Doctoral thesis of Esa Alaraudanjoki, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. 2003. https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/42029/978-951-39-5365-2_2003.pdf?sequence=1 ABSTRACT Alaraudanjoki, Esa Nepalese Child Labourers’ Life-contexts, Cognitive Skills and Well-being Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä, 2003, 62 p. (Jyväskylä Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research ISSN 0075-4625; 232) ISBN 951-39-1634-0 (nid.), 978-951-39-5365-2 (PDF) Yhteenveto: Työssäkäyvien nepalilaislasten elämänkonteksti, kognitiiviset taidot ja hyvinvointi Diss. This dissertation thesis consists of a summary report and three substudies. In first article, the theoretical background of this thesis was reviewed under the title “Child labour – A Multi-disciplinary review” (Alaraudanjoki, 2000). The purpose was to examine the issue of child labour in the context of research in the disciplines of economics, anthropology, sociology, education, and psychology, together with the institutional contexts. The review showed that (1) the value accorded to children’s participation in working life in Southern contexts depends on the degree of socioeconomic development of the particular country in question. (2) It challenged the ‘truism’ of the modernization theory regarding the transformation of collectivist values towards individualistic Western values. In second and third articles, the overall objective of these two empirical studies was to investigate whether the children working in the carpet factories in the city of Kathmandu differ on their cognitive skills and psychological well-being from their peers who live in the country-side and go to school. The data (N=194 Cognitive Skills; N=254 Psychological well-being) were collected in 1996-97. The children were matched for age (10-14 years), and ethnic background (Tibeto-Burmese language group, and Buddhism religion). The main results showed that the school group was better in all the cognitive tests, except for Digit Span Backwards where there were no differences between the school and labouring groups. Secondly, findings showed that the boys were better in arithmetic skills than the girls when they had long working experience. Thirdly, the labouring children reported higher levels of anxiety compared to the school children. Fourthly, the school group showed a lower internal locus of control than the labourers. External locus of control was found to correlate with anxiety among the child labourers and school going boys. In conclusion, it is likely that work in the carpet industry develops certain cognitive skills, but this development is restricted to a very narrow field. The relevance of the labourers’ higher anxiety and internal locus of control compared to school group remains unclear. The methods used managed to differentiate the children both within and across samples. The concerns of the children reflected their environmental hardships.

1. Nepalese Child Labourers´ Life-contexts,
Cognitive Skills and Well-being
Department of Psychology
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Dr Esa Alaraudanjoki
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

2. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

3. Introduction
’ Convention of the Rights of Child, 1989
’ BBC Panorama tv documentary on the Nepalese carpet
industry. ILO-IPEC in Nepal 1993.
’ This research started as an internship at the ILO-IPEC
programme 1995. One of the ILOs partners was the Central
Carpet Industries Association (CCIA).
’ ILO Mini-project to Tribhuvan University. Data-collection in
1996 and 2000, Funded by the ILO and Academy of Finland.
’ Post-graduate work 1997-2003.
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

4. Outline:
CRC, ILO-IPEC, Child labour
Case
 Convention of the Rights of the Child.
 ILO: C182 Worst Forms of Child Labour
C182, R 190; Bonded Labour (ILO, 1999).
 Consultant paper by Dr. Judith Ennew, Univ.
Cambridge, Centre for Family Reserach, SPS, to ILO.
 Thesis: Nepalese Child Labourers’ Life-Contexts,
Cognitive Skills and Well-being (2003).psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

5. ILO Convention No. 182:
Worst forms of child labour
’ Whilst child labour takes many different forms, a priority is to eliminate without
delay the worst forms of child labour as defined by Article 3 of ILO Convention
No. 182:
’ (a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, including forced or
compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;
(b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of
pornography or for pornographic performances;
(c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities;
(d) work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is
likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.
’ Labour that jeopardies the physical, mental or moral well-being of a child, either
because of its nature or because of the conditions in which it is carried out, is
known as “hazardous work”.
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

6. ILO Recommendation No. 190 concerning the
Prohibition and Immediate Action for the
Elimination Worst Forms of Child Labour 1999
’ (3) In determining the types of work referred to under Article 3(d) of the
Convention, and in identifying where they exist, consideration should be
given, inter alia, to:
(a) work which exposes children to physical, psychological or sexual abuse;
(b) work underground, under water, at dangerous heights or in confined
spaces;
(c) work with dangerous machinery, equipment and tools, or which involves
the manual handling or transport of heavy loads;
(d) work in an unhealthy environment which may, for example, expose
children to hazardous substances, agents or processes, or to temperatures,
noise levels, or vibrations damaging to their health;
(e) work under particularly difficult conditions such as work for long hours or
during the night or work where the child is unreasonably confined to the
premises of the employer.
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

7. ILO Convention No. 138 on the minimum
age for admission to employment/work
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

8. ILO Conventions (11) ratified by the Nepalese Governmentpsykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

9. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

10. The Study
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

11. Health hazards in the factories
(Alaraudanjoki, 2000)
’ The health hazards of the carpet factories include the
following:
’ bad ventilation or working areas in which wool fluff
is present in large quantities
’ insufficient lighting
’ inadequate toilet facilities
’ ergonimic risks due to repetitive work tasks
’ static working posititions.
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

12. Methods and Aim
The overall objective of two empirical studies was
to investigate
whether the children working in the carpet factories in the
city of Kathmandu differ on their cognitive skills and
psychological well-being from their peers who live in the
country-side and go to school.
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

13. The Aims of the Studies
’ This dissertation consists of three studies. The first study examined the following questions: (1)
how does the value of children’s participation in working life differ in the South (in Nepal)
compared to North? (2) What transformation takes place in parental values towards children’s
participation in working life with modernization and socio-economic development? (3) How is the
issue of child labour typically treated in the research contexts of economic, anthropological,
sociological, educational, psychological sciences, and in the institutional research contexts?
’ The second study examined the following questions: (1) To what extent do the children who work
in the carpet industry in Kathmandu differ in their cognitive skills from their peers who attend
school? (2) How do environmental factors, i.e. lack of schooling and working at a young age,
affect the development of the different groups of children in this study?
’ The third study examined the following questions: (1) To what extent do children who work in the
carpet factories differ from their peers at school in their levels of anxiety, internality of their
control beliefs, and current problems? (2) To what extent is the well-being of these different
groups of children associated with their control beliefs and current problems?
’ The fourth area of interest was to examine following questions: (1) To what extent is gender
associated with cognitive skills and psychological well-being? (2) To what extent do the overall
associations between the cognitive skills and psychological well-being lead to a new
understanding on subgroups?
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

14. Subjects
The data
N=194 Cognitive Skills;
N=254 Psychological well-being
were collected in 1996-97, and 2000.
The children were matched for age (10-14 years), and
ethnic background (Tibeto-Burmese language group,
and Buddhist religion).
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

15. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

16. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

17. Methods
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

18. Cognitive Skills
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

19. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

20. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

21. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

22. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

23. Psychological Well-being
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

24. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

25. psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

26. Conclusion
The main results showed that the school group was better in all the cognitive tests, except for
Digit Span Backwards where there were no differences between the school and labouring
groups.
Secondly, findings showed that the boys were better in arithmetic skills than the girls when
they had long working experience.
Thirdly, the labouring children reported higher levels of anxiety compared to the school
children.
Fourthly, the school group showed a lower internal locus of control than the labourers.
External locus of control was found to correlate with anxiety among the child labourers and
school-going boys.
In conclusion, it is likely that work in the carpet industry develops certain cognitive skills,
but this development is restricted to a very narrow field. The relevance of the labourers’
higher anxiety and internal locus of control compared to school group remains unclear.
The methods used managed to differentiate the children both within and across samples. The
concerns of the children reflected their environmental hardships.
Keywords: child development, labour, cognitive skills, education, well-being
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

27. Discussion
Right to Education
- Non-formal education enables individual to defend ones
human rights. With the basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and
health education skills one can stand up for, negotiate better
contracts and to change jobs horizontally.
Working developes certain skills – narrow in scope though
In the policy level work the aim should always be the
elimination of child labour.
States should respect, protect and fulfill their human rights
commitments.
Dr Esa Alaraudanjoki www.edupsy.fi
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi

28. Thank you!
psykologipalvelut@alaraudanjoki.fi