Network And Network Address Translation

Network And Network Address Translation
NAT also known as Network Address Translation is a method that is utilized by network
administrators in setting up IP addresses for network transmission. Network Address Translation
allows a piece of network equipment such as a router to behave in such a way as a negotiator amidst
public and private networks. Network Address Translation allows the ability for organizations and
users at home to utilize an individual IP address that constitutes as a whole collection of computers
operating an entire public domain. In the translations section of the Network Address Translation
scheme, where the private and public addressing comes into play, it permits a computer or a set of
computers that are already configured with inside addresses to be ... Show more content on
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Finally, NAT will permit a business of some sort to mix many ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) interconnections into a sole internet link. So even if a single computer that resides on a
local network holds a certain IP address, outside networks will only be able to view the one IP
address when it links up to any of the systems that sit in the network (StartOverIP, 2015).
So by using NAT within larger organizations and with hundreds of thousands of computers, it allows
them to only use one IP address to connect up to the Internet, that's very efficient! There are
different ways NAT can be put to use in a network; there is Static, Dynamic and Overload NAT or
PAT. Beginning with Static, it plots a sole private address to a public address. This method permits
an internal computer to maintain an unlisted private IP and still be able to be obtainable via the
Internet. Dynamic aids in protecting a network while it hides the inside setting of a private network
and makes it troublesome for anyone externally to see the utilization schemes (Semperboni, 2014).
The Network Address Translation overload or PAT is an excellent way to go if a situation where to
arise and there was a shortfall of public IP's. Port Address Translation is just an annex to NAT that
allows many devices on a LAN to be drawn to one IP address. The main objective of PAT is to
preserve IP addresses, so in a LAN lots of users are
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Nt1310 Unit 5 Term Paper
Table 2 1 Generic DoIP header structure [23] Item Position Length Description Values Generic DoIP
header synchronization patten Protocol version (PV) 0 1 Identify the protocol version of DoIP
packets. 0x00: reserved 0x01: DoIP ISO/DIS 13400–2:2010 0x02: DoIP ISO 13400–2: 2012
0x03...0xFE: reserved by this part of ISO 13400 0xFF: default value for vehicle identification
request messages Inverse protocol version (IPV) 1 1 Contains the bit–wise inverse value of the
protocol version, which is used in conjunction with the DoIP protocol version as a protocol
verification pattern to ensure that a correctly formatted DoIP message is received. Equals the XOR
0xFF (e.g. 0xFE for protocol version 0x01). Generic DoIP header payload type and payload length

Network Diagrams : A Network Diagram
Network Diagram:
A network diagram is a graphical representation of any network, it's a small structure of computers
and network devices (routers, modem, Ethernet etc.) It is a sequence of steps. This network diagram
represents setting up a Web Server with DMZ in an existing network. Network Diagram
Explanation:
Internet service provider (ISP) provides a public IP address, which is given to a modem. A router
connected to modem gets this public IP address through Ethernet cable into its WAN port and router
's NAT (network address translator) and DHCP server provide private IP addresses through routers
LAN port to all devices connected to them.
For Example in above diagram ISP provides IP Address 71.235.67.120 to the modem and router 's ...
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 Install VI or VIM editor to run commands to install other Software on Ubuntu machine.
 Install and configure the Apache Web server on Ubuntu Linux operating system.
Apache is the most popular web server which is open source, free to download and can serve both
static and dynamic content. This makes it the best choice of hosting a website. Once Ubuntu is
installed the command line tool would be used to install Apache.
 Install MySQL (a database server) to provide the capability to store content.
MySQL is an open source relational database management system. It is one of the most popular
databases and delivers reliable, high performance web–based and embedded database applications.
It is scalable and flexible and used by large corporations. It is known for its performance, cross
platform compatibility, cost and security. Database system would provide access to database to store
and organize site data and information. Once Ubuntu is installed the command line tool would be
used to install MySQL.
 Install PHP (server–side language) to provide the capability to create dynamic content.
PHP is a server side scripting language which can be used to develop web applications. The PHP
database connection script connects to MySQL database to store and retrieve website information.
The generated content would be passed to the web server for display to the user. Once

Convolution2d : Lab Analysis
Convolution2D is the initial hidden convolutional layer. This layer has 32 feature maps, each with a
rectifier activation function and the size of 5x5. It expects images with the format mentioned as
above ([px][wd][ht]) and is the input layer. A pooling layer is defined which is configured with a
pool size of 2x2 and takes the max. It is known as MaxPooling2D. After this layer, is a
regularization layer which is added using drop out function referred as Dropout. It reduces
overfitting as it randomly excludes 20% of neurons in the layer. Following this regularization layer,
is the layer containing a vector known as Flatten. It enables the standard completely connected
layers to process the output. This layer changes the 2D matrix data to ... Show more content on
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An LSTM RNN is much more complex and robust neural network as Compared to an MLP. For the
purpose of modeling time–series with LSTM, a standard time–series problem will be considered.
[17] But before modeling the example, some basic concepts are discussed. The recurrent neural
network overcomes the vanishing gradient problem and is trained over time using Backpropagation
[11]. The Vanishing Gradient Problem is the challenge faced while training some ANN with gradient
based methods, such as Back Propagation. This issue mainly makes learning and tuning the
parameters of the previous layers of the network difficult. As before–mentioned, this model is
applied to generate large recurrent networks that can be used to tackle complex sequence problems
in ML and hence produce better results. Also, the LSTM networks have memory blocks instead of
neurons, which are connected with each other through layers[35]. There are some components in
these blocks, that make them sharper than the classical neuron and recent sequences memory. They
contain gates that manage its state and output. Each gate in a block verifies if they are triggered or
not using the sigmoid activation units and operating upon an input sequence. This results in flow of
additional information via block and change of state conditional. Further, there are three types of
gates within a unit which are: Forget gate, input gate, and the output gate. The first gate
conditionally determines what data to dispose away of

IPAddress Essay
As stated by the website howstuffworks.com (What is an IP address?), 'An IP address is assigned to
every device connected to the Internet. This is a 32 bit protocol, as it consists of 4 binary octets'.
However they are usually written in decimal form for ease of use. The maximum decimal number
allowed by one octet is 255 (or 11111111 in binary). The total number of unique possibilities of 4
octets would therefore be 256^4, roughly 4.3 billion addresses.
Demand for IP addresses is increasing due to reasons such as low cost computers, advancement in
technology, and improvements in accessibility. Personal computers have been subject to a dramatic
decrease in price over the last 10 years, allowing them to be bought by more households – 70% ...
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The 'dot com bubble' also saw a rapid uproar in the number of web based companies, such as
Amazon and eBay. Much smaller businesses have also adapted to the Internet and are making use of
its low cost. Also, due to the low cost and minimal knowledge require to run and maintain a website,
thanks to Content Management Systems and website creation software, many personal websites, to
do with hobbies, interests and experiences are also present on the Internet.
Due to all these factors, the number of devices connected to the Internet has increased, therefore the
number of available IP addresses has decreased, leading to the situation that IP addresses will run
out by 2011.
A possible solution to this problem would be for devices to share IP addresses. This can be done by
using NAT (Network Address Translation). NAT sends and receives data back and forth between the
computer and the Internet. Multiple computers can use the same NAT, and to the Internet, it will
seem as though the data is all coming from one computer, rather than several computers. A
particular use of NAT is in routers and modems for home networks. These allow many computers to
connect to a LAN (Local Area Network) with their own private IP addresses, but they are all
connected to the Internet with a single IP address.
The following diagram shows this implementation of NAT.

Dos Attack & Mitigation
DDOS Attack and its Mitigation – Simulation in GNS3
Summary: A private LAN network comprising of hundreds of end devices and several servers in
DMZ is protected by Cisco ASA (Firewall). In the internet the most commonly found network attack
is to take down enterprise resources by DDOS(Distributed Denial of Service) attack either on
Servers(which will impact hundreds of end users) or on the network resources like routers itself. In
this practical simulation we will analyse how a DOS attack happens on web server placed in DMZ
from the internet via traffic flooding, and how we can fine tune ASA to mitigate and stop further
attacks on the network. Devices used: a) b) c) d) e) Attacker PC – Windows XP – Service Pack3
Web server (Simulated in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
h) Let us configure the loopback adapter's ip address as 20.1.1.100/24, and set the default gateway
as 20.1.1.1 as shown in the below image. https://www.elance.com/s/feroz_sm/
https://www.odesk.com/users/~013128626566145b05 Page 5
i) The above configuration means that the virtual XP can also be access by the ip address
20.1.1.100 and the default gateway i.e. router's interface which is connecting to the switch has an ip
address of 20.1.1.1. j) In the next step, we are going to create a topology, through which we can
simulate the DOS attack, after we create the topology, we have to connect our virtual XP to the
topology, which actually represents the internet cloud, a server placed in the DMZ of a corporate (in
actual configuration it is placed in Inside zone) and the attacker PC in the internet (i.e. the virtual
XP). Between the internet(outside) and the Corporate LAN, we have placed an ASA(Adaptive
security Appliance) version 8.4, which is has all the functionalities of a firewall and features like
NAT, Routing, VPN, AAA services etc. hence it is called UTM(Unified Threat Management) device.
The topology which we are going to use for the DOS simulation is in the below image.
https://www.elance.com/s/feroz_sm/ https://www.odesk.com/users/~013128626566145b05
Page 6
Configuration: a) Web Server – IP address: 10.1.1.100/24 Zone: Inside Device: Router c7200 used
as a web server. Running configuration of this device : version 12.2

LAB 7 IS3220 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
INFRASTRUCTURE SECURITY
VPN connectivity troubleshooting checklist
1. Users can't access file servers If the user can access the file server using an IP address but not a
name, then the most likely reason for failure to connect is a name resolution problem. Name
resolution can fail for NetBIOS or DNS host names. If the client operating system is NetBIOS
dependent, the VPN clients should be assigned a WINS server address by the VPN server. If the
client operating system uses DNS preferentially, VPN clients should be assigned an internal DNS
server that can resolve internal network host names.
When using DNS to resolve internal network host names for VPN clients, make sure that these
clients are able to correctly resolve unqualified fully qualified domain names ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
L2TP/IPSec is more complex. Both the user and the user's machine must be able to authenticate
with the VPN server. Machine authentication can use either a pre–shared key or machine certificate.
If you use pre–shared keys (not recommended for security reasons), check that the VPN client is
configured to use the same pre–shared key as the server. If you use machine certificates, confirm
that the VPN client machine has a machine certificate and that is also trusts the certificate authority
that issued the VPN server's machine certificate.
6. Site–to–site VPNs connect but no traffic passes between the VPN gateways
When creating site–to–site VPN connections between Windows RRAS servers, you may find that
the VPN connection seems to be established, but traffic does not move between the connected
networks. Name resolution fails between the networks and hosts are unable to even ping hosts on
the remote site network.
The most common reason for this failure is that both sides of the site–to–site network connection are
on the same network ID. The solution is to change the IP addressing scheme on one or more
networks so that all networks joined by the site–to–site VPN are on different network IDs.
7. Users can't establish IPSec tunnel mode connections from

Network Address Translation and Router
|CCNA4: Commands |
WAN Technologies
[pic]
Cisco Networking Academy Program CCNA 4: WAN Technologies v3.1.1
1 Module 1: Scaling IP Addresses 3
1.1 NAT and PAT 3 1.1.1 Configuring static NAT 3 1.1.2 Configuring dynamic NAT 3 1.1.3
Configuring NAT Overload (PAT) 4 1.1.4 Verifying NAT and PAT configuration 4 1.1.5
Troubleshooting NAT and PAT configuration 4
1.2 DHCP 5 1.2.1 Configuring DHCP Operation 5 1.2.2 Verifying DHCP Operation 5 1.2.3
Troubleshooting DHCP Configuration 5
2 Module 3: Point–to–Point Protocol (PPP) 6
2.1 Configuring HDLC Encapsulation 6
2.2 Troubleshooting a Serial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By using the helper address feature, a router can be configured to accept a broadcast request for a
UDP service and then forward it as a unicast to a specific IP address.
Example: Router(config–if)#ip helper–address address
2 Verifying DHCP Operation
Router#show ip dhcp binding [address]
Router#show ip dhcp conflict [address]
Router#show ip dhcp database [url]
Router#show ip

Network Address Translation ( Nat ) Essay
Network Address Translation (NAT)
Introduction
You must have heard about such words like NAT, IP address, and the rest about networking. For
private networks, firewalls are commonly used to assign public Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to a
computer or a group of computers in a network system. Network Address Translation (NAT) is
mainly used for IPv4 address conservation. Through NAT, IPv4 addresses that are not registered
with the Regional Internet Registry (RIR) can be connected to the internet. NAT uses a router to
connect two networks together, and translate the private network to a legal address, after which
internet packets are moved to another network. As a consequence, NAT has the capability to get
configured to advertise a single address for the whole network. NAT also hides the entire internal
network; hence it provides security (Empson). In general, NAT performs two functions: providing
security to the internal network, and assisting in network conservation.
Skills
Those who implemented the IP addressing did not consider the fact the internet services would grow
to the current status. In the past, running a network without using an IP addressing was
unimaginable; but today, NAT has come with the solution to all these challenges. The only problem
is that long–term solution is yet to be realized. IPV4 has provided a solution, but it uses only 32 bit
hence not very efficient (Tyson). Through NAT, a router acts as an agent between a public network
(Internet)

Transition Process Internet Protocol Version 4 ( Ipv4 ) Essay
Transition Mechanism:
Transition process Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) temporary aid to the Internet from a
technology infrastructure
Without the need for a sudden change in the mechanism, IP protocol allows for a smooth transition
to the new version. This idea in mind, many of these techniques are designed to accommodate the
coexistence of the two versions.
The early stages of IPv6 deployment and adoption of a new protocol, it is fast enough to run IPv6
and IPv4 believed to have gained widespread adoption. However, this change does not happen,
which is why the more relevant topic today.
Transition mechanisms to apply the different methods they can be classified according to:
Dual stack
Tunneling
Translation
They assume that the underlying infrastructure, which is mainly based on whether IPv4 or IPv6 is
also possible to classify the different mechanisms. At the beginning of ran out of IPv4, IPv6 access
gradually began adding even though IPv4 networks, providers are beginning to consider the
deployment of IPv6 networks only. This change of policy is still IPv4 supports only the necessary
means to allow users to access the network, the IPv6 networks only. Several mechanisms have been
proposed and more are currently being discussed at the IETF. The following is a description of the
mechanisms of the most widely deployed and more mature.
An IP address consists of 32 bits. Instead of expressing IPv4 binary notation (Base2) addresses
using the 32 bits at a time, it is an IPv4

Transition Mechanism Of The Internet Protocol Essay
Transition mechanism is a technology that facilitates the transitioning of the Internet from the
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) infrastructure
Mechanism to allow a smooth transition to the new version of the IP protocol, without the need for
an abrupt change. With this idea in mind, several of these mechanisms were created in order to
facilitate the coexistence of both versions.
During the early stages of IPv6 deployment it was believed that adoption of the new protocol would
be quick enough and that IPv6 would have gained widespread adoption before IPv4 ran out. This,
however, did not happen which is why transition mechanisms are an even more relevant topic today.
Transition mechanisms can be classified according to the different techniques they apply:
Dual stack
Tunneling
Translation
It is also possible to classify the different mechanisms based on whether they assume that the
underlying infrastructure is predominantly IPv4 or IPv6. Although in the beginning there were IPv4
networks that started gradually adding IPv6 access, as IPv4 ran out, providers started considering
the deployment of IPv6–only networks. This means that transition mechanisms are needed to allow
customers in these IPv6–only networks to access networks that still only support IPv4. Many
mechanisms have been proposed and more are currently being discussed in the IETF. The following
is a description of the most widely deployed and more mature mechanisms.
An IP address consists of 32 bits. Instead of

A Brief Note On Peer And Peer ( P2p ) Network
In the event that a user decides to leave the network the referencing nodes will all be sent a message
stating that the node is leaving or has left which will then cause the referenced nodes to find the
nearest node to it and replace it with that node. This is very much similar to a node that crashes,
however the main difference is that no message is ever sent to alert the referencing nodes to notify
that the routing table has been compromised by the nodes disappearance. It is because of this
possible scenario that the reference node will periodically send a messages to the nodes that they
reference to make sure that they are still there. This proactive measure is a good way to avoid any
issues that could arise later on. (Peer–to–peer(p2p) Networks – basic Algorithms). Improvements
Joining a Peer–to–peer (p2p) network can be exciting, opening up an entire new world of shared
data and joining a large community who work together to strengthen the network. Though it is
exciting, there are many risks that come along with joining one and it is very important to learn what
users can do to stay secure. There are several precautionary steps we as users can carry–out to better
protect our–selves and not rely as much on the developers. When a p2p network is being developed,
there are issues that the developers must be aware of such as traffic control. The traffic on a p2p
network is very unpredictable and can change rapidly at any moment. There could be a sudden flash
of users

Using Flow Control Increase The Convergence Time
By using Flow Control to decrease the Convergence Time in UPPM
M.ASHOK KUMAR1 E.S.PHALGUNA KRISHNA2 1. PG STUDENT, DEPARTMENT OF CSE,
SREE VIDYANIKETHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE
2. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CSE, SREE VIDYANIKETHAN
ENGINEERING COLLEGE Abstract:
In this paper, we focus the Flow Control for traceback that will minimize the amount of packets
required for build up the attack path. Flow control based mechanism merged with Uniform
Probabilistic Packet Marking (UPPM), the stream of packets can be controlled that suggests the
amount of packets checked by UPPM will get reduce there by decreasing the convergence time.
Then again, this strategy should bring about full traceback on an attacker. Keywords:
Ip traceback, Network Security, Packet Marking, Autonomous System, Convergence Time
Introduction
IP traceback suggests the capacity of perceiving the genuine wellspring of any packet sent over the
Internet. By virtue of the shortcoming of the first blueprint of the Internet, we will be not able to
find the genuine developers at present. To be completely frank, IP traceback arrangements are seen
as productive if they can perceive the zombies from which the DDoS attack packets entered the
Internet. Various techniques to tracebak the start of the attack including link testing, controlled
flooding, ICMP traceback and different packet marking methodologies. Packet marking techniques
are used as a piece of this paper. Packet marking means

IPAddressing : IP Operates On The Network Layer Of The...
IP Addressing
IP operates on the Network Layer of the reference model. IP addressing is important because IP
helps in routing packets, just us the Post Office needs an address on a packet or letter for correct
delivery.
IPV4 is made up of 32–bit addresses, as opposed IPV6 which has 128–bits, and this obviously larger
address space has become necessary because the world is running short of IPV4 addresses. Most of
the internet now uses IPV4, so this discussion will mostly concentrate on IPV4. A lot of the ideas
discussed here have been gleaned from a web site of a company called TutorialsPoint, and also
credit is due to Tanenbaum and Whetherall (2011).
First, the format or the composition of the IP Address is made up 32 bits grouped into ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A class A network may be written in the format like 10.0.0.0/8, to signify the 8 bits of the network
part. There is also the distinction between Public and Private addresses, where public addresses are
recognized world–wide, as they are allocated by designated organizations, and that is how they are
running out; almost all valid addresses have been allocated. On the other hand, private addresses are
used within an organization or a home, however, they require the help of a publicly recognized
address to communicate globally, and this is through a process called Network Address Translation
(NAT). The allocation of Public IP addresses falls under the authority of IANA (Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority), a global body that oversees regional organizations, and these organizations are
more directly involved in IP Address allocation.
Subnet Masking
The meaning of Subnet can be derived from its name, by taking the beginning of the name ("Sub"),
which means underneath or a part of, in this context of a network. The idea is to sub–divide a
network into smaller parts for manageability by routers. There is also the converse, Aggregation,
which is scaling the network to accommodate more hosts in one network. In this discussion, I will
only dwell on Subnets, but before further discussion let me bring up the concept of Masking. The
mask is also a 32–bit

Cyber Attack Source Analysis
Results
At first, we will take a look at some statistical numbers we have collected in the past months. We the
help of the web interface, we can easily query the database to get a quick overview of peaks in the
data set that we have collected:
Average number of attack sources per day is 184.94
Maximum number of attack sources per day was 2022 and happened at November
15, 2004.
The two number show that there is a high variation in the collected data about the number of unique
attack sources per day. To take a closer look at this phenomenon, we present in Table 1 the number
of unique sources for six different platforms. In addition, the ta– ble presents the average number of
sources per day, which shows a high variation across different platforms as well.
Currently it is unclear why we have this high variation in the number of average source per day. One
possible explanation for the high number of average sources for the first platform is the following:
since this system is deployed within the network with the first octet 192, it presumably receives
many packets from broken systems which use Network Address
Translation (NAT). Such a system often use the IP range 192.168.0.0/16 (defined in RFCWindows
Others Unknown
Week 1 7235 18 10
Week 2 6839 26 5
Week 3 6475 38 –
Week 4 7766 89 –
Week 5 6594 24 64
Week 6 3599 5 58
Week 7 4640 11 92
Week 8 6247 20 83
Table 2: Operating system of attack source on weekly basis between January and February 2005
1918). If this system is infected

The Internet Protocol
The internet was invented around the early 1960s with the research of Packet switching. What they
called ARPANET led to the development of the internetworking, where multiple networks could be
joined together over to create a network of networks. IP defined by RFC791 was the first widely
used versions of the internet protocol. This was known as version four, this would make you think
that there were three other versions of IP before this version however, there really was not. IPv4 was
originally designed for an internetwork, a fraction of what the size of the internet is today. IPv4 has
served its purpose very well, however with the growth of the internet it was just a matter of time
before they would need to create a new version of IP. The development of a new version IP would
began in the mid–1990s. The new version of IP is known as Internet Protocol version Six (IPv6) or
sometimes called IP next generation or IPng. One of the biggest questions that came about when the
announcement of IPv6 was what Happened to IPv5. "The answer is: it doesn 't exist. While this may
seem confusing, version 5 was in fact intentionally skipped to avoid confusion, or at least to rectify
it." (Tcpipguide.com, 2014) If you consider just how much the internet has grown over the years you
will notice that IPv4 has done its job very well, however as discussed it has been apparent for many
years now that the limitation of IPv4 would be reached. This is where IPv6 comes into play. IP play
such a

Network Address Translation ( Nat )
Introduction When connecting your internal network to the internet the need route the packets
between the two networks happens inside a router. This translation between the two different
networks is known as network address translation (NAT). There are advantages when using NAT as
well as disadvantages to the end user, network administrators and overall functionality of the
network. We also have to understand the differences between IPv4, IPv6, and the need for NAT in
each as they are different protocols and will operate differently ("Network Address Translation,"
2015).
IP Version Definitions What is IPv4? IPv4 is a 32–bit address used for communication between
nodes using the TCP/IP protocol. The IPv4 address is broken into 4 octets each 8 bits long in binary
and are broken into 5 different classes. Class A addresses start out where the first octet of the IP
address ranged from 1–127 where 10 is reserved from private IP addresses. Class B addresses start
out with 128 – 191 and has the 172.16.x.x to 172.31.x.x reserved from private IP addresses. Next is
class C addresses that range from 192 – 223 in the first octet where 192.168.x.x is reserved from
private IP addresses. Class D addresses range from 224 –239 in the first octet and are reserved from
multicasting network traffic. Finally we have class E that range from 240 – 255 in the first octet and
is reserved for experimental purposes ("IPv4," 2016). What is IPv6? IPv6 is an upgrade to IPv4 to
increase the total

The Transition Of Technology For Ipv6 Multi Homing
Abstract– Multi–homing is a technique in which a network is connected to more than one Internet
Service Provider to increase the quality and robustness of the Internet connection. This technical
paper introduces the techniques and the approaches for IPv6 multi–homing. Further, it describes the
advantages and the disadvantages associated with the present technology, and the techniques that
can be used to improve this technology. Also, a comparison has been made between IPv4 and IPv6
multi–homing techniques.
Keywords – IPv6, multi–homing, PI, PA, Routing, BGP, NAT, Middle–box.
I. INTRODUCTION
The transition of technology from IPv4 to IPv6 has led to an increased use of the multi–homing
techniques. Multi–homing refers to the practice of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are discussed in the following sections.
II. Routing Approach for IPv6 Multi–homing
The routing approach is the most prominent way for IPv6 multi–homing. The only drawback of this
approach being the scalability issue. Every site that carries out multi–homing using the routing
approach adds an entry to the global routing table, thereby making it a difficult choice for multi–
homing, as far as scalability is concerned [5]. The different routing approach are as discussed below:
a) IPv6 Multi–homing with BGP
– PI address space:
Using Provider Independent (PI) addressing space is considered as the most effective technique for
the ISPs and large enterprises. However, for small ISPs this is not a good solution as it involves the
use of BGP as well as causes issues related to scalability. The first step involved is to obtain a PI
allocation, i.e., to obtain your own IP address space or the permission to advertise a route [3]. As
prescribed, the minimum PI allocation that can be done is a /48. This is the most expensive of all the
approaches due to its requirement of a PI space as well as an Autonomous System (AS) numbers.
Figure 1: Using PI address space
As shown in the figure above, we need to establish the BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) sessions

Ipv4 : Ipv6 And Ipv6
IPv4 VS IPv6
Team:
Chad Bourque
Jaime Kanashiro
Siddique Chaudhry
IT 300–002
Vera Goodacre
3 December 2014
Introduction
IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is the most recent update to Internet protocol that will be
replacing Internet Protocol Version 4 in the near future. This new Internet protocol is the successor
of the now almost obsolete IPv4 [6]. The statistics of IPv6 compared to IPv4 is amazing and to be
honest mind blowing. IPv6 is significantly greater than version 4 in all of the categories it is
compared in. Although IPv6 isn't succeeding IPv4, it is clearly the significantly upgraded version
and something the growing technological world needs. IPv6 was officially launched on June 6, 2012
[7]. Only one year into its launch, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Internet Protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that are needed in order to communicate over
the Internet. In early 1990s, it became apparent that when the Web kept developing at the rate it was,
the IPv4 addresses would be exhausted by no time. Some short–term answers were provided, such
as
NAT (Network Address Translator) or CIDR (Classless Inter Domain Routing), but there was a new
work in progress, IPv6 [9]. The key reason for a brand new edition of the IPv4 was to administer a
solution to the IP address limit issue. Additionally, the sole sort of traffic that came about on the next
two decades before was flexible traffic, such as e–mails or record transfers
[9]. Such traffic was really volatile regardless of system problems. IPv6 was made for effortlessly
promoting flexible and inflexible traffic [9]. The objectives of IPv6 were to help scale, protect, and
transmit media. Unlike IPv4, IPSec help has turned into a necessity in the IPv6 header [9].
Ultimately, IPv6 needs number guide setting or DHCP, that 'll become crucial as the amount of
nodes increases [9]. Over all, IPv6 was cautiously considered, and was made with potential purposes
in mind.
IP addresses are very important when it comes to communications. Like a street address for a
mailman, IP addresses identify where the message needs to be sent. Similar to a house address or
business address, each device is assigned an IP address that acts as a unique identifier. These unique

Reflection Paper On Printing
How to Resolve HP Wireless Printer Connectivity Issues Yourself| Support for HP Printer| 1–800–
436–0509 Wireless printing has been very popular these days due to the evolving technology boost
in recent years. A wireless connection lets you print from a phone, tablet or PC irrespective of your
location. WIFI printing is simple and does not require long connective printing cables & wires. It
simply lets you print from air. This makes your task easy and you get rid of the long connected
wiring system at your office & home. Your wireless connection will face issues between router
configurations, automatic Wi–Fi network connections and required printer–related software updates
on user devices. To keep a check on such issues, we have listed some tips & tricks that you must
follow to keep your HP Printer running wirelessly without a mess. Meanwhile you can always dial
toll free number Support for HP Printer if you face any issue regarding anything with your HP
Printer. Restart the System Before Printing Wirelessly Do you know a simple restart of the system
can fix a wide range of problems, including your wireless connection printers? It gives code
execution, including within routers, the chance to restart, while also killing any programs that may
be leaking memory. Whether your printer has worked on your network before or not, you must
restart before proceeding with a wireless print. Check Technical Connection Thoroughly The next
thing to do is to test the connection between the printer and the network. On many HP models, you
can do this by pressing the Wireless button to print a Wireless Network Test report. With most HP
printers, there should be an area labeled Connectivity. If you see the word "PASS" in this field, then
a connection exists. If not, then the printer is not connected to a network. Check router
configurations and try to connect the printer again from the start. There are several options for doing
so, including WPS/Wi–Fi Protected Setup, HP Wireless Setup Wizard and HP Auto Wireless
Connect, which is probably the easiest as explained in this HP documentation. The Current
Configuration area has a field called Network Name (SSID) that should contain the name of your
wireless network. If not, then

Network Networks And The Internet
Without the modern router, the internet as we know it today would not be possible. Routers
interconnect smaller network segments known as LANs (Local Area Networks) by filtering and
passing small packets of data to other routers outside of the LAN across a series of physical media.
This topology, where multiple LANs are physically connected, is referred to as a WAN or Wide
Area Network. This basic operation of packet forwarding forms the foundation of the internet.
Originally the Internet began as the ARPANET (A project, funded by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency, to maintain lines of communication in case of nuclear war) and routers were
known as IMPs or Interface Message Processors. IMPs were the first of their kind to be able to
connect networks of different types. These devices were a major breakthrough at the time even
though they still did not contain the robust functionality of modern router or even the reliability of
TCP/IP which had not been invented yet. The next significant breakthrough occurred when the next
generation of routers were developed by researchers at MIT and Stanford Universities in the early
80's. These routers incorporated multi–protocol compatibility which allowed different vendor
networks to be able to communicate which each other. This was significant at the time because not
all networks used TCP/IP, in fact very few even did. This development caused a boom in the
industry and essentially started the rise of the digital age.
Modern

Tcp/Ip Is The Protocol Which Is Widely Used For Communication
TCP/IP is the protocol which is widely used for communication on the internet. IP addresses are
used for identifying devices in a TCP/IP environment. IP addresses are separated by Class A, Class
B, class C are used for the hosts. Class D is used for multicast and Class E is reserved. Every class
has a defined set for the number of IP addresses. As the internet network grew, the numbers of
usable IP addresses were getting exhausted at a faster pace. NAT was designed to resolve the IP
depletion problem. Definition of NAT stands for Network address translation. It is a technology
which is commonly used such that systems on the Local area network can communicate with the
Public network and vice versa.
In an organization, systems are deployed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The "classic" NAT deﬁned by RFC1631maps IP addresses from one realm to another. Although it
can be used to translate between any two address realms, NAT is most often used to map IPs from
the non routable private address spaces deﬁned by RFC 1918 [1].
The problem
Devices which are configured with private IP addresses will not be able to communicate with
devices which have public IP addresses. As per IANA regulations, private ip addresses are not
routable on the internet. This implies that devices on the LAN will not be able to communicate with
devices on the public network, directly which is the internet [65].
The solution
One proposed method for mitigating the address shortage problem in IPv4 is to use network address
translators (NATs) to allow address reuse. The [3] basic idea is to transparently map a wide set of
private network addresses and corresponding TCP/UDP ports to a small set of globally unique
public network addresses and ports. NAT is a technology which is implemented, deployed and
configured as a feature on devices like routers, servers, firewalls etc. When NAT is deployed and
configured on the devices, it would make it possible for LAN devices with private IP addresses to
communicate with the devices on the public network. NAT would typically be deployed and
configured on equipments like routers, firewalls which have already access to the public network.
The traffic which is initiated from the private network

Computer Piracy Is The Leading Advocate For The Global...
Computer Piracy Computer piracy has been a discussion point for a long time, but many people
view piracy differently. I decided to find out how BSA defines piracy. BSA (The Software Alliance)
is the leading advocate for the global software industry. BSA defines piracy as, "unauthorized use or
distribution of copyrighted software. It includes downloading, sharing, selling, or installing multiple
copies of licensed software. Unlicensed software use also includes license infringement – installing
a piece of software more times than the license permits – as well as sharing software license codes,
uploading software codes to websites so others can download and use it, sharing software license
codes or activation keys, as well as user IDs and passwords for web–based software applications."
("Compliance & Enforcement," n.d.) Because the fact that the Internet has made it so much easier to
distribute software, both legally and illegally, it is extremely difficult to "cripple" the software so
that it only functions on the computer of the person who purchased it. I feel that people don't mind
paying for software, but the fact that software has gotten so expensive; most people refuse to pay it.
Microsoft and Adobe are a great example of software that cost anywhere from $200 – $1000 to
purchase. How can the public really afford prices like that? Sure if you are a corporation and
utilizing the software to produce something that will bring in money, it is understandable. I

The Network And The Internet / External Network
As you can see in the diagram a Duel–Homed Gateway Host is placed between the internal network
and the internet/ external network. A duel–homed host can router packets between the two networks
that are connected, but usually this function is disabled making it so neither of the two networks can
not communicate with each other, but can communicate with the duel–homed host. However, the
duel–homed host can see network traffic that goes across both internal and external network. A
dual–homed host can provide services only by proxying them, or by having users log into the dual–
homed host directly (O'Reilly Building Firewalls [10]). Duel–homed Firewall architectures is used
when traffic to the internet is small and it is not business critical. Also it is used when the network
being protected does not contain extremely valuable data. Another firewall architecture that is used
in today's networks is the Screened Host Architecture. It is also called the Screen Host Gateway. A
screened host architecture provides services from a host that 's attached to only the internal network,
using a separate router (O'Reilly Building Firewalls). The primary Security feature that is provided
with this architecture is packet filtering which is done by the screening routers used. This type of
architecture uses a screening router (like in a single–box host), but also uses something called a
"bastion host" (O'Reilly Building Firewalls). The bastion host is going to sit on the internal network
and

Network Address Translation ( Nat )
What is Network Address Translation(NAT)?
Definition and Brief History
Network Address Translation, also known as NAT, is the virtualization of Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses. NAT is a useful tool when it comes to network migrations, mergers, server load sharing,
and creating virtual servers. The very first time NAT was recognized to have several advantages was
in February 1996. NAT exists because in the early days of the internet, not many devices were in
use, but around 1991 the concern of IP address space became a problem. The problem was that any
device that connects to the internet must have its own personal IP address in order to be connected
and receive data. With the internet being used by more and more people, IP addresses must be given
to all and can not be the same. NAT was able to be introduced into the public by making a sort of
wall between the internet and a user 's device. This provides users with the ability to use a very large
amount of Public IP addresses to connect to the internet.
Why Do We Use NAT?
NAT is implemented in both business and homes all across the world. It is one of the most helpful
tools to network engineers due to the many useful rules that can be applied and that it cuts down on
the amount of IP addresses a person must use. One reason NAT can be very helpful is the ability to
block IP addresses both internally and externally from speaking with your network. This provides
some security, in that if you have certain devices that

An Essay on Denial of Service Attack
DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACK: SIMPLE BUT DESTRUCTIVE
In last several years, Daniel of Service attack (DoS)/ Distributed Daniel of Service attack (DDoS)
has become one of the most critical threats for internet security, though it's easily accomplished by
the intruders. Even, proven and practicable attacking software are also available on the Internet. To
get rid of this attack, first of all we have to know its consequences.
Typically, an internet connection is established using a methodology named 'THREE WAY
HANDSHAKING'. Following this protocol, at first client pc sends request (SYN) for connection
establishment and then receiving this request server pc response to it sending an acknowledgement
of approval (SYN_ACK) message to the client ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It just sends UDP echo packet in place of ICMP. This invasion can be very serious because of the
'stateless' property of UDP. This means there is no acknowledgement mechanism in this protocol,
which makes UDP favorable for DoS attack. Attacker swallows up the network by UDP packets.
Because of there is no mechanism, receiver can't identify the fake requests.
Ping of death attack follows the same mechanism but from a new angel. It sends ping request using
over–sized packets. Normally, TCP/IP's Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) i.e. maximum packet
size is 65,536 octets (as per CISCO). As a result of over–sized pings, the routing device keeps
rebooting perpetually or may be freezes up causing a total crash.
'Tribe Flood network'/'Tribe Flood network 2000' (TFN/TFN2K) is more complicated than previous
DoS attacks. Alternately it is named as 'IP Spoofing'. It is capable of initiating synchronized DoS
attacks from multiple sources to multiple target devices. It accomplishes the violation by imitating
itself as an IP address of a network to other IP addresses, which are in the scope of it. In this manner,
it misleads the network system by using an approved or trusted internal/external IP address and does
massive destruction.
Stacheldraht is a Distributed DoS program (DDoS), which is actually an assortment of DoS
methodologies. It integrates TFN irruption processes along with UDP, TCP/IP, ICMP overflow,
Smurf attack. Starting with a huge

The Ethics in Securing the Internet Essay
The Ethics in Securing the Internet
Introduction
In order to understand the concept of internet security and why it is necessary it would be worthy of
analysis to discuss what would happen if not enough of it is provided, meaning that the levels of
security are not utilized to the full extents. This is exactly where the big issue of hacking and
hackers becomes involved.
Hackers can benefit from a wide range of weaknesses in security, break into systems, find the
information they need, and eventually change them to fulfill their desire. This, over the years, has
resulted in great deals of information loss in big companies throughout the world, causing them to
not functioning properly or eventually break apart. This is precisely ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The next step taken was in 1966 by Roberts (from MIT), Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of
NPL. Roberts who at that time was planning to set up ARPANET in MIT, was informed by the two
NPL people about the work done by NPL and the RAND group – "who had written a paper on
packet switching networks in 1964."[1] After spending some time talking about their work, they
came to know that MIT, RAND and NPL had been working in parallel without any of them knowing
about the other one's work. So eventually, pocket was picked from the work done by NPL and the
line speed – upgrading from 2.4 kbps to 50kbps, was decided to be used in ARPANET.
During the years, after 1969 computers were added to the ARPANET and attempts were made to
complete the host–to–host protocol. In December 1970, the Network Working Group finished
working on the initial ARPANET protocol

Investigation Of Using Dual Stack And Tunneling Mechanisms
Investigations of using Dual Stack and Tunneling Mechanisms in migration from IPV4 to IPV6:
Abstract
Introduction
Internet protocol written as IP in the short form is the method by which one computer communicates
by sending data to another computer over the Internet. Normally, each computer has a unique form
of IP address that identifies itself on the internet. Internet protocol has two versions: Internet
protocol version 4 and Internet protocol version 6 that is the most current version of IPV6 is an
upgrade of IPV4 (Gavrilova 2006). IPV6 has added advantages and therefore necessitates every
organization to migrate from IPV4 to IPV6.
Background of the study
The internet protocol version 4 abbreviated as IPV4 is a connectionless protocol ... Show more
IPV6 is not a rigid IP as it allows for the growth of the internet concerning the number of
interconnected computers or hosts and the volume of data transmitted (Kott, Wang, & Erbacher
2014). The primary advantage of the IPV6 over IPV4 is the increase in IP addresses. However, there
are other advantages of IPV6 which include: automatic configuration, simplified and more efficient
routing, Simpler header format, flow labeling, easier administration, Flexible options and
extensions, privacy support and inbuilt authentication and an end to network address translation
(Adibi, Mobasher, & Tofigh 2010).
Objective/Aim of the Study
As Zurawski (2005) explains, an organization 's network status and the speed at which they need the
IPV4 transition to IPV6 greatly determine the selection of the transition method, the dual–stack
method, tunneling method or any available option.
This paper seeks to explore how the transition methods; the dual–stack method and tunneling
method works. Businesses with small network devices and bleeding edge technology can
promulgate to IPV6 faster compared to businesses with large network devices. Large companies
usually have many and large network devices, leading to slow Ipv4 to IPV6 transition process
(Jonas, Rai, & Tchuente 2013). Following the multiple benefits resulting from IPV6, it is therefore,
important that network practitioners should seek expertise in IPV6 quickly in order to meet

Nt1310 Unit 5 Research Paper
The following are the top 10 types of packets: IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) IPv4 is a
connectionless protocol for use on packet–switched networks. It is the fourth version of the Internet
Protocol (IP), that is one of the core protocols of standards–based internetworking methods in the
Internet. It was the first version deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. It still used to
routing most Internet traffic today, eventhough we have the next version of it,IPv6. It is operating on
best effort delivery model, i.e. it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or
avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper
layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
UDP: The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is defined for use with IP network layer protocol in the
transport layer protocol. It provides a best–effort datagram service to an End System (IP host). It
uses a simple connectionless transmission model with a minimum of protocol mechanism. It uses no
handshaking dialogues, and thus the user's program is exposed to any unreliability of the underlying
network protocol. There is no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection. UDP provides
checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at the source and
destination of the datagram. HTTP The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application
protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.[1] HTTP is the foundation
of data communication for the World Wide Web. Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links
(hyperlinks) between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer

Definition Of Security And Privacy
NSR/AS Lab 3 – VPNs, By Francesco Davoli Student ID: 7674872 Abstract Security and privacy is
and always will be an important subject in regards to computing, weather its successfully securing
clients data or protecting a personal network from would be hackers, the concepts of security and
privacy will always be at the forefront of any individual's mind. Due to the constant need for more
security as well as privacy the concept of a VPN or Virtual Privet Network was introduced and
implemented. This report will first go into detail on what a VPN actually is, how VPNS work, what
their capabilities are and how they can be implemented into an organisations security policy. The
report will later detail what IPsec is and IPsec tunnels ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Universities such as Swinburne have their own custom VPN available to students which allows
them to connect to the campus from anywhere around the world. When a user wishes to gain access
to a VPN, they must first be authenticated (usually via a username and or password, commonly on a
downloadable client). Upon accessing the VPN, the user is often issued a randomised token is
issued, the token is used as a personal identification number that the user must enter. VPN
characteristics and capabilities – There are various different characteristics and capabilities
attributed to the two major types of VPN's. These are Remote Access type VPN's and Site–to–Site
VPN's. Remote Access type VPN's typically use public infrastructure (Primarily the Internet) in
order to allow users to remotely and securely connect to the organisations network. The user will
often have to download and install a client VPN on their system in order to connect to the VPN. The
client will act as a gateway to the network and is also used as a means of authentication for the user
by forcing the user to create an account with a unique username and password. One they have access
the client will create a link back to the user's system that will allow it to access the host network
resources as if they were accessing the hosts system locally. Typically, a Remote Access style of
VPN will rely on SLL or IPsec to create a secure connection, however when this is

Network
Situation in which the Project Exists: This project is for a residential data communication network.
The proposed network is designed to connect 2 workstations and 1 printer. It will provide internet
access as well as multiple email addresses. The client has approved an initial investment of $5,000
to implement the networking project. The two workstations will be two HP Pavilion Laptops with
AMD Turion II Dual Core Mobile processor, each for $529.99. The printer will be a PIXMA
Wireless multifunction printer/copier/scanner for $99. The client desires to have a mobile network
with the ability to work virtually anywhere in the house. The laptops both come with internal
wireless adapters, 500gbytes of hard drive space, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A key benefit of both wireless routers is scalability. Their strong built–in transceivers are designed
to spread a wireless signal throughout the home. A general rule of thumb in home networking says
that 802.11b and 802.11g WAPs and routers support a range of up to 300 feet, but obstructions in a
home such as brick walls and metal frames can reduce the range of a Wi–Fi LAN by 25% or more.
The router will be placed in an optimal location away from microwave ovens, 2.4 GHz cordless
phones and garage door openers which can all cause signal interference. In densely populated areas,
wireless signals from neighboring homes can sometimes cause signal interference. This happens
when both households set conflicting communication channels. When configuring an 802.11b or
802.11g router, you can change the channel number used. The default administrator password and
username for the router will be immediately changed. All Wi–Fi equipment supports some form of
encryption, and we will be using the128–bit WEP Encryption by assigning a WEP passkey. The
passkey should be unique and long. For extra security we will be changing the default SSID or
network name, which identifies the network. This should also be unique. Most wireless network
routers contain the ability to filter devices based on their MAC address. By enabling MAC Address
Filtering, this will allow the

Fvbff
CCNA4 Exploration: Accessing the WAN Guided Case Study Student: Date: Marks: Overview and
Objectives This final case study allows students to build and configure a complex network using
skills gained throughout the course. This case study is not a trivial task. To complete it as outlined
with all required documentation will be a significant accomplishment. The case study scenario
describes the project in general terms, and will explain why the network is being built. Following
the scenario, the project is broken into a number of phases, each of which has a detailed list of
requirements. It is important to read and understand each ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Expect 100% growth of current IP requirements when determining size of subnets. All networking
devices must have IP addresses. Use the private class B _______ network for internal addressing
throughout the company's WAN and LAN networks. Use VLSM for IP addressing. Use subnet
200.1.1.0/24 for connection to the Internet via the HQ router in Exeter. There is a DNS server at
address 198.198.1.2/24 connected to the HQ router. Security between the various networks is
required to be controlled via firewalls (access control lists). One public address, 199.199.199.1, has
been provided external access to the Internet for the company. Phase 1: Network Design (20 marks)
1. Produce a logical diagram with IPv4 addressing for the based on the scenario given for the WANs
and LANs for South West Electrical that includes: ▪ Use ______ for internal addressing with IP
subnet zero enabled. ▪ Apply /30 subnets on all serial interfaces, using the last available subnets. ▪
Define router and switch names Design a redundant switched network with spanning–tree to elect
the root bridge. ▪ Define VLANs, names and their network addresses. Design for the propagation of
VLANs with VTP. ▪ All network addresses. ▪ Number of hosts per network. ▪ Link Speeds. Design
to secure the ports on the switches using port

Ccna Lab Manual
CCNA LAB MANUAL
VERSION 7.0 A PRODUCT OF
CTTC
PREPARED BY
FURQAN YASEEN
2
I would like to thank the Technical Director Mr. Farrukh Nizami, & Traning Consultant Mr. Ahmed
Saeed for their guidance. This Lab Manual is the product of the hard work of a team. The new Cisco
CCNA curriculum validates the ability to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot medium–size
routed and switched networks, including implementation and verification of connections to remote
sites in a WAN. The new curriculum also includes basic mitigation of security threats, introduction
to wireless network concepts and terminology, and the addition of more compelling lab exercises.
The recommended CCNA training includes the Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Encrypted Telnet password CISCO(config)# service password–encryption
Lab1 Prepared by Furqan Yaseen
8 How to Set Banner CISCO(config)# banner login # 10 YEARS OF CTTC #
Verify the Banner CISCO(config)# exit CISCO# exit 10 YEARS OF CTTC User Access
Verification Username: furqan Password: CISCO>enable Password: CISCO#
Configure SSH
!!! create a local user name CISCO(config)# username furqan password cisco !!! Assign a domain
name CISCO(config)# ip domain–name cisco.com !!! This Command takes few a min to generate
key CISCO(config)# crypto key generate rsa
CISCO(config)# line vty 0 15 CISCO(config–line)# password cisco CISCO(config–line)# login
local !!! Configure vty ports for using SSH CISCO(config–line)# transport input telnet ssh

Lab1
CTTC (PVT) Ltd. Karachi –Pakistan.
(00 92 21) 4310956, 4300003–6
Visit us www.cttc.net.pk
9
Verify Command's CISCO# show crypto key mypubkey rsa
Switch Static IP address Configuration
!!! To Manage Telnet, SSH Session on a Switch we need IP address
!!! Enter Vlan1 Configuration Mode

GNS 3 Command Analysis
Carefully write down what you see on the GNS3 screens. (Unfortunately, it is impossible to copy the
texts of the GNS3 screens and paste them into the browser you are using to take this course.) Type
sudo tcpdump –xx –i eth0 into this terminal. You can stop it after a few minutes by entering "CTRL
c". Note that this command displays only 4 lines, like this: which is enough for all but one of the
questions. The sudo tcpdump –xx –s0 –i eth0 command must be used to see the whole frame. This
command will collect all Ethernet frames passing through interface eth0 and display them as 8–byte
lines in hexadecimal. 0x0010 is the number of the first byte of the line in hexadecimal (0x: notation
often used in languages to denote hexadecimal). Each pair of characters then represents the value of
one byte. Each line contains 16 bytes. Here, 0x0010 is the number of the first byte of the second
line, which is the 16th byte of the frame, hence "10" in hexadecimal. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
To find the values of the "Protocol type" field, look up the possible values of the "Protocol type"
field on the IANA website (see Bibliography). You will see a certain number of frames that tcpdump
prefixes with bootp. S2.Lab 02.1 : What is the target MAC address in hexadecimal (type exactly the
same characters, including spaces)? – sans réponse S2.Lab 02.2

Grandstream Networks: User Manual
User Manual
BudgeTone–100 Series
IP Phone
For Firmware Version 1.0.8.32
Grandstream Networks, Inc. www.grandstream.com Grandstream Networks, Inc.
BudgeTone–100 User Manual
Table of Contents
1 WELCOME
–4–
2 INSTALLATION
–5–
2.1 INTERCONNECTION DIAGRAM
3 WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE PACKAGE
–6–7–
3.1 SAFETY COMPLIANCES
3.2 WARRANTY
–7–7–
4 PRODUCT OVERVIEW
–8–
4.1 KEY FEATURES
4.2 HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS
5 BASIC OPERATIONS

5.1 GET FAMILIAR WITH LCD/LED
5.2 GET FAMILIAR WITH KEYPAD
5.3 MAKE PHONE CALLS
5.3.1
Make Calls using Numbers
5.3.2
Make Calls using IP Address
5.3.3
Answer an Incoming Call
5.3.4
Handset Mode, Speakerphone/Headset Mode
5.3.5
Call Hold
5.3.6
Call Waiting and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
End user should contact the company from whom you purchased the product for replacement, repair
or refund.
If you purchased the product directly from Grandstream, contact your Grandstream Sales and
Service
Representative for a RMA (Return Materials Authorization) number.
Grandstream reserves the right to remedy warranty policy without prior notification.
Warning: Please do not attempt to use a different power adaptor. Using other power adaptor may
damage the BudgeTone–100 IP telephone and will void the manufacturer warranty.
Caution: Changes or modifications to this product not expressly approved by Grandstream, or
operation of this product in any way other than as detailed by this User Manual, could void your
manufacturer warranty.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. No part of this document may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose
without the express written permission of Grandstream Networks, Inc..
–7–
Grandstream Networks, Inc.
BudgeTone–100 User Manual
4
Product Overview
Grandstream IP Phone is a next generation IP network telephone based on industry open standard
SIP
(Session Initiation Protocol). Built on innovative technology, Grandstream IP Phone features market

leading superb sound quality and rich functionalities at mass–affordable price.
4.1

Network Address Translation
Network Address Translation
Design and Implementation
Abstract–This is the final report for a research project covering network address translation (NAT).
Research topics include: the history and necessity for NAT, overall design, implementation, the
different types, and examples of its use.
Keywords–NAT; networking; project; research
Necessity
IP addresses were originally designed to be globally unique. In an IP network, each computer is
allocated a unique IP address. In the current version of IP protocol (IPv4) an IP address is 4 bytes,
and because an address is 4 bytes, the total number of available addresses is 2 to the power of 32,
which is 4,294,967,296. This represents the total theoretical number of computers that ... Show more
RFC 1287 also discussed possible ways to extend IP address space. The first suggested a direction
similar to current NATs:
Replace the 32–bit field with a field of the same size but with a different meaning. Instead of being
globally unique, it would be unique only within some smaller region. Gateways on the boundary
would rewrite the address as the packet crossed the boundary.
Shortly after RFC 1287 was published, RFC 1335 introduced a clearer description of the use of
internal IP addresses as a solution to IP address exhaustion. The NAT idea was first described in the
article "Extending the IP Internet through Address Reuse" which appeared in the January 1993 issue
of ACM Computer Communication Review and was later published as RFC 1631. The invention of
the Web in the early 1990s underlined the urgency to take action toward solving both the routing
scalability and the address shortage problems. Long–term solutions require a long lead time to
develop; therefore efforts began to develop both a short–term and a long–term solution to those
problems.
As a short term solution, Classless Inter–domain Routing (CIDR) was proposed, which removes the
class boundaries embedded in the IP address structure. This enables more efficient address
allocation, helping to extend the lifetime of IP address space. Address space was poorly utilized with
the "Classful" addressing approach, CIDR helped in extending the lifetime of

Network And Network Address Translation

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