The Natural Approach developed by Krashen and Terrell focuses on acquiring a second language naturally through comprehensible input, meaningful interaction, and language use in three stages: comprehension, early production, and speech activities. It emphasizes creating a low-anxiety environment and allowing students to produce language when they are ready rather than forcing early speech. The teacher provides input through activities and does not correct student errors. The goal is for students to use the language communicatively.
Key Terms in Second Language Acquisitiontranslatoran
Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition includes definitions of key terms within second language acquisition, and also provides accessible summaries of the key issues within this complex area of study
Second language acquisition (SLA) is known to be a very important issue in the field of linguistics. It can take place in a natural setting or through formal instruction, and, although the degree of proficiency that can be attained is related to several factors, it may begin at childhood or at the adult age, ending with different results if starting in the former or the latter.
Cognitive approaches to second
language learning
Yaseen Taha
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
u Schools of thought
u cognitive approaches
u Behaviourism
u Learning strategies
u Processing approaches
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
What are the Schools of thought?
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Schools of thought
Structural
linguistics and
behavioral
psychology
1900s, 1940s,
1950s
Generative
linguistics and
cognitive
psychology
1970s, 1980s
Constructivism
1980s, 1990s,
2000s
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
What does cognitive theory mean?
u A theory of learning processes that focuses on how people
think, understand, and know. It does not specifies
precisely what is learned, what content will be easiest (or
most difficult) to learn, or what learners will select to
learn at different stages of development or levels of
mastery of a complex skill. It came about as a reaction to
behaviorism.
u A cognitive theory of learning sees second language
acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process,
involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Important cognitive theorists
u Allan Paivio, Robert Gagne, Howard Gardener, Benjamin Bloom.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Behaviourism
u a highly influential academic school of psychology. It assumes
that a learner is essentially passive, responding to environment
stimuli. Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and
behavior is shaped by positive and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement, positive or negative increases the possibility of an
event happening again. Punishment, both positive and negative,
decreases the possibility of an event happening again.
u It implies that the learner responds to environmental stimuli
without his/her mental state being factor in the learners' behavior.
Individual learns to behave through conditioning.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Comparison between BEHAVIORIST theory and COGNITIVIST
theory
u Behaviorism is a learning theory
u As a formation of habit,
conditioning
u Practice is necessary, constant
repetition
u Learner is passive
u Behaviorists: teach, plan, present
language item, make Students
repeat
u Errors are forbidden
u Ignored thought and emotions
u Cognitivism is a learning theory, based
on how people think not a theory that
specifies precisely what is learned what
content will be easiest to learn, or what
learners will select to
learn at different stages of development
u Learning results from internal activity
(mental processes)
u Practice is necessary, but rote learning
and meaningless repetition is out.
u Learners process, store, and retrieve
information
u Cognitivists: creates opportunities for
learni
Key Terms in Second Language Acquisitiontranslatoran
Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition includes definitions of key terms within second language acquisition, and also provides accessible summaries of the key issues within this complex area of study
Second language acquisition (SLA) is known to be a very important issue in the field of linguistics. It can take place in a natural setting or through formal instruction, and, although the degree of proficiency that can be attained is related to several factors, it may begin at childhood or at the adult age, ending with different results if starting in the former or the latter.
Cognitive approaches to second
language learning
Yaseen Taha
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
u Schools of thought
u cognitive approaches
u Behaviourism
u Learning strategies
u Processing approaches
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
What are the Schools of thought?
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Schools of thought
Structural
linguistics and
behavioral
psychology
1900s, 1940s,
1950s
Generative
linguistics and
cognitive
psychology
1970s, 1980s
Constructivism
1980s, 1990s,
2000s
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
What does cognitive theory mean?
u A theory of learning processes that focuses on how people
think, understand, and know. It does not specifies
precisely what is learned, what content will be easiest (or
most difficult) to learn, or what learners will select to
learn at different stages of development or levels of
mastery of a complex skill. It came about as a reaction to
behaviorism.
u A cognitive theory of learning sees second language
acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process,
involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Important cognitive theorists
u Allan Paivio, Robert Gagne, Howard Gardener, Benjamin Bloom.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Behaviourism
u a highly influential academic school of psychology. It assumes
that a learner is essentially passive, responding to environment
stimuli. Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and
behavior is shaped by positive and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement, positive or negative increases the possibility of an
event happening again. Punishment, both positive and negative,
decreases the possibility of an event happening again.
u It implies that the learner responds to environmental stimuli
without his/her mental state being factor in the learners' behavior.
Individual learns to behave through conditioning.
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Comparison between BEHAVIORIST theory and COGNITIVIST
theory
u Behaviorism is a learning theory
u As a formation of habit,
conditioning
u Practice is necessary, constant
repetition
u Learner is passive
u Behaviorists: teach, plan, present
language item, make Students
repeat
u Errors are forbidden
u Ignored thought and emotions
u Cognitivism is a learning theory, based
on how people think not a theory that
specifies precisely what is learned what
content will be easiest to learn, or what
learners will select to
learn at different stages of development
u Learning results from internal activity
(mental processes)
u Practice is necessary, but rote learning
and meaningless repetition is out.
u Learners process, store, and retrieve
information
u Cognitivists: creates opportunities for
learni
Among all the methods and approaches to language teaching there is one that may not have a strong basis on its Theory of Language but an excellent background on its Theory of Learning, the Natural Approach, based on the principles of the Theory of Language Acquisition proposed by Stephen Krashen.
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
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The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
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For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2. Introduction
Natural Approach:
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell
developed the "Natural Approach" in
the early eighties (Krashen and Terrell,
1983), based on Krashens’ theories
about second language acquisition.
3. This acquisition-focused approach sees
communicative competence progressing through
three stages:
(a) aural comprehension,
(b) early speech production, and
(c) speech activities, all fostering "natural"
language acquisition, much as a child would learn
his/her native tongue.
Following an initial "silent period",
comprehension should precede production in
speech, as the latter should be allowed to emerge
in natural stages or progressions.
4. Background Historical Context
70’ was a fruitful era in second language
research.
Noam Chomsky explain a new theory of
language (Acquisition and Learning)
Innovate methods for language teaching
Community Language Learning. Charles Currant
(1972)
Suggestopedia. Lozanov (1979)
The Silent Way. Caleb Gattegno (1972)
Total Physical Response. James Asher (1977)
The Natural Approach
5. Overview
In the Natural Approach the teacher
speaks only the target language and class
time is committed to providing input for
acquisition.
Students may use either the language
being taught or their first language. Errors in
speech are not corrected; however
homework may include grammar exercises
that will be corrected.
6. Goals for the class emphasize the
students being able use the language "to
talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve
problems." This approach aims to fulfill the
requirements for learning and acquisition,
and does a great job in doing it.
Its main weakness is that all classroom
teaching is to some degree limited in its
ability to be interesting and relevant to all
students.
8. Krashens’ theories of second language
acquisition, and his five hypotheses.
“Acquisition requires
meaningful interaction in
the target language -
natural communication - in
which speakers are
concerned not with the
form of their utterances
but with the messages
they are conveying and
understanding.”
Stephen Krashen
9. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Language acquisition
(an unconscious process
developed through using
language meaningfully) is
different from language
learning (consciously
learning or discovering rules
about a language) and
language acquisition is the
only way competence in a
second language can
develop.
10. A learning theory should respond to
these two questions:
“What are the psycholinguistic and
cognitive processes involved in
language teaching?”
“What are the conditions that need
to be met in order for these learning
processes to be activated?”
11. Stephen Krashens’ Monitor Theory,
which is based on The Natural
Approach, answers both questions by
distinguishing between the
“acquisition” and “learning” processes,
and by describing the type of input the
learners receive, which should be at
their level, interest, of sufficient
quantity, and in low-anxiety contexts,
and these are the conditions.
12. Tracy D. Terrell (Natural Approach),
and James Asher (Total Physical Response)
are examples of methods based on this
learning theory.
Charles A. Curran’s Counseling
Learning and Caleb Gattegno’s Silent Way
also focus on this learning theory, but they
focus primarily on the conditions more than
in the processes. Their concern is directed
to the atmosphere of the classroom, and
they seek for motivation, confidence and
security within the students.
13. Theory of Language
The essence of language is meaning.
Vocabulary not grammar is the heart of
language.
It emphasised “Comprehensible Input”,
distinguishing between ‘acquisition’ – a
natural subconscious process, and ‘learning’ –
a conscious process. It is argued that learning
cannot lead to acquisition. The focus is on
meaning, not form (structure, grammar).
14. “The best methods… are therefore those that supply
'comprehensible input' in low anxiety
situations, containing messages that
students really want to hear.
These methods do not force
early production in the second
language, but allow students to
produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement
comes from supplying
communicative and comprehensible
input, and not from forcing and
correcting production." Stephen
Krashen
15. Theory of Language
Natural Approach:
Reflecting the cognitive psychology and
humanistic approach prominent in the field
of education at that time, the Natural
Approach shifted the culture of the language
classroom 180 degrees and brought a sense of
community to the students by their sharing of
the experience of learning the same language
together.
17. The Natural Order Hypothesis
Grammatical
structures are
acquired in a
predictable order
and it does little
good to try to learn
them in another
order.
19. The Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning
operates only as a
monitor or editor that
checks or repairs the
output of what has
been acquired.
20. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
The learner's
emotional state can
act as a filter that
impedes or blocks
input necessary for
language acquisition.
21. Design: Objectives / Syllabus
Objectives
Designed to give
beginners/ intermediate learner
communicative skills. Four broad
areas; basic personal
communicative skills
(speaking/listening); academic
learning skills (oral/written)
Syllabus
The syllabus for the
Natural Approach is a
communicative syllabus. Based
on a selection of communicative
activities and topics derived from
learner needs
22. Types of learning techniques and activities
Comprehensible
input is presented
in the target
language, using
techniques such
as TPR, mime and
gesture.
Group techniques
are similar to
Communicative
Language Teaching.
Learners start to talk
when they are ready.
23. Learner roles:
Focused on meaningful and vocabulary
Should not try and
learn language in the
usual sense, but
should try and lose
themselves in
activities involving
meaningful
communication.
Meaningful Vocabulary
24. Teacher roles:
Teachers should provide "comprehensible input“ (I+1)
The teacher is the
primary source of
comprehensible input.
Must create positive
low-anxiety climate.
Must choose and
orchestrate a rich
mixture of classroom
activities.
25. Roles of materials
The world of relia rather than
text books. Visual aids are essential
like schedules, brochures,
advertisement, maps, books of level
appropriate to the learners.
26. Procedure
Presentation of a situation or context through
a brief dialogue or several mini-dialogues,
preceded by a motivational activity relating the
dialogue to learners’ experiences and interest.
This includes a discussion of the functional
and situational roles, settings, topics at the level of
formality or informality that function or situation
demands.
These are the steps to follow in planning
a lesson using the communicative or natural
approach to second-language teaching:
27. Procedure / Process
Brainstorming or
discussion to establish
the vocabulary and
expressions to be used to
accomplish the
communicative intent.
Includes a framework or
means of structuring a
conversation or exchange
to achieve the purpose of
the speakers.
Questions and answers
based on the dialogue
topic and situation:
Inverted, wh- questions,
yes/no, either/or and
open-ended questions.
28. Procedure / Process
Study of the basic
communicative
expressions in the
dialogue or one of the
structures that exemplifies
the function, using
pictures, real objects, or
dramatization to clarify
the meaning.
Learner discovery of
generalizations or rules
underlying the functional
expression or structure,
with model examples on
the chalkboard,
underlining the important
features, using arrows or
referents where feasible.
29. Procedure / Process
Oral recognition and
interpretative activities
including oral production
proceeding from guided to
freer communication
activities.
Oral evaluation of
learning with guided use
of language and
questions/answers, e.g.
"How would you ask your
friend to
________________? And
how would you ask me to
_______________?"
30. Procedure / Process
Reading and/or
copying of the
dialogues with
variations for
reading/writing
practice.
To complete the
lesson cycle, provide
opportunities to
apply the language
learned the day
before in novel
situations for the
same or a related
purpose.
31. Conclusion
The Natural Approach adopts techniques and
activities from different sources but uses them to provide
comprehensible input.
Language Acquisition
Language Processing
32. The use of the term ‘Natural Approach’
rather than ‘Method’ highlights the
development of a move away from
‘method’ which implies a particular set of
features to be followed, almost as to
‘approach’ which starts from some basic
principles which are then developed in the
design and development of practice in
teaching and learning.
It is now widely recognized that the
diversity of contexts requires an informed,
eclectic approach.
33. “It has been realized that there
never was and probably never will
be a method for all, and the focus in
recent years has been on the
development of classroom tasks and
activities which are consonant with
what we know about second
language acquisition, and which are
also in keeping with the dynamics of
the classroom itself”. (Nunan 1991:
228)
To quote Nunan:
34. Summary of The Natural Method
Curriculum
Teacher
Motivation
Classroom
Learning
Environment
Instructional
Strategies
Acquisition
35. Theory of language
The Communicative view of language is the
focus behind the Natural Approach. Particular
emphasis is laid on language as a set of messages
that can be understood.
Language is a vehicle for communicating
meanings and messages
Communicative approach
The focus on meaning not form
Vocabulary is stressed (Lexicon)
Formula I + 1
36. Theory of learning - The Natural Approach is
based on the following tenets:
Language acquisition (an unconscious
process developed through using language
meaningfully) is different from language
learning (consciously learning or discovering
rules about a language) and language
acquisition is the only way competence in a
second language occurs.
(The acquisition/learning hypothesis)
37. Grammatical structures are acquired in a
predictable order and it does little good to try to learn
them in another order.(The natural order hypothesis)
People acquire language best from
messages that are just slightly beyond their current
competence: i+1(The input hypothesis)
Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or
editor that checks or repairs the output of what has
been acquired. (The monitor hypothesis)
The learner's emotional state can act as a
filter that impedes or blocks input necessary for
language acquisition.
(The affective filter hypothesis)
38. Design: Objectives
Specific objectives
depend on learners’
needs, skills and level.
Syllabus
Typical goals for
language courses or
particular needs and
interest of students
topics and situations
Learners’ Roles
Processor of
comprehensible input.
Pre-production stage
Early production stage
Speech emergent phase
Learner to learner
interaction encourage in
pair & small group
Guesser - Immerser
39. Teachers’ Roles
Primary source of
comprehensive input
Creates atmosphere -
learner centered
Facilitator - Orchestrate
classroom activities
Edu-actor – props user
Types of learning
techniques and
activities
Comprehensible input is
presented in the target
language, using techniques
such as TPR, mime and
gesture.
Group techniques are
similar to Communicative
Language Teaching.
Learners start to talk when
they are ready.
40. Procedure
The Natural Approach
adopts techniques and
activities from different
sources but uses them
to provide
comprehensible input.
Language is a tool for
communication
Language function over
Linguistic form
Comprehension before
production - task
Assessment
Communicative
effectiveness. Fluency
over accuracy. Task
oriented.
No error correction unless
errors interfere with
communication
41. References:
Cook, V. website
http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Krashen.htm
Krashen, S. (1985) The Input Hypothesis. London: Longman
Krashen, S. & Terrell, T.D. (1983), The Natural Approach, Pergamon
Nunan, David (ed) 2003 Practical English LanguageTeaching
McGraw Hill.
Nunan, David 1989 Designing Tasks for the Communicative
Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in
language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/