significant steps they might take in the case of a wider outbreak.
Washington Gov. Jay Inslee (Links to an external site.) (D) said people should prepare for disruptions in their daily lives as a result of the novel coronavirus, which has killed nine people in the state.
“Folks should begin to think about avoiding large events and assemblies,” Inslee said Monday. “We are not making a request formally right now for events to be canceled, but people should be prepared for that possibility.”
While the virus has been deadliest in Washington state, it has spread across the United States, with more than a dozen states reporting infections. There have been several instances of people contracting the virus while inside the country.
The response effort so far has been fragmented, with conflicting messages about the level of threat and the need for significant lifestyle changes.
“The general rule is, use common sense,” said Health and Human Services Secret.
Note A full-sentence outline differs from bullet points because e.docxpicklesvalery
Note:
A full-sentence outline differs from bullet points because each section of the outline must be a complete sentence. Each part may only have one sentence in it. Capital letters are ideas that support the thesis.
Your outline must contain a minimum of 12 full sentences as follows.
The thesis statement of the paper (2 sentences minimum)
4 key points to support the thesis statement:
What is the issue and why is it significant? (2 full sentences minimum to clarify this point)
How would your first philosopher address your issue? (2 full sentences minimum to clarify this point)
How would your second philosopher address your issue? (2 full sentences minimum to clarify this point)
How would you apply your philosophers’ principles to your issue in modern society? (2 full sentences minimum to clarify this point)
Conclusion (2 sentences minimum)
Topic: Is the issue of racism painful in today's society?
Philosophers: John Locke & Thomas Hobbes
Resources
.
Notable photographers 1980 to presentAlmas, ErikAraki, No.docxpicklesvalery
Notable photographers: 1980 to present
Almas, Erik
Araki, Nobuyoshi
Balog, James
Bar-Am, Micha
Barbieri, Olivo
Clang, John
Clark, Larry
Consentino, Manuel
Crewdson, Gregory
Day, Corinne
Effendi, Rena
Flores, Ricky
Fontana, Franco
Galella, Ron
Geddes, Anne
Ghirri, Luigi
Goldberger, Sacha
Goldblatt, David
Goldin, Nan
Goldsworthy, Andy
Grannan, Katy
Gursky, Andreas
Herbert, Gerald
Higgins Jr., Chester
Hockney, David
Johansson, Erik
Johnson, Kremer
Jones, Charles
JR
Kander, Nadav
Kawauchi, Rinko
Kepule, Katrina
Kruger, Barbara
Kwon, Sue
Lanting Frans
Lassry, Elad
Lemoigne, Jean-Yves
Leone, Lisa
Luce, Kirsten
Manzano, Javier
Mapplethorpe, Robert
McGinley, Ryan
Modu, Chi
Mull, Carter
Neshat, Shirin
Nick Knight
Nilsson, Lennart
Opie, Catherine
Pao, Basil
Peters, Jennifer (and Michael Taylor)
.
Note 2 political actions that are in line with Socialism and explain.docxpicklesvalery
Note 2 political actions that are in line with Socialism and explain why and how they relate to the concepts attached to this ideology. List your sources.
2- Answer the questions below. List your source(s) for all your answers:
A) Why is Communism considered a dying ideology? Provide 2 arguments to support your answer.
B) Has Communism ever existed in practice? Use one example to support your answer.
800 words maximum
.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
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1. NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-8 2
NORMAN, ELTON_BTM7303-12-8 1
Hello Elton,
I appreciate your note. YES. Keep trying. I know that
making the transition to doctoral-level reasoning can be hard! It
was very hard for me in some areas because it seemed …
unnatural. Does that make sense? Some aspects of this type of
thinking seemed “clunky” and hard to explain in plain language.
I wanted research problems, research purpose statements, etc. to
simply flow. In the beginning of my journey there was very
little flow (more like trickles) and lots of missteps!
For this assignment, you were asked to build on your
assignment last week to further explore how you might examine
your research problem using a quantitative methodology. You
were required to respond to these questions:
· Please restate the research problem, purpose, and research
questions you developed previously and incorporate any faculty
feedback as appropriate. This week be sure to also include
hypotheses for each of your research questions.
· How might surveys be used to answer your research questions?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using surveys to
collect data?
· How might you use an experiment or quasi-experiment to
answer your research questions? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using (quasi)experiments to collect your data?
· It is also important to consider how you might analyze the
potential data you collect and factors that could affect those
analyses. Specifically, what are Type I and Type II errors? How
2. might these impact your study? What is statistical power? How
might this impact your study? What steps can you take ahead of
time to help avoid issues related to Type I & II errors as well as
power?
As part of our standard, you were also required to use scholarly
sources to support all assertions and research decisions.
Length: 5 to 7 pages, not including title and reference pages
I used the rubric below to assess your submission. As I moved
through each section of your paper, I looked for information
that demonstrated you understood important research terms such
as hypothesis, null hypothesis, Type I and Type II Errors and
statistical power. In most instances you demonstrated some
understanding of these concepts or terms. In several instances
your understanding hindered your ability to create rigorous
hypotheses because there were aspects of these terms that
remained unclear. I added several prompts and questions to help
you in these areas.
Grading Rubric
Criteria
Content (4 points)
Points
1
State research problem, purpose, research questions and
hypotheses
1.5/2
2
Discussed in detail the advantages and disadvantages of using
surveys to collect data
.75/ 1
3
Explained how you could use experiments or quasi-experiments
3. to collect data for your study and the advantages and
disadvantages of these designs
.75/1
Organization (1 point)
4
Organized and presented in a clear manner. Included a minimum
of five scholarly references, with appropriate APA formatting
applied to citations and paraphrasing.
.75/1
Total
3.75/5
Please scroll through the body of your paper for my
specific comments and improvement suggestions. Elton – DO
NOT GIVE UP. You can master these concepts however it may
take practice, more studying of concepts or time with a tutor or
statistics coach.
Faculty Name: Dr. Antoinette Kohlman
Grade Earned: 3.75/5 = C
Date Graded: May 16, 2019
4. Quantitative Research Design
BTM-7303 Assignment # 8
Elton Norman
Dr. Antoinette Kohlman
12 May 2019
Research Problem
The research on the relationship between substance abuse and
school dropout cases can be examined using a quantitative
methodology. A substantial number of researches on dropout
5. rates touch on the actual percentages of the students who drop
out of school due to substance abuse. However, limited research
has been done on the level of education which has witnessed the
highest dropout rates and the drug which is mostly associated
with these cases. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: Do you
mean research studies? I do not know what you mean by
researches? Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: What impact
does this lack of information have on schools, communities, or
families? Would studying this situation create new knowledge
that will enhance practice or further theoretical development?
In your next paper, I would enhance the problem statement with
this type of information.
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of the research is to establish the level where most
of the students drop out of learning institutions due to substance
abuse. It is also geared towards establishing the type of drug
which contributes to most of these cases.
Research Questions
At what level of education do most of the youths drop out of
school? Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: I think there is a
gap here. I would add more key questions.
For example:
>> Among those who drop out of school, what percentage
leaves due to illegal drug usage?
>> Among those who dropped out of school due to illegal drug
usage, what was the most common illegal drug used?
How might the above research questions be translated into
hypotheses?
Hypothesis Examples:
Illegal drug usage does not have a statistically significant effect
on school dropout rates.
Illegal drug usage has a statistically significant effect on school
6. dropout rates.
Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: This first question is a
good starting point because you are acknowledging there are
many reasons that contribute to high school dropouts. You then
immediately pinpoint your interests in drug usage however I
think more nuanced questions can be added.
What type of drug is associated with the highest dropout rates?
Hypotheses
Most of the school dropout rates due to substance abuse are
witnessed in high school. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman:
There are handouts that explain how to craft hypotheses in the
Dissertation Center. Click the following link to access NCU’s
Developing a Hypothesis Handout.
The element that is missing from your hypotheses is “statistical
significance.” Please see my hypothesis examples above!
Here is an excerpt that you can use to self-evaluate your
hypotheses:
Nature of Hypothesis
1. It can be tested –verifiable or falsifiable
2. Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions
3. It is neither too specific nor to general
4. It is a prediction of consequences
5. It is considered valuable even if proven false
Alcohol abuse contributes to the highest rate of school dropout
rates in high school.
Use of Surveys
Surveys make up one of the excellent ways of gathering data
during quantitative research and involve gathering answers from
the chosen sample which represents the population being
studied. It includes the use of questionnaires, mobile surveys,
paper surveys, face-to-face interviews, and telephone surveys.
7. In this research, the use of questionnaires is viable since it will
help reach a large number of respondents for a short period.
Advantages of Surveys
One of the advantages of surveys is that they are inexpensive.
In most cases, surveys utilize questionnaires whereby the
respondents are issued with questions which they are supposed
to fill. In this case, a quantitative survey involving the use of
surveys can be carried out with a minimum budget and still
produce a top-notch survey with valid results. Comment by
Antoinette Kohlman: I agree. Please cite at least one source!
The use of surveys in research leads to extensive research. It
should be noted that most of the research is used to describe
particular aspects of a certain population. In this case, the
research carried out must involve a large population so that the
results from the sample population infer to the whole population
under study. Such results can only be achieved when a method
which can reach a large population for a short period is used. In
this case, the use of surveys in research gives the researchers an
opportunity to conduct the research using a large sample.
Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: How so? How does a
survey lead to “extensive research?” Comment by
Antoinette Kohlman: I do not understand what you mean.
Doesn’t most research target specific populations? Comment by
Antoinette Kohlman: So you mean the results can be
generalized?
Disadvantages of Surveys
The use of surveys has disadvantages which include higher
chances of bias. It is evident that the researchers are involved in
choosing the respondents. In this case, they can select a group
of respondents who are inclined to their hypothesis. The fact
that samples are used to infer to a large population requires the
use of a large sample with respondents who bear different lines
of thought with the researchers. In this scenario, a poorly
selected sample can lead to unreliable results which are not a
representative of the larger population(Mitchell, 2010).
Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: Please be specific and
8. name the type or types of biases. Comment by Antoinette
Kohlman: Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: What do you
mean? I do not understand how this might occur. Please say
more. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: I do not understand
what you mean by a “different line(s) of thought.”
Although the researchers can select a sample population without
bias, the lack of knowledge in the techniques used in sampling
can lead to errors. Sampling method involves calculations and
statistical analysis which require a researcher with substantial
knowledge in sampling techniques. Failure to possess such
skills can lead to sampling errors resulting in misleading
research (Mitchell, 2010).
Use of Quasi-experiment
In this experiment, the use of experiments is limited as the
respondents are already out of the learning institutions. For the
study, the respondents will be subjected to a quasi-experiment
whereby they will only give details about the level of education
they dropped out of school and the substance which they can
attribute to the same. The use of quasi-experiments is popular in
research as it enables the researcher to control the experiment
and eliminates random assignment which depends on chances
that do not offer a guarantee of the equivalency of the groups at
the baseline. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: This would
mean you might have to do either a longitudinal study or use a
pre-test, post-test design. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman:
What exactly is a quasi-experiment? Please explain or define
this term and cite your source. Thank You.
Advantages of Quasi-experiments
The use of quasi-experiments in the research gives the
researcher an opportunity to conduct the survey without
subjecting the respondents to random assignments. Such
assignments on substance abuse are unethical to carry out since
the survey involves human respondents. The results arrived at in
the survey will then be used to infer to the whole population
since a large number of respondents will ensure the survey is
extensive. Comment by Antoinette Kohlman: Some of this
9. information seems inaccurate/incorrect however I would need to
know which sources you used. Cites are needed.
Quasi-experiments give the researcher the freedom to
manipulate the respondents to gather substantial data for the
study. In normal scenarios, the researchers can only gather
limited information about the level at which most of the dropout
rates are witnessed. With quasi-experiments, the researcher can
twist the questions to fit the study such as indicating most of
the drugs most abused for the respondents to choose.
Disadvantages of Quasi-experiments
Although quasi-experiments put the researcher in a position to
manipulate the research, they lack randomness which leads to
weaker evidence. Randomness is vital in research as it leads to
results which infer to the whole population. Failure to include
randomness may obtain results that favor the hypothesis and
which are not a representative of the whole population.
The use of quasi-experiments leads to unequal groups which
jeopardize the internal validity of the research. During surveys,
the internal validity aids in obtaining the approximate truth
concerning causal relationships. Lack of internal validity infers
that the experimenter lacks control for the variables which
contribute to the results, leading to unreliable data (Polit &
Beck, 2010).
Analysis of Potential Data
After the experiments, the potential data is analyzed using
statistical tools such as the SPSS and SAS. At first, the central
tendencies for the acquired data will be obtained. The measures
of central tendency in the experiment will include median, mode
and the mean. It will be followed by the variability
measurements; an action will determine the distribution of the
score and how the scores vary. In this scenario, the variability
measurements taken will include standard deviation, average
deviation, and the range.
Factors affecting Data Analysis
The analysis of the data is affected by the level of the skills
exhibited by the researcher. Although the correct data can be
10. arrived at from the questionnaires, poor analysis skills can lead
to inaccurate data which does not infer to the population under
the study. As such, the researcher must be conversant with the
statistical tools to draw reliable conclusions from the survey.
The extent of the analysis is another factor which affects the
data analysis. During the survey, the researcher must establish
the level of analysis and apply the suitable statistical tools
which do not compromise the data integrity. In this case, they
must apply multiple tools to analyze the collected data to
establish the patterns of behavior and test the hypothesis to get
the correct data which represents the population (Ramachandran
&Tsokos, 2009).
Type 1 and Type 2 Errors
Type 1 and type 2 errors are the examples of errors which can
occur in the survey. Type 1 errors occur when the researcher
rejects the null hypothesis when it is true. The researcher
concludes that there is the existence of differences between the
groups when it is not present in reality. On the other hand, the
type 2 errors infer that the researcher fails to reject a false null
hypothesis. The researcher’s conclusion communicates that
there is no difference between the groups although it exists. The
presence of these errors in the survey leads to false results as
the researcher does not make the correct inferences from the
experiments. In such scenarios, the survey is termed as
unreliable as it contains misleading information
(Gravetter&Wallnau, 2007).
Statistical Power
Statistical power refers to the probability that the study will
reveal the differences if they exist. A study bears the possibility
of differences in the groups being studied and the failure to
detect such differences will lead to research will false results.
As such, the statistical tests must have the capacity to detect the
differences and reject the false null hypothesis. A low statistical
power infers that the tests may not identify the differences even
when they are present. Its presence increases the probability of
type 2 errors whereby the false null hypothesis is not rejected
11. (Wimmer& Dominick, 2011). Comment by Antoinette
Kohlman: Elton, if you are required to compare groups … which
groups would you compare? Go back to your initial research
questions. Could you compare dropout rates based on gender or
ethnicity? Could you hypothesize that males dropout od school
due to illegal drug usage at a higher rate when compared to
females? Does this make sense?
Avoiding Low Statistical Power
There are numerous actions which are adopted to ensure the
statistical tools have a higher statistical power. One of the
actions is to use a greater sample size since it offers detailed
information concerning the population being studied. Another
means of increasing the statistical power is incorporating a
higher level of significance which increases the chances of
rejecting the null hypothesis.
References
Gravetter, F. J., &Wallnau, L. B. (2007). Statistics for the
behavioral sciences. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Mitchell, M. L. (2010). Research design explained. -7th ed.
(9780495602217). Belmont: Wadsworth.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Essentials of nursing
research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice.
Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Ramachandran, K. M., &Tsokos, C. P. (2009). Mathematical
statistics with applications. London: Elsevier Academic Press.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass media
research: An introduction. Boston, Mass: Cengage- Wadsworth.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
12. A Power Primer
Jacob Cohen
New brk University
One possible reason for the continued neglect of statistical
power analysis in research in the
behavioral sciences is the inaccessibility of or difficulty with
the standard material. A convenient,
although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample
sizes is provided here. Effect-size
indexes and conventional values for these are given for
operationally defined small, medium, and
large effects. The sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect
effects at these levels are tabled for
eight standard statistical tests: (a) the difference between
independent means, (b) the significance
of a product-moment correlation, (c) the difference between
independent rs, (d) the sign test, (e) the
difference between independent proportions, (f) chi-square tests
for goodness of fit and contin-
gency tables, (g) one-way analysis of variance, and (h) the
significance of a multiple or multiple
partial correlation.
The preface to the first edition of my power handbook (Co-
hen, 1969) begins:
During my first dozen years of teaching and consulting on
applied
statistics with behavioral scientists, 1 became increasingly im-
pressed with the importance of statistical power analysis, an im-
portance which was increased an order of magnitude by its
neglect
in our textbooks and curricula. The case for its importance is
13. easily made: What behavioral scientist would view with
equanim-
ity the question of the probability that his investigation would
lead to statistically significant results, i.e., its power? (p. vii)
This neglect was obvious through casual observation and had
been confirmed by a power review of the 1960 volume of the
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, which found the
mean power to detect medium effect sizes to be .48 (Cohen,
1962). Thus, the chance of obtaining a significant result was
about that of tossing a head with a fair coin. I attributed this
disregard of power to the inaccessibility of a meager and mathe-
matically difficult literature, beginning with its origin in the
work of Neyman and Pearson (1928,1933).
The power handbook was supposed to solve the problem. It
required no more background than an introductory psychologi-
cal statistics course that included significance testing. The ex-
position was verbal-intuitive and carried largely by many
worked examples drawn from across the spectrum of behav-
ioral science.
In the ensuing two decades, the book has been through re-
vised (1977) and second (1988) editions and has inspired dozens
of power and effect-size surveys in many areas of the social and
life sciences (Cohen, 1988, pp. xi-xii). During this period, there
has been a spate of articles on power analysis in the social
science literature, a baker's dozen of computer programs (re-
I am grateful to Patricia Cohen for her useful comments.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Ja-
cob Cohen, Department of Psychology, New >brk University, 6
Wash-
ington Place, 5th Floor, New York, New York 10003.
14. viewed in Goldstein, 1989), and a breakthrough into popular
statistics textbooks (Cohen, 1988, pp. xii-xiii).
Sedlmeier and Gigerenzer (1989) reported a power review of
the 1984 volume of the Journal of Abnormal Psychology (some
24 years after mine) under the title, "Do Studies of Statistical
Power Have an Effect on the Power of Studies?" The answer
was no. Neither their study nor the dozen other power reviews
they cite (excepting those fields in which large sample sizes are
used, e.g., sociology, market research) showed any material im-
provement in power. Thus, a quarter century has brought no
increase in the probability of obtaining a significant result.
Why is this? There is no controversy among methodologists
about the importance of power analysis, and there are ample
accessible resources for estimating sample sizes in research
planning using power analysis. My 2-decades-long expectation
that methods sections in research articles in psychological jour-
nals would invariably include power analyses has not been real-
ized. Indeed, they almost invariably do not. Of the 54 articles
Sedlmeier and Gigerenzer (1989) reviewed, only 2 mentioned
power, and none estimated power or necessary sample size or
the population effect size they posited. In 7 of the studies, null
hypotheses served as research hypotheses that were confirmed
when the results were nonsignificant. Assuming a medium ef-
fect size, the median power for these tests was .25! Thus, these
authors concluded that their research hypotheses of no effect
were supported when they had only a .25 chance of rejecting
these null hypotheses in the presence of substantial population
effects.
It is not at all clear why researchers continue to ignore power
analysis. The passive acceptance of this state of affairs by edi-
tors and reviewers is even more of a mystery. At least part of
the
15. reason may be the low level of consciousness about effect size:
It
is as if the only concern about magnitude in much psychologi-
cal research is with regard to the statistical test result and its
accompanying p value, not with regard to the psychological
phenomenon under study. Sedlmeier and Gigerenzer (1989) at-
tribute this to the accident of the historical precedence of Fi-
Psychological Bulletin, 1992, Vol. 112. No. 1,155-159
Copyright 1992 by the American Psychological Association,
Inc. 0033-2909/92/S3-00
155
156 JACOB COHEN
sherian theory, its hybridization with the contradictory Ney-
man-Pearson theory, and the apparent completeness of Fisher-
ian null hypothesis testing: objective, mechanical, and a clear-
cut go-no-go decision straddled over p = .05.1 have suggested
that the neglect of power analysis simply exemplifies the slow
movement of methodological advance (Cohen, 1988, p. xiv),
noting that it took some 40 years from Student's publication of
the / test to its inclusion in psychological statistics textbooks
(Cohen, 1990, p. 1311).
An associate editor of this journal suggests another reason:
Researchers find too complicated, or do not have at hand, ei-
ther my book or other reference material for power analysis. He
suggests that a short rule-of-thumb treatment of necessary sam-
ple size might make a difference. Hence this article.
In this bare bones treatment, I cover only the simplest cases,
the most common designs and tests, and only three levels of
16. effect size. For readers who find this inadequate, I unhesitat-
ingly recommend Statistic Power Analysis for the Behavioral
Sciences (Cohen, 1988; hereafter SPABS). It covers special
cases,
one-sided tests, unequal sample sizes, other null hypotheses, set
correlation and multivariate methods and gives substantive ex-
amples of small, medium, and large effect sizes for the various
tests. It offers well over 100 worked illustrative examples and is
as user friendly as I know how to make it, the technical material
being relegated to an appendix.
Method
Statistical power analysis exploits the relationships among the
four
variables involved in statistical inference: sample size (N),
significance
criterion (ft), population effect size (ES), and statistical power.
For any
statistical model, these relationships are such that each is a
function of
the other three. For example, in power reviews, for any given
statistical
test, we can determine power for given a, N, and ES. For
research
planning, however, it is most useful to determine the N
necessary to
have a specified power for given a and ES; this article addresses
this use.
The Significance Criterion, a
The risk of mistakenly rejecting the null hypothesis (H) and
thus of
committing a Type I error, a, represents a policy: the maximum
risk
17. attending such a rejection. Unless otherwise stated (and it rarely
is), it is
taken to equal .05 (part of the Fisherian legacy; Cohen, 1990).
Other
values may of course be selected. For example, in studies
testing sev-
eral fys, it is recommended that a - .01 per hypothesis in order
that the
experimentwise risk (i.e., the risk of any false rejections) not
become
too large. Also, for tests whose parameters may be either
positive or
negative, the a risk may be defined as two sided or one sided.
The many
tables in SPABS provide for both kinds, but the sample sizes
provided
in this note are all for two-sided tests at a = .01, .05, and. 10,
the last for
circumstances in which a less rigorous standard for rejection is
de-
sired, as, for example, in exploratory studies. For
unreconstructed one
tailers (see Cohen, 1965), the tabled sample sizes provide close
approxi-
mations for one-sided tests at Via (e.g., the sample sizes tabled
under a =
.10 may be used for one-sided tests at a = .05).
Power
The statistical power of a significance test is the long-term
probabil-
ity, given the population ES, a, and TV of rejecting /&. When
the ES is
not equal to zero, H, is false, so failure to reject it also incurs
an error.
18. This is a Type II error, and for any given ES, a, and N, its
probability of
occurring is ft. Power is thus 1 - 0, the probability of rejecting a
false H,.
In this treatment, the only specification for power is .80 (so /3 =
.20), a
convention proposed for general use. (SPABS provides for 11
levels of
power in most of its N tables.) A materially smaller value than
.80
would incur too great a risk of a Type II error. A materially
larger value
would result in a demand for N that is likely to exceed the
investigator's
resources. Taken with the conventional a = .05, powerof .80
results in a
0M ratio of 4:1 (.20 to .05) of the two kinds of risks. (See
SPABS, pp.
53-56.)
Sample Size
In research planning, the investigator needs to know the N
neces-
sary to attain the desired power for the specified a and
hypothesized
ES. A'increases with an increase in the power desired, a
decrease in the
ES, and a decrease in a. For statistical tests involving two or
more
groups, Nas here denned is the necessary sample size for each
group.
Effect Size
19. Researchers find specifying the ES the most difficult part of
power
analysis. As suggested above, the difficulty is at least partly due
to the
generally low level of consciousness of the magnitude of
phenomena
that characterizes much of psychology. This in turn may help
explain
why, despite the stricture of methodologists, significance
testing is so
heavily preferred to confidence interval estimation, although the
wide
intervals that usually result may also play a role (Cohen, 1990).
How-
ever, neither the determination of power or necessary sample
size can
proceed without the investigator having some idea about the
degree to
which the H, is believed to be false (i.e., the ES).
In the Neyman-Pearson method of statistical inference, in
addition
to the specification of HQ, an alternate hypothesis (//,) is
counterpoised
against fy. The degree to which H> is false is indexed by the
discrep-
ancy between H, and //, and is called the ES. Each statistical
test has its
own ES index. All the indexes are scale free and continuous,
ranging
upward from zero, and for all, the /^ is that ES = 0. For
example, for
testing the product-moment correlation of a sample for
significance,
the ES is simply the population r, so H posits that r = 0. As
20. another
example, for testing the significance of the departure of a
population
proportion (P) from .50, the ES index isg= P— .50, so the H, is
that g=
0. For the tests of the significance of the difference between
indepen-
dent means, correlation coefficients, and proportions, the H is
that the
difference equals zero. Table 1 gives for each of the tests the
definition
of its ES index.
To convey the meaning of any given ES index, it is necessary to
have
some idea of its scale. To this end, I have proposed as
conventions or
operational definitions small, medium, and large values for each
that
are at least approximately consistent across the different ES
indexes.
My intent was that medium ES represent an effect likely to be
visible to
the naked eye of a careful observer, (ft has since been noted in
effect-
size surveys that it approximates the average size of observed
effects in
various fields.) I set small ES to be noticeably smaller than
medium but
not so small as to be trivial, and I set large ES to be the same
distance
above medium as small was below it. Although the definitions
were
made subjectively, with some early minor adjustments, these
conven-
tions have been fixed since the 1977 edition of SPABS and have
21. come
into general use. Table 1 contains these values for the tests
considered
here.
In the present treatment, the H,s are the ESs that operationally
de-
fine small, medium, and large effects as given in Table 1. For
the test of
the significance of a sample r, for example, because the ES for
this test
is simply the alternate-hypothetical population r, small,
medium, and
large ESs are respectively .10, .30, and .50. The ES index for
the t test of
the difference between independent means is d, the difference
A POWER PRIMER 157
Table 1
ES Indexes and Their Values for Small, Medium, and Large
Effects
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
22. 7.
8.
Test ES index
mA vs. mB for , mA — mB
independent a
means
Significance r
of product-
moment r
rA vs. rB for q = ZA - ZB where z = Fisher's z
independent
rs
P = .5 and £ = P - .50
the sign test
PA vs. PB for h = <t>A — <t>B where 0 = arcsine
independent transformation
proportions ,
Chi-square , /^ (/>„ - P0/)
2
for goodness / £ p
of fit and V
contingency
One-way ,_ £„,
analysis of J a
variance
Multiple and f2 R
2
multiple J - R2
24. .30
.25
.15
Large
.80
.50
.50
.25
.80
.50
.40
.35
Note. ES = population effect size.
expressed in units of (i.e., divided by) the within-population
standard
deviation. For this test, the /& is that d= 0 and the small,
medium, and
large ESs (or H,s) are d - .20, .50, and .80. Thus, an
operationally
defined medium difference between means is half a standard
devia-
tion; concretely, for IQ scores in which the population standard
devia-
25. tion is 15, a medium difference between means is 7.5 IQ points.
Statistical Tests
The tests covered here are the most common tests used in
psychological research:
1. The t test for the difference between two independent
means, with df= 2 (N- 1).
2. The / test for the significance of a product-moment corre-
lation coefficient r, with df= N- 2.
3. The test for the difference between two independent rs,
accomplished as a normal curve test through the Fisher z trans-
formation of r (tabled in many statistical texts).
4. The binomial distribution or, for large samples, the nor-
mal curve (or equivalent chi-square, 1 df) test that a population
proportion (P) = .50. This test is also used in the nonparametric
sign test for differences between paired observations.
5. The normal curve test for the difference between two inde-
pendent proportions, accomplished through the arcsine trans-
formation <t> (tabled in many statistical texts). The results are
effectively the same when the test is made using the chi-square
test with 1 degree of freedom.
6. The chi-square test for goodness of fit (one way) or associa-
tion in two-way contingency tables. In Table 1, k is the number
of cells and PQi and Pv are the null hypothetical and alternate
hypothetical population proportions in cell /. (Note that w's
structure is the same as chi-square's for cell sample
frequencies.)
For goodness-of-fit tests, the df= k - 1, and for contingency
26. tables, df= (a — 1) (b — 1), where a and b are the number of
levels
in the two variables. Table 2 provides (total) sample sizes for 1
through 6 degrees of freedom.
7. One-way analysis of variance. Assuming equal sample
sizes (as we do throughout), for g groups, the Ftest has df= g —
1, g(N - 1). The ES index is the standard deviation of the g
population means divided by the common within-population
standard deviation. Provision is made in Table 2 for 2 through 7
groups.
8. Multiple and multiple partial correlation. For k indepen-
dent variables, the significance test is the standard F test for
df= k,N—k-. The ES index, /*, is defined for either squared
multiple or squared multiple partial correlations (R2). Table 2
provides for 2 through 8 independent variables.
Note that because all tests of population parameters that can
be either positive or negative (Tests 1-5) are two-sided, their ES
indexes here are absolute values.
In using the material that follows, keep in mind that the ES
posited by the investigator is what he or she believes holds for
the population and that the sample size that is found is condi-
tional on the ES. Thus, if a study is planned in which the inves-
tigator believes that a population r is of medium size (ES = r -
.30 from Table 1) and the / test is to be performed with two-
sided a = .05, then the power of this test is .80 if the sample
size
is 85 (from Table 2). If, using 85 cases, t is not significant, then
158 JACOB COHEN
27. Table 2
TV for Small, Medium, and Large ES at Power = .80 for a = .01,
.05, and .10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Test
Mean dif
Sigr
rdif
P= .5
Pdif
x2
df
2df
Idf
4df
5df
6df
ANOVA
2g"
lg°
V
5«*
35. 22
52
23
19
25
31
35
39
42
45
20
17
15
13
12
1 1
Note. ES = population effect size, Sm = small, Med = medium,
Lg = large, diff = difference, ANOVA =
analysis of variance. Tests numbered as in Table 1.
" Number of groups. * Number of independent variables.
either r is smaller then .30 or the investigator has been the
victim of the .20 (ft) risk of making a Type II error.
Examples
The necessary N for power of .80 for the following examples
are found in Table 2.
1. To detect a medium difference between two independent
sample means (d= .50 in Table 1) at a = .05 requires N= 64 in
each group. (A dof .50 is equivalent to a point-biserial correla-
tion of .243; see SPABS, pp. 22-24.)
36. 2. For a significance test of a sample rala = .01, when the
population r is large (.50 in Table 2), a sample size = 41 is
required. At a = .05, the necessary sample size = 28.
3. To detect a medium-sized difference between two popula-
tion rs (q = .30 in Table 1) at a = .05 requires N = 177 in each
group. (The following pairs of rs yield q = .30: .00, .29; .20,
.46;
.40, .62; .60, .76; .80, .89; .90, .94; see SPABS, pp. 113-116)
4. The sign test tests the HO that .50 of a population of paired
differences are positive. If the population proportion^ depar-
ture from .50 is medium (q = .15 in Table 1), at a = .10, the
necessary N= 67; at a = .05, it is 85.
5. To detect a small difference between two independent
population proportions (h = .20 in Table 1) at a = .05 requires
TV = 392 cases in each group. (The following pairs of Ps yield
approximate values of h = .20: .05, .10; .20, .29; .40, .50; .60,
.70;
.80, .87; .90, .95; see SPABS, p. 184f.)
6. A 3 X 4 contingency table has 6 degrees of freedom. To
detect a medium degree of association in the population (w =
.30 in Table 1) at a = .05 requires N = 151. (w = .30
corresponds
to a contingency coefficient of .287, and for 6 degrees of free-
dom, a Cramer <£ of .212; see SPABS, pp. 220-227).
7. A psychologist considers alternate research plans involv-
ing comparisons of the means of either three or four groups in
both of which she believes that the ES is medium (/= .25 in
Table 1). She finds that at a = .05, the necessary sample size per
group is 52 cases for the three-group plan and 45 cases for the
37. four-group plan, thus, total sample sizes of 156 and 180. (When
/= .25, the proportion of variance accounted for by group
membership is .0588; see SPABS, pp. 280-284.)
8. A psychologist plans a research in which he will do a
multiple regression/correlation analysis and perform all the sig-
nificance tests at a = .01. For the F test of the multiple R2, he
expects a medium ES, that is, f2 = . 15 (from Table 1). He has a
candidate set of eight independent variables for which Table 2
indicates that the required sample size is 147, which exceeds his
resources. However, from his knowledge of the research area,
he believes that the information in the eight variables can be
A POWER PRIMER 159
effectively summarized in three. For three variables, the neces-
sary sample size is only 108. (Given the relationship between f2
and R2, the values for small, medium, and large R2 are respec-
tively .0196, .1304, and .2592, and for R, .14, .36, and .51; see
SPABS, pp. 410-414.)
References
Cohen, J. (1962). The statistical power of abnormal-social
psychologi-
cal research: A review. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology,
65, 145-153.
Cohen, J. (1965). Some statistical issues in psychological
research. In
B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology (pp. 95-
121).
38. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral
sciences.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral
sciences
(2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cohen, J. (1990). Things I have learned (so far). American
Psychologist,
45,1304-1312.
Goldstein, R. (1989). Power and sample size via MS/PC-DOS
com-
puters. American Statistician, 43, 253-260.
Neyman, 1, & Pearson, E. S. (1928). On the use and
interpretation of
certain test criteria for purposes of statistical inference.
Biometrika,
20A,175-240, 263-294.
Neyman, J., & Pearson, E. S. (1933). On the problem of the
most effi-
cient tests of statistical hypotheses. Transactions of the Royal
Society
of London Series A, 231, 289-337.
Sedlmeier, P., & Gigerenzer, G. (1989). Do studies of statistical
power
have an effect on the power of studies? Psychological Bulletin,
105,
309-316.
39. Received February 1,1991
Revision received April 26,1991
Accepted May 2,1991 •
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CHAPTER 11
Sampling
The simplest rationale for sampling is that it may not be
feasible because of time or financial
constraints, or even physically possible, to collect data from
everyone involved in an evaluation.
Sampling strategies provide systematic, transparent processes
for choosing who will actually be asked
to provide data.
—Mertens and Wilson, 2012, p. 410
Relationships are powerful. Our one-to-one connections with
each other are the foundation for change.
41. And building relationships with people from different cultures,
often many different cultures, is key in
building diverse communities that are powerful enough to
achieve significant goals.
—Work Group for Community Health and Development, 2013
In This Chapter
• The viewpoints of researchers who work within the
postpositivist, constructivist, and transformative
paradigms are contrasted in relation to sampling strategies and
generalizability.
• External validity is introduced as a critical concept in
sampling decisions.
• Challenges in the definition of specific populations are
described in terms of conceptual and operational
definitions, identifying a person’s racial or ethnic status,
identifying persons with a disability, heterogeneity
within populations, and cultural issues.
• Strategies for designing and selecting samples are provided,
including probability-based, theoretical-
purposive, and convenience sampling. Sampling is also
discussed for complex designs such as those using
hierarchical linear modeling.
• Sampling bias, access issues, and sample size are discussed.
• Ethical standards for the protection of study participants are
described in terms of an institutional review
board’s requirements.
• Questions to guide critical analysis of sampling definition,
42. selection, and ethics are provided.
Transformative research implies a philosophy that research
should confront and act against the causes
of injustice and violence, which can be caused not only by that
which is researched but also by the
process of research itself. Individuals involved in research can
be disenfranchised in a few ways: (1) by
the hidden power arrangements uncovered by the research
process, (2) by the actions of unscrupulous
(and even well-intentioned) researchers, but also (3) by
researchers’ failure to expose those
arrangements once they become aware of them. Hidden power
arrangements are maintained by secrets
of those who might be victimized by them (because they fear
retaliation). . . . [Researchers] contribute
to this disenfranchisement if it prevents the exposure of hidden
power arrangements. (Baez, 2002, pp.
51–52)
Definition, Selection, and Ethics p. 319
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Sampling Strategies: Alternative Paradigms
The decisions that a researcher makes regarding from whom
data will be collected, who is included,
how they are included, and what is done to conceal or reveal
identities in research constitute the topics
addressed in this chapter on sampling. As can be seen in the
opening quotation, these decisions are
complex and not unproblematic. In a simple sense, sampling
refers to the method used to select a given
number of people (or things) from a population. The strategy for
selecting your sample influences the
quality of your data and the inferences that you can make from
it. The issues surrounding from whom
you collect data are what sampling is all about. Within all
approaches to research, researchers use
sampling for very practical reasons. In most research studies, it
is simply not feasible to collect data
from every individual in a setting or population.
Sampling is one area in which great divergence can be
witnessed when comparing the various
research paradigms. In general, researchers who function within
the postpositivist paradigm see the
ideal sampling strategy as some form of probability sampling.
Kathleen Collins (2010) describes
44. probability sampling as follows:
A researcher uses probability sampling schemes to select
randomly the sampling units that are
representative of the population of interest. . . . These methods
meet the goal of ensuring that
every member of the population of interest has an equal chance
of selection. . . . When
implementing probabilistic sampling designs, the researcher’s
objective is to make external
statistical generalizations (i.e., generalizing conclusions for the
population from which the sample
was drawn). (p. 357)
Researchers within the constructivist paradigm tend to use a
theoretical or purposive approach to
sampling. Their sampling activities begin with an identification
of groups, settings, and individuals
where (and for whom) the processes being studied are most
likely to occur (K. M. T. Collins, 2010).
Collins explains:
When using a purposive sample, the goal is to add to or
generate new theories by obtaining new
insights or fresh perspectives. . . . Purposive sampling schemes
are employed by the researcher to
choose strategically elite cases or key informants based on the
researcher’s perception that the
selected cases will yield a depth of information or a unique
perspective. (p. 357)
Researchers within the transformative paradigm could choose
either a probability or theoretical-
purposive approach to sampling, depending on their choice of
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
methods. However, they would function with a distinctive
45. consciousness of representing the
populations that have traditionally been underrepresented in
research.
Despite the contrasting views of sampling evidenced within the
various paradigms, issues of
common concern exist. All sampling decisions must be made
within the constraints of ethics and
feasibility. Although randomized probability samples are set
forth as the ideal in the postpositivist
paradigm, they are not commonly used in educational and
psychological research. Thus, in practice, the
postpositivist and constructivist paradigms are more similar
than different in that both use nonrandom
samples. Sometimes, the use of convenience samples (discussed
at greater length later in this chapter)
means that less care is taken by those in both of these
paradigms. All researchers should make
conscious choices in the design of their samples rather than
accepting whatever sample presents itself
as most convenient.
External Validity (Generalizability) or Transferability
As you will recall from Chapter 4, external validity refers to the
ability of the researcher (and user of
the research results) to extend the findings of a particular study
beyond the specific individuals and
setting in which that study occurred. Within the postpositivist
paradigm, the external validity depends
on the design and execution of the sampling strategy.
Generalizability is a concept that is linked to the
target population—that is, the group to whom we want to
generalize findings.
In the constructivist paradigm, every instance of a case or
process is viewed as both an exemplar of a
46. l l f h d i l d i i i (D i & Li l 2011 ) Th
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general class of phenomena and particular and unique in its own
way (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a). The
researcher’s task is to provide sufficient thick description about
the case so that the readers can
understand the contextual variables operating in that setting
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000). The burden of
generalizability then lies with the readers, who are assumed to
47. be able to generalize subjectively from
the case in question to their own personal experiences. Lincoln
and Guba label this type of
generalizability transferability.
EXTENDING YOUR THINKING
Generalizability or Transferability of Results
What is your opinion of a researcher’s ability to generalize
results? Is it possible? If so, under what
conditions? What do you think of the alternative concept of
transferability?
Defining the Population and Sample
Research constructs, such as racial or ethnic minority or deaf
student, can be defined in two ways.
Conceptual definitions are those that use other constructs to
explain the meaning, and operational
definitions are those that specify how the construct will be
measured. Researchers often begin their
work with a conceptual idea of the group of people they want to
study, such as working mothers, drug
abusers, students with disabilities, and so on. Through a review
of the literature, they formulate a
formal, conceptual definition of the group they want to study.
For example, the target population might
be first-grade students in the United States.
An operational definition of the population in the postpositivist
paradigm is called the
experimentally accessible population, defined as the list of
people who fit the conceptual definition.
For example, the experimentally accessible population might be
all the first-grade students in your
school district whose names are entered into the district’s
database. You would next need to obtain a list
48. of all the students in that school district. This would be called
your sampling frame. Examples of
sampling frames include (a) the student enrollment, (b) a list of
clients who receive services at a clinic,
(c) professional association membership directories, or (d) city
phone directories. The researcher
should ask if the lists are complete and up-to-date and who has
been left off the list. For example, lists
of clients at a community mental health clinic eliminate those
who need services but have not sought
them. Telephone directories eliminate people who do not have
telephone service, as well as those with
unlisted or newly assigned numbers, and most directories do not
list people’s cell, or mobile, phone
numbers. In the postpositivist view, generalizability is in part a
function of the match between the
conceptual and operational definitions of the sample. If the lists
are not accurate, systematic error can
occur because of differences between the true population and
the study population. When the
accessible population represents the target population, this
establishes population validity.
The researcher must also acknowledge that the intended sample
might differ from the obtained
sample. The issue of response rate was addressed in Chapter 6
on survey research, along with strategies
such as follow-up of nonrespondents and comparison of
respondents and nonrespondents on key
variables. The size and effect of nonresponse or attrition should
be reported and explained in all
approaches to research to address the effect of people not
responding, choosing not to participate, being
inaccessible, or dropping out of the study. This effect represents
a threat to the internal and external
validity (or credibility and transferability) of the study’s
49. findings. You may recall the related discussion
of this issue in the section on experimental mortality in Chapter
4 and the discussion of credibility and
transferability in Chapter 8. A researcher can use statistical
processes (described in Chapter 13) to
identify the plausibility of fit between the obtained sample and
the group from which it was drawn
when the design of the study permits it.
Identification of Sample Members
It might seem easy to know who is a member of your sample
and who is not; however complexities
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It might seem easy to know who is a member of your sample
and who is not; however, complexities
arise because of the ambiguity or inadequacy of the categories
typically used by researchers. Examples
of errors in identification of sample members can readily be
found in research with racial and ethnic
minorities and persons with disabilities. Two examples are
presented here, and the reader is referred to
Chapter 5 on causal comparative and correlational research to
review additional complexities
associated with this issue.
Identification of Race and Ethnicity in Populations
Investigators who examine racial or ethnic groups and
differences between such groups frequently do
so without a clear sense of what race or ethnicity means in a
research context (Blum, 2008).
Researchers who use categorization and assume homogeneity of
condition are avoiding the
complexities of participants’ experiences and social locations.
Selection of samples on the basis of race
should be done with attention to within-group variation and to
the influence of particular contexts.
Race as a biogenetic variable should not serve as a proxy
variable for actual causal variables, such as
poverty, unemployment, or family structure.
51. Heterogeneity has been recognized as a factor that contributes
to difficulty in classifying people as
African American or Latino (Stanfield, 2011). In reference to
African American populations, Stanfield
writes,
The question of what is blackness, which translates into who
has black African ancestry and how
far back it is in family tree histories, is a subject of empirical
analysis and should remain on the
forefront in any . . . research project. . . . What is needed . . . is
developing theories and methods of
data collection and analysis that remind us that whiteness,
blackness, and other kinds of
racializations are relational phenomena. White people create
black people; black people create
white people, and people in general create each other and
structure each other in hierarchies,
communities, movements, and societies, and global spheres. (p.
18)
Thus, Stanfield recognizes that many people are not pure
racially, but people are viewed as belonging
to specific racial groups in many research studies.
Race is sometimes used as a substitute for ethnicity, which is
usually defined in terms of a common
origin or culture resulting from shared activities and identity
based on some mixture of language,
religion, race, and ancestry (C. D. Lee, 2003). Lee suggests that
the profoundly contextual nature of
race and ethnicity must be taken into account in the study of
ethnic and race relations. Blum (2008)
makes clear that use of broad categories of race can hide
important differences in communities; using
52. labels such as African American and Asian American ignores
important differences based on ethnicity.
Initial immigration status and social capital among different
Asian immigrant groups result in stark
differences in terms of advantages and positions in current
racial and ethnic stratifications. For
example, Hmong and Cambodians are generally less successful
in American society than Asians from
the southern or eastern parts of Asia. Ethnic plurality is visible
in the Black community in terms of
people who were brought to America during the times of slavery
and those who have come more
recently from Africa or the Caribbean.
For instance, the word Latino has been used to categorize
people of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican,
Dominican, Colombian, Salvadoran, and other extractions. The
term Hispanic has been used to include
people who trace their origins to an area colonized by Spain.
However, both labels obscure important
dimensions of diversity within the groups. This has implications
for sampling and must be attended to
if the results are to be meaningful.
The American Psychological Association Joint Task Force of
Divisions 17 and 45’s Guidelines on
Multicultural Education Training, Research, Practice, and
Organizational Change for Psychologists
(American Psychological Association [APA], 2002) and the
Council of National Psychological
Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests’
(2000) Guidelines for Research in
Ethnic Minority Communities, 2000 provide detailed insights
into working with four of the major
racial/ethnic minority groups in the United States: Asian
American/Pacific Islander populations,
53. persons of African descent, Hispanics, and American Indians
(see Box 11.1).Although American
Indians/Native Americans (AI/NA) make up approximately
1.4% of the national population, there are
more than 560 federally recognized American Indian tribes in
the United States (J B Unger Soto &
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54. more than 560 federally recognized American Indian tribes in
the United States (J. B. Unger, Soto, &
Thomas, 2008). Each recognized tribe has its own government
and court system. The diversity in the
AI/NA population is described as follows:
The precise number of AI/ANs in the United States is difficult
to quantify because it depends on
individuals’ self-reports of their AI/AN ancestry and affiliation.
Individuals’ decisions to self-
identify as AI/AN are influenced by the wording of
race/ethnicity questions on surveys,
individuals’ awareness of their ancestry, feelings of
identification with AI/AN cultures, and
perceptions about the potential benefits and costs of labeling
themselves as AI/ANs. (p. 125)
BOX 11.1 Heterogeneity in Racial/Ethnic Minority and
Immigrant
Communities
The American Psychological Association (APA) developed
guidelines for cultural competence in conducting
research. Because of the unique salience of race/ethnicity for
diversity-related issues in the United States,
they developed guidelines for four specific racial ethnic groups:
Asian American/Pacific Islander
populations, persons of African descent, Hispanics, and
American Indian participants (APA, 2002). The APA
used race/ethnicity as the organizing framework; however, they
also recognized the need to be aware of other
dimensions of diversity. They had as a guiding principle the
following:
Recognition of the ways in which the intersection of racial and
ethnic group membership with other
55. dimensions of identity (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation,
disability, religion/spiritual orientation,
educational attainment/experiences, and socioeconomic status)
enhances the understanding and
treatment of all people. (p. 19)
They included the following narrative in their discussion:
As an agent of prosocial change, the culturally competent
psychologist carries the responsibility of
combating the damaging effects of racism, prejudice, bias, and
oppression in all their forms, including
all of the methods we use to understand the populations we
serve. . . . A consistent theme . . . relates to
the interpretation and dissemination of research findings that
are meaningful and relevant to each of the
four populations and that reflect an inherent understanding of
the racial, cultural, and sociopolitical
context within which they exist. (p. 1)
Stake and Rizvi (2009) and Banks (2008) discuss the effects of
globalization in terms of
complicating our understandings of who belongs in which
groups and what the implications are for
appropriate inclusion in research for immigrant groups
particularly. The majority of immigrants
coming to the United States are from Asia, Latin America, the
West Indies, and Africa. With national
boundaries eroding, people cross boundaries more frequently
than ever before, resulting in questions
about citizenship and nationality. In addition, political
instability and factors such as war, violence,
drought, or famine have led to millions of refugees who are
essentially stateless. Researchers need to
be aware of the status of immigrant and refugee groups in their
communities and implications for how
56. they sample in their studies. For example, the University of
Michigan’s Center for Arab American
Studies (www.casl.umd.umich.edu/caas/) conducts studies that
illuminate much of the diversity in that
community. The American Psychological Association (APA,
2013) developed a guide that has
relevance when working with diverse culture communities
called Working With Immigrant-Origin
Clients. Kien Lee’s (2004) work in immigrant communities
provides guidance in working with
immigrants to the United States from a variety of countries,
including China, India, El Salvador, and
Vietnam. Lee also worked with the Work Group for Community
Health and Development (2013) to
develop a Community Tool Box, an online resource that
contains practical information for working
with culturally diverse communities for social change. The tool
box is available at
http://ctb.ku.edu/en/tablecontents/index.aspx.
People With Disabilities
As you will recall from Chapter 6 the federal legislation
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
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As you will recall from Chapter 6, the federal legislation
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA, 2001; Public Law 108-446, Section 602), reauthorized
in 2004, defines the following
categories of disabilities:
• Mental retardation
• Hearing impairments
• Speech or language impairments
• Visual impairments
• Emotional disturbance
• Orthopedic impairments
• Other health impairments
• Specific learning disabilities
• Multiple disabilities
• Deaf-blindness
• Autism
58. • Traumatic brain injury
• Developmental delays
Mertens and McLaughlin (2004) present an operational and
conceptual definition for each of these
disability categories. The conceptual definitions can be found in
the IDEA and a data dictionary that is
available at the IDEA website (www.ideadata.org), which
includes definitions of key terms in special
education legislation (Data Accountability Center, 2012). The
translation of these conceptual
definitions into operational definitions is fraught with
difficulty. You can imagine the diversity of
individuals who would be included in a category such as
emotional disturbance, which is defined in the
federal legislation as individuals who are unable to build or
maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships, exhibit inappropriate types of behaviors or
feelings, have a generally pervasive mood of
unhappiness or depression, or have been diagnosed with
schizophrenia. Psychologists have struggled
for years with finding ways to accurately classify people with
such characteristics.
A second example of issues that complicate categorizing
individuals with disabilities can be seen in
the federal definition and procedures for identification for
people with learning disabilities displayed in
Box 11.2. The definition indicates eight areas in which the
learning disability can be manifest. This list
alone demonstrates the heterogeneity that is masked when
participants in studies are simply labeled
“learning disabled.” Even within one skill area, such as reading,
there are several potential reasons that
a student would display difficulty in that area (e.g., letter
identification, word attack, comprehension).
59. Then, there are the complications that arise in moving from this
conceptual definition to the operational
definition. That is, how are people identified as having a
learning disability? And how reliable and
valid are the measures used to establish that a student has a
learning disability (E. Johnson, Mellard, &
Byrd, 2005)? Many researchers in the area of learning
disabilities identify their participants through
school records of Individualized Education Plans; they do not
do independent assessments to determine
the validity of those labels. However, Aaron, Malatesha Joshi,
Gooden, and Bentum (2008) conclude
that many children are not identified as having a learning
disability, yet they exhibit similar skill
deficits as those who are so labeled, further complicating
comparisons between groups. The National
Dissemination Center for Children With Disabilities
(www.nichcy.org1) published a series of
pamphlets on the identification of children with learning
disabilities that are geared to professionals
and parents (Hozella, 2007).
Cultural issues also come into play in the definition of people
with disabilities. For example, people
who are deaf use a capital D in writing the word Deaf when a
person is considered to be culturally Deaf
(Harris, Holmes, & Mertens, 2009). This designation as
culturally Deaf is made less on the basis of
one’s level of hearing loss and more on the basis of one’s
identification with the Deaf community and
use of American Sign Language
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use of American Sign Language.
BOX 11.2 Federal Definition of Specific Learning Disability
and Identification
Procedures
The following conceptual definition of learning disability is
included in the IDEA legislation:
61. Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, that may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to
do mathematical calculations, including
conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal
brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia. . . . Specific learning disability does not
include learning problems that are
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of
mental retardation, of emotional
disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage. (34 CFR 300.8[c][10])
The federal government addressed the issue of an operational
definition of learning disability as a
determination made by the child’s teachers and an individual
qualified to do individualized diagnostic
assessment such as a school psychologist, based on the
following:
• The child does not achieve adequately for the child’s age or
to meet State-approved grade-level standards
in one or more of the following areas, when provided with
learning experiences and instruction appropriate
for the child’s age or State-approved grade-level standards:
Oral expression.
Listening comprehension.
Written expression.
Basic reading skills.
62. Reading fluency skills.
Reading comprehension.
Mathematics calculation.
Mathematics problem solving.
• The child does not make sufficient progress to meet age or
State-approved grade-level standards in one or
more of the areas identified in 34 CFR 300.309(a)(1) when
using a process based on the child’s response to
scientific, research-based intervention; or the child exhibits a
pattern of strengths and weaknesses in
performance, achievement, or both, relative to age, State-
approved grade-level standards, or intellectual
development, that is determined by the group to be relevant to
the identification of a specific learning
disability, using appropriate assessments, consistent with 34
CFR 300.304 and 300.305; and the group
determines that its findings under 34 CFR 300.309(a)(1) and (2)
are not primarily the result of:
A visual, hearing, or motor disability;
Mental retardation;
Emotional disturbance;
Cultural factors;
Environmental or economic disadvantage; or
Limited English proficiency.
To ensure that underachievement in a child suspected of having
63. a specific learning disability is not due to
lack of appropriate instruction in reading or math, the group
must consider, as part of the evaluation
described in 34 CFR 300.304 through 300.306:
• Data that demonstrate that prior to, or as a part of, the
referral process, the child was provided appropriate
instruction in regular education settings, delivered by qualified
personnel; and
D b d d i f d f hi bl i l fl i
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64. • Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of
achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting
formal assessment of student progress during instruction, which
was provided to the child’s parents.
SOURCES: 34 CFR 300.309; 20 U.S.C. 1221e-3, 1401(30),
1414(b)(6).
The American Psychological Association (APA, 2012)
developed “Guidelines for Assessment of and
Interventions with Persons with Disabilities,” which
acknowledge that defining the term disability is
difficult. It encourages psychologists to adopt a positive,
enablement-focused approach with people
with disabilities rather than focusing on what they cannot do. It
also provides guidance in how to have
a barrier-free physical and communication environment so that
people with disabilities can participate
in research (and therapy) with dignity.
Sampling Strategies
As mentioned previously, the strategy chosen for selecting
samples varies based on the logistics, ethics,
and paradigm of the researcher. An important strategy for
choosing a sample is to determine the
dimensions of diversity that are important to that particular
study. An example is provided in Box 5.1.
Questions for reflection about salient dimensions of diversity in
sampling for focus groups are included
in Box 11.3.
K. M. T. Collins (2010) divides sampling strategies into
probabilistic and purposive. Persons
working in the constructivist paradigm prefer the terms
theoretical or purposive to describe their
65. sampling. A third category of sampling that is often used, but
not endorsed by proponents of any of the
major paradigms, is convenience sampling.
BOX 11.3 Dimensions of Diversity: Questions for Reflection on
Sampling Strategy in
Focus Group Research
Box 5.1 describes the sampling strategy used by Mertens (2000)
in her study of deaf and hard-of-hearing
people in the court system. The following are questions for
reflection about salient aspects of that strategy:
1. What sampling strategies are appropriate to provide a fair
picture of the diversity within important
target populations? What are the dimensions of diversity that
are important in gender groups? How
can one address the myth of homogeneity in selected cultural
groups—for example, all women are the
same, all deaf people are the same, and so on?
2. What is the importance of considering such a concept in the
context in which you do
research/evaluation?
EXTENDING YOUR THINKING
Dimensions of Diversity
How do you think researchers can address the issues of
heterogeneity within different populations? Find
examples of research studies with women, ethnic minorities, and
people with disabilities. How did the
researchers address heterogeneity in their studies? What
suggestions do you have for improving the way
this issue is addressed?
66. Probability-Based Sampling
Probability-based sampling is recommended because it is
possible to analyze the possible bias and
likely error mathematically (K. M. T. Collins, 2010). Sampling
error is defined as the difference
between the sample and the population, and can be estimated for
random samples. Random samples are
those in which every member of the population has a known,
nonzero probability of being included in
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t ose w c eve y e be o t e popu at o as a ow , o e o p obab ty
o be g c uded
the sample. Random means that the selection of each unit is
independent of the selection of any other
unit. Random selection can be done in a variety of ways,
including using a lottery procedure drawing
well-mixed numbers, extracting a set of numbers from a list of
random numbers, or producing a
computer-generated list of random numbers. If the sample has
been drawn in such a way that makes it
probable that the sample is approximately the same as the
population on the variables to be studied, it
is deemed to be representative of the population. Researchers
can choose from several strategies for
probability-based sampling. K. M. T. Collins (2010) describes
probabilistic sampling strategies as
follows:
Before the study commences, the researcher establishes a
sampling frame and predetermines the
number of sampling units, preferably based on a mathematical
formula, such as power analysis
and selects the units by using simple random sampling or other
adaptations of simple random
sampling, specifically, stratified, cluster and two-stage or multi-
stage random sampling. (p. 357)
Five examples are presented here:
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling means that each member of the
68. population has an equal and independent
chance of being selected. The researcher can choose a simple
random sample by assigning a number to
every member of the population, using a table of random
numbers, randomly selecting a row or column
in that table, and taking all the numbers that correspond to the
sampling units in that row or column. Or
the researcher could put all the names in a hat and pull them out
at random. Computers could also be
used to generate a random list of numbers that corresponds to
the numbers of the members of the
population.
This sampling strategy requires a complete list of the
population. Its advantages are the simplicity of
the process and its compatibility with the assumptions of many
statistical tests (described further in
Chapter 13). Disadvantages are that a complete list of the
population might not be available or that the
subpopulations of interest might not be equally represented in
the population. In telephone survey
research in which a complete listing of the population is not
available, the researcher can use a different
type of simple random sampling known as random digit dialing
(RDD). RDD involves the generation
of random telephone numbers that are then used to contact
people for interviews. This eliminates the
problems of out-of-date directories and unlisted numbers. If the
target population is households in a
given geographic area, the researcher can obtain a list of the
residential exchanges for that area, thus
eliminating wasted calls to business establishments.
Systematic Sampling
For systematic sampling, the researcher will take every nth
name on the population list. The procedure
69. involves estimating the needed sample size and dividing the
number of names on the list by the
estimated sample size. For example, if you had a population of
1,000 and you estimated that you
needed a sample size of 100, you would divide 1,000 by 100 and
determine that you need to choose
every 10th name on the population list. You then randomly pick
a place to start on the list that is less
than n and take every 10th name past your starting point.
The advantage of this sampling strategy is that you do not need
to have an exact list of all the
sampling units. It is sufficient to have knowledge of how many
people (or things) are in the accessible
population and to have a physical representation for each person
in that group. For example, a
researcher could sample files or invoices in this manner.
Systematic sampling strategy can be used to
accomplish de facto stratified sampling. Stratified sampling is
discussed next, but the basic concept is
sampling from previously established groups (e.g., different
hospitals or schools). If the files or
invoices are arranged by group, the systematic sampling
strategy can result in de facto stratification by
group (i.e., in this example, location of services).
One caution should be noted in the use of systematic sampling.
If the files or invoices are arranged
in a specific pattern, that could result in choosing a biased
sample. For example, if the files are kept in
alphabetical order by year and the number n results in choosing
only individuals or cases whose last
names begin with the letter A, this could be biasing.
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a es beg w t t e ette , t s cou d be b as g.
Stratified Sampling
This type of sampling is used when there are subgroups (or
strata) of different sizes that you wish to
investigate. For example, if you want to study gender
differences in a special education population, you
need to stratify on the basis of gender, because boys are known
to be more frequently represented in
71. special education than girls. The researcher then needs to decide
if he or she will sample each
subpopulation proportionately or disproportionately to its
representation in the population.
• Proportional stratified sampling means that the sampling
fraction is the same for each stratum.
Thus, the sample size for each stratum will be different when
using this strategy. This type of
stratification will result in greater precision and reduction of
the sampling error, especially when the
variance between or among the stratified groups is large. The
disadvantage of this approach is that
information must be available on the stratifying variable for
every member of the accessible
population.
• Disproportional stratified sampling is used when there are big
differences in the sizes of the
subgroups, as mentioned previously in gender differences in
special education. Disproportional
sampling requires the use of different fractions of each
subgroup and thus requires the use of weighting
in the analysis of results to adjust for the selection bias. The
advantage of disproportional sampling is
that the variability is reduced within the smaller subgroup by
having a larger number of observations
for the group. The major disadvantage of this strategy is that
weights must be used in the subsequent
analyses; however, most statistical programs are set up to use
weights in the calculation of population
estimates and standard errors.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is used with naturally occurring groups of
individuals—for example, city blocks or
72. classrooms in a school. The researcher would randomly choose
the city blocks and then attempt to
study all (or a random sample of) the households in those
blocks. This approach is useful when a full
listing of individuals in the population is not available but a
listing of clusters is. For example,
individual schools maintain a list of students by grade, but no
state or national list is kept. Cluster
sampling is also useful when site visits are needed to collect
data; the researcher can save time and
money by collecting data at a limited number of sites.
The disadvantage of cluster sampling is apparent in the analysis
phase of the research. In the
calculations of sampling error, the number used for the sample
size is the number of clusters, and the
mean for each cluster replaces the sample mean. This reduction
in sample size results in a larger
standard error and thus less precision in estimates of effect.
Multistage Sampling
This method consists of a combination of sampling strategies
and is described by K. M. T. Collins
(2010) as “choosing a sample from the random sampling
schemes in multiple states” (p. 358). For
example, the researcher could use cluster sampling to randomly
select classrooms and then use simple
random sampling to select a sample within each classroom. The
calculations of statistics for multistage
sampling become quite complex; researchers need to aware that
too few strata will yield unreliable
extremes of the sampling variable. Between roughly 30 and 50
strata work well for multistage samples
using regression analysis.
Complex Sampling Designs in Quantitative Research
73. Spybrook, Raudenbush, Liu, Congdon, and Martinez (2008)
discuss sampling issues involved in
complex designs such as cluster randomized trials, multisite
randomized trials, multisite cluster
randomized trials, cluster randomized trials with treatment at
level three, trials with repeated measures,
and cluster randomized trials with repeated measures. The
sampling issues arise because these research
approaches involve the assignment of groups, rather than
individuals, to experimental and control
conditions. This complicates sampling issues because the n of
the clusters may be quite small and
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hence limit the ability of the researcher to demonstrate
sufficient power in the analysis phase of the
study. However, Spybrook and colleagues developed a
sophisticated analytic procedure that
accommodates the small cluster sizes while still allowing larger
sample sizes within the clusters to be
tested appropriately. The statistical procedures involved in such
designs exceed the scope of this text;
hence, readers are referred to Spybrook et al. (2008) and other
sources such as Mertler and Vannatta
(2005).
Examples of Sampling in Quantitative Studies
Researchers in education and psychology face many challenges
in trying to use probability-based
sampling strategies. Even in G. D. Borman et al.’s (2007) study
of the Success for All reading program
that is summarized in Chapter 1, they were constrained by the
need to obtain agreement from schools
to participate. They could not select randomly from the group of
schools that agreed to the conditions
of the study because it was already a relatively small group.
Probability-based sampling is generally
easier to do with survey research when a list of people in the
population is available. For example,
Nardo, Custodero, Persellin, and Fox (2006) used the National
Association for the Education of Young
Children’s digital database of 8,000 names of programs that had
fully accredited centers for their study
of the musical practices, musical preparation of teachers, and
music education needs of early childhood
professionals in the United States. They gave the list to a
university-based research center and asked
them to prepare a randomized clustered sample of 1,000 early
75. childhood centers. The clusters were
based on the state in which the programs were located, and the
number of centers chosen was
proportional to the number of centers in each state.
Henry, Gordon, and Rickman (2006) conducted an evaluation
study of early childhood education in
the state of Georgia in which they were able to randomly select
4-year-olds receiving early education
services either through Head Start (a federal program) or in a
Georgia pre-K program (a state program).
They first established strata based on the number of 4-year-olds
living in each county. Counties were
randomly selected from each stratum. Then, sites within the
counties were randomly selected from both
Head Start and pre-K programs and five children were randomly
selected from each classroom. This
resulted in a list of 98 pre-K and Head Start sites, all of which
agreed to participate in the study (which
the authors acknowledge is “amazing” [p. 83]). The researchers
then asked for parental permission;
75% or more of parents in most sites consented, resulting in a
Head Start sample size of 134. Data were
not collected for 20 of these 134 students because students
moved out of state, withdrew from the
program, or lacked available baseline data. From the 353 pre-K
children, the researchers ended up with
201 students who matched those enrolled in Head Start in terms
of eligibility to be considered for that
program based on poverty indicators. Clearly, thoughtful
strategies are needed in applying random
sampling principles in research in education and psychology.
Purposeful or Theoretical Sampling
As mentioned previously, researchers working within the
constructivist paradigm typically select their
76. samples with the goal of identifying information-rich cases that
will allow them to study a case in
depth. Although the goal is not generalization from a sample to
the population, it is important that the
researcher make clear the sampling strategy and its associated
logic to the reader. Patton (2002)
identifies the following sampling strategies that can be used
with qualitative methods:
Extreme or Deviant Cases
The criterion for selection of cases might be to choose
individuals or sites that are unusual or special in
some way. For example, the researcher might choose to study a
school with a low record of violence
compared with one that has a high record of violence. The
researcher might choose to study highly
successful programs and compare them with programs that have
failed. Study of extreme cases might
yield information that would be relevant to improving more
“typical” cases. The researcher makes the
assumption that studying the unusual will illuminate the
ordinary. The criterion for selection then
becomes the researcher’s and users’ beliefs about which cases
they could learn the most from.
Psychologists have used this sampling strategy to study deviant
behaviors in specific extreme cases.
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Intensity Sampling
Intensity sampling is somewhat similar to the extreme-case
strategy, except there is less emphasis on
extreme. The researcher wants to identify sites or individuals in
which the phenomenon of interest is
strongly represented. Critics of the extreme- or deviant-case
strategy might suggest that the cases are so
unusual that they distort the situation beyond applicability to
typical cases. Thus, the researcher would
look for rich cases that are not necessarily extreme. Intensity
sampling requires knowledge on the part
of the researcher as to which sites or individuals meet the
specified criterion. This knowledge can be
gained by exploratory fieldwork.
Maximum-Variation Sampling
Sites or individuals can be chosen based on the criterion of
maximizing variation within the sample.
78. For example, the researcher can identify sites located in isolated
rural areas, urban centers, and
suburban neighborhoods to study the effect of total inclusion of
students with disabilities. The results
would indicate what is unique about each situation (e.g., ability
to attract and retain qualified
personnel) as well as what is common across these diverse
settings (e.g., increase in interaction
between students with and without disabilities).
Homogeneous Sampling
In contrast to maximum variation sampling, homogeneous
sampling involves identification of cases or
individuals that are strongly homogeneous. In using this
strategy, the researcher seeks to describe the
experiences of subgroups of people who share similar
characteristics. For example, parents of deaf
children aged 6 through 7 represent a group of parents who have
had similar experiences with
preschool services for deaf children. Homogeneous sampling is
the recommended strategy for focus
group studies. Researchers who use focus groups have found
that groups made up of heterogeneous
people often result in representatives of the “dominant” group
monopolizing the focus group
discussion. For example, combining parents of children with
disabilities in the same focus group with
program administrators could result in the parents’ feeling
intimidated.
Typical-Case Sampling
If the researcher’s goal is to describe a typical case in which a
program has been implemented, this is
the sampling strategy of choice. Typical cases can be identified
by recommendations of knowledgeable
individuals or by review of extant demographic or programmatic
79. data that suggest that this case is
indeed average.
Stratified Purposeful Sampling
This is a combination of sampling strategies such that
subgroups are chosen based on specified criteria,
and a sample of cases is then selected within those strata. For
example, the cases might be divided into
highly successful, average, and failing schools, and the specific
cases can be selected from each
subgroup.
Critical-Case Sampling
Patton (2002) describes critical cases as those that can make a
point quite dramatically or are, for some
reason, particularly important in the scheme of things. A clue to
the existence of a critical case is a
statement to the effect that “if it’s true of this one case, it’s
likely to be true of all other cases” (p. 243).
For example, if total inclusion is planned for children with
disabilities, the researcher might identify a
community in which the parents are highly satisfied with the
education of their children in a separate
school for children with disabilities. If a program of inclusion
can be deemed to be successful in that
community, it suggests that it would be possible to see that
program succeed in other communities in
which the parents are not so satisfied with the separate
education of their children with disabilities.
Snowball or Chain Sampling
Snowball sampling is used to help the researcher find out who
has the information that is important to
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Snowball sampling is used to help the researcher find out who
has the information that is important to
the study. The researcher starts with key informants who are
viewed as knowledgeable about the
program or community. The researcher asks the key informants
to recommend other people to whom
he or she should talk based on their knowledge of who should
know a lot about the program in
question. Although the researcher starts with a relatively short
list of informants, the list grows (like a
snowball) as names are added through the referral of
81. informants.
Criterion Sampling
The researcher must set up a criterion and then identify cases
that meet that criterion. For example, a
huge increase in referrals from a regular elementary school to a
special residential school for students
with disabilities might lead the researcher to set up a criterion
of “cases that have been referred to the
special school within the last 6 months.” Thus, the researcher
could determine reasons for the sudden
increase in referrals (e.g., Did a staff member recently leave the
regular elementary school? Did the
special school recently obtain staff with expertise that it did not
previously have?).
Theory-Based or Operational Construct Sampling
Sometimes, a researcher will start a study with the desire to
study the meaning of a theoretical
construct such as creativity or anxiety. Such a theoretical
construct must be operationally defined (as
discussed previously in regard to the experimentally accessible
population). If a researcher
operationalizes the theoretical construct of anxiety in terms of
social stresses that create anxiety,
sample selection might focus on individuals who “theoretically”
should exemplify that construct. This
might be a group of people who have recently become
unemployed or homeless.
Confirming and Disconfirming Cases
You will recall that in the grounded theory approach (discussed
in Chapter 8 on qualitative methods),
the researcher is interested in emerging theory that is always
being tested against data that are
systematically collected. The “constant comparative method”
82. requires the researcher to seek
verification for hypotheses that emerge throughout the study.
The application of the criterion to seek
negative cases suggests that the researcher should consciously
sample cases that fit (confirming) and do
not fit (disconfirming) the theory that is emerging.
Opportunistic Sampling
When working within the constructivist paradigm, researchers
seldom establish the final definition and
selection of sample members prior to the beginning of the study.
When opportunities present
themselves to the researcher during the course of the study, the
researcher should make a decision on
the spot as to the relevance of the activity or individual in terms
of the emerging theory. Thus,
opportunistic sampling involves decisions made regarding
sampling during the course of the study.
Purposeful Random Sampling
In qualitative research, samples tend to be relatively small
because of the depth of information that is
sought from each site or individual. Nevertheless, random
sampling strategies can be used to choose
those who will be included in a very small sample. For example,
in a study of sexual abuse at a
residential school for deaf students, I randomly selected the
students to be interviewed (Mertens, 1996).
The result was not a statistically representative sample but a
purposeful random sampling that could be
defended on the grounds that the cases that were selected were
not based on recommendations of
administrators at the school who might have handpicked a group
of students who would put the school
in a “good light.”
83. Sampling Politically Important Cases
The rationale for sampling politically important cases rests on
the perceived credibility of the study by
the persons expected to use the results. For example, if a
program has been implemented in a number
of regions, a random sample might (by chance) omit the region
in which the legislator who controls
funds for the program resides. It would be politically expedient
for the legislator to have information
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