Myopic Maculopathy refers to pathologies that can occur in the macula as a result of high myopia and pathological myopia. Some key pathologies discussed in the document include posterior staphyloma, lacquer cracks, macular hemorrhage, myopic foveoschisis, myopic macular hole, and myopic choroidal neovascularization. Surgical interventions like pars plana vitrectomy and anti-VEGF therapies are used to treat complications, but visual outcomes can still be poor due to underlying retinal degeneration and abnormalities caused by high myopia. Early diagnosis and treatment is important to prevent vision loss from myopic maculopathy.

1. Myopic Maculopathy
Data collected and Created By Vivek Chaudhary
Data Sources are from various websites, Journals and Articles
For queries;
 vivekchaudhary.707@gmail.com

2. Intro
What is myopia ?
 Also called near sightedness
 Refractive error, the rays are focused before the retina while the accommodation being at rest.
 Grades:
 Low Myopia is or less than -3D
 Moderate Myopia is between -3D to Or less than -6D
 High Myopia is or above -6D
 Clinical Types:
 Congenital Myopia
 Simple or Developmental Myopia
 Pathological or Degenerative Myopia
 Acquired or Secondary Myopia

3.  High Myopia is a major cause of visual impairment and legal blindness
worldwide, especially in ASIAN countries.
 Thus early Diagnosis and Treatment is must.
Optical Treatment ; Concave lenses of appropriate power

4. Pathological Myopia
 Also termed as Degenerative or Progressive or Malignant Myopia
 rapidly progressive, starts in childhood at 5 – 10 years of age and results in high myopia
during adult
 refers to a condition in which individuals have an axial length exceeding a certain threshold
(typically 25.5 or 26.50 mm), a corresponding refractive error (of at least -6 D and which is
accompanied by characteristic pathological changes.
 generally defined as globe elongation and a refractive error of at least -6 diopters (D)
and/or axial length of greater than 26.5 mm associated with degenerative changes in the
retina
 Causes irreversible loss of vision
 The prevalence of pathologic myopia varies considerably in different geographic regions and
has the highest prevalence in Asian populations
 Myopic Maculopathy is one of the complications associated with Pathological Myopia
 Those who are severely myopic, have measurements of more than -10D, are most at risk of
developing myopic maculopathy.

5.  Excessive axial elongation of the eye in pathologic myopia results in mechanical stretching and
thinning of the choroid and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) layers, causing various
degenerative changes in the retina.
 individuals with high myopia have increased risks of macular pathologies such as:
 posterior staphyloma
 chorioretinal atrophy,
 RPE atrophy,
 lacquer cracks,
 macular hemorrhage,
 choroidal neovascularization (CNV),
 myopic foveoschisis and
 myopic macular hole.

6. Causes of Myopic Maculopathy
 family history of high myopia.
 the excessive elongation of the eyeball leads to degeneration of the retina and in
particular to the macula, which has the highest concentration of light sensitive cells that
interpret colour images.
 the excessive elongation of the walls of the eyeball become extremely stretched and
thin. Eventually the layers at the back of the eye can become so thin that cells in the
retina begin to die. This leads to a slow decline in central vision.
Symptoms
 Distorted images and blurred or missing spots in the field of Vision
 Discomfort in bright light
 Difficulty adapting to changes in light levels
 Perception of colors differently

7. Posterior Staphyloma
 It is the posterior outpouching of the wall of the eye
 An important component of the diagnosis of pathological myopia
 Does not occur in pathologies other than pathological myopia ( exception , with inferior
staphyloma related with tilted disc syndrome)
 Thus, the presence posterior staphyloma is specific to pathological myopia
 The steepened curve of the posterior sclera, caused by an axial elongation, has been tended
to be confused with a staphyloma in some OCT scans
INVESTIGTIONS
 Conventional: Color Fundus Photography and Ultrasonography
 New Trends: 3D MRI, Fundus Imaging and OCT
 For background picture reference, see next slide

8. A. Normal Eye
B. Axial length elongation occurring in the equatorial region that does not induce any alteration in
the curvature of the posterior part of the eye. This eye would have axial myopia, but not
staphyloma.
C. A second curvature develops in the posterior portion of the eye, and this second curvature has a
shorter radius of curvature than the surrounding eye wall. This secondary curve is due to a
staphyloma.
D. Posterior staphyloma can also develop in eyes without high axial myopia.
The deformity of posterior segment characterized by staphyloma; it therefore, can independently
occur from an elongation of the equatorial region.
Thus , outpouching of the eye wall without long axial length is also considered to be posterior
staphyloma.

9.  Among staphylomas, the wide macular type is the most common (74% of all staphylomas),
narrow macular type ( 14% ), other types are rare and they include inferior staphyloma (3%) and
nasal staphyloma (2%).
ASSOCIATED COMPLICATIONS
 Macular degeneration
 Macular choroidal neovascularization
Future Treatments targeting Posterior Staphylomas
There is no true treatment to improve vision in cases of posterior staphylomas.
Although Anti-VEGF therapies for myopic choroidal neovascularization are available but the visual
improvements are limited in most cases.
Thus, preventive therapies targeting staphylomas before serious complications occur are important
and ideal, these include;
 Scleral reinforcement
 Scleral regeneration

10. Lacquer Cracks
 Lacquer cracks can appear in the cases of progressive myopia
 They appear to be caused by stretching of the coats of the eyeball with increasing axial
myopia.
 The lesion is most probably associated with a preceding sub-retinal hemorrhage and is often
found with a posterior staphyloma.
INVESTIGATION
 Fundus Fluorescein Angiography

11. Macular Hemorrhage
 Sub-retinal hemorrhage is an accumulation of blood between the neurosensory retina and
the Retinal Pigment Epithelium (RPE) arising from the choroidal or retinal circulation.
CAUSES/ETIOLOGY
1. Choroidal Neovascularization (CNV); form when the following factors are present:
 Angiogenic factors: from diseased or ischemic RPE/ Bruch’s membrane/ choriocapillaris complex
 Endothelial cells: from the choriocapillaris
 Scaffold for growth: provided by the RPE/Bruch’s membrane complex
 VEGF present in CNV may cause opening of capillary fenestrae increasing permeability and risk of
bleeding.
CNV Associations:
 AMD (CNV type 1, under the RPE); (CNV type 2, under the neurosensory retina); (CNV type 3, RAP
lesion)
 POHS (CNV type 2, under the neurosensory retina)
 High myopia
 Trauma (choroidal rupture)
 Angioid streaks
 Idiopathic
 Inflammation of the retina/choroid – APMPPE, birdshot, etc.

13. 2. Events during surgical procedures:
 Drainage of sub-retinal fluid in scleral buckle procedures
 Inadvertent scleral perforation (strabismus, SBP, Baerveldt)
 Associated with localization of melanoma margins during radioactive plaque placement
 Laser photocoagulation
3. Penetrating ocular trauma:
 Haemorrhagic retinal detachment
 Combined suprachoroidal haemorrhage and subretinal haemorrhage
4. Others:
 Ruptured retinal artery macro aneurysm
 Valsalva (usually sub-ILM)
 Sickle cell disease
 Necrotic tumours
 Optic disc drusen
 Coagulopathies
 Central retinal vein occlusion
 Diabetic retinopathy

14. MANAGEMENT
 Surgical removal of SMH with tPA ( Tissue Plasminogen Activator )
 Surgical removal of SMH without tPA
 Macular Translocation
 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
 Pneumatic Displacement
 Use of Anti-VGEF Agents

15. Myopic Foveoschisis
 Myopic foveoschisis is the splitting of the retinal layers in the macula, causing accumulation of
intraretinal and subretinal fluid at the macula in the absence of a full-thickness macular hole
(FTMH).
 The abnormal contour of the posterior staphyloma, the posterior bulging or ectasia of the
globe caused by excessive elongation of the globe in high myopics, results in anatomic
changes in the vitreomacular interface, so patients may develop macular pathologies such as
myopic foveoschisis and macular hole (MH).
 Pathogenesis: Abnormal traction caused by posterior hyaloid surface in eyes with posterior
staphyloma.
 Patients with myopic foveoschisis might be asymptomatic in the early stage and in the later
stage can develop progressive increases in metamorphopsia (short note at the end ) and visual
loss as the foveoschisis progresses.
 Fundus examination might detect mild amount of subretinal fluid in the macula.
 SD-OCT: Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography is extremely useful in the assessment
of myopic foveoschisis, even the small amount of subretinal fluid associated with early stage
myopic foveoschisis which might be very difficult to detect on fundus examination.

16. Scans from SD-
OCT can show
splitting of the
neurosensory
retina and
epiretinal
membrane
associated
with
vitreomacular
traction (VMT)

17.  Patients with myopic foveoschisis should be monitored regularly for foveal detachment, and
surgical treatment should be considered when foveal detachment develops.
 In many cases, Myopic MH had foveal detachment development prior to MH formation.
MANAGEMENT and OUTCOMES
 Pars plana vitrectomy (PPV) with internal limiting membrane (ILM) peeling (with or without gas
tamponade) is the main treatment for myopic foveoschisis.
 Surgery is indicated in patients with symptomatic metamorphopsia and progressive visual loss.
 The main goal of surgery is to relieve any abnormal VMT that causes the foveoschisis.
 According to a study, following PPV with ILM peeling in eyes with myopic foveoschisis, OCT shows
complete resolution of myopic foveoschisis in all eyes. Regarding visual outcome OCT, significant
best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) improves was only in eyes with foveal detachment, not in eyes
without foveal detachment.
 The another study says, following PPV with ILM peeling and gas tamponade, eyes with foveal
detachment has the most visual improvement, while retinoschisis eyes without foveal detachment
has only borderline visual improvement.
 Therefore, optimal timing for surgery in patients with myopic foveoschisis might be when foveal
detachment develops, as this helps improve the patients’ vision and prevent formation of myopic
MH.

18. Myopic Macular hole
 As myopic foveoschisis progresses to a more advanced
stage, further VMT can result in the formation of myopic
MH. ( figure 2 )
 Patients with myopic MH generally develop severe visual
loss, and without treatment the condition may progress to
complete retinal detachment.
 Surgical options for myopic MH with or without retinal
detachment include PPV with gas or silicone oil
tamponade, macular buckling, and scleral-shortening
surgeries.
 Studies have shown that procedures that use heavy
silicone oil have a reattachment rate of approximately
87%, compared with a reattachment rate of 53% for
procedures using standard silicone oil.

19.  Despite the higher success rate with heavy silicone oil, there can be no significant difference
in final vision.
 Even with these surgical interventions, reopening of the MH and retinal redetachment may
occur postoperatively because of the loss of chorioretinal tissue, RPE atrophy, and abnormal
shape of the globe associated with posterior staphyloma.
 Therefore, some patients require multiple surgeries to achieve closure of the MH and
reattachment of the retina.

20. Myopic choroidal Neovascularization
 Among the most vision-threatening complications in Pathologic Myopia.
 It has been estimated to develop in 5% to 10% of eyes with high myopia and is the most
common cause of CNV in individuals 50 years old or younger.
 The chance of developing myopic CNV in a fellow eye if myopic CNV is present in one eye is
even higher: It has been reported that more than 30% of patients will develop CNV in the
fellow eye within 8 years of developing it in the first eye.
 Patients with myopic CNV generally present with metamorphopsia, central or paracentral
scotoma, and reduced visual acuity.
INVESTIGATIONS
 Fundus Examination shows myopic CNV appearing as a flat, small, greyish subretinal
membrane beneath or in close proximity to the fovea with or without macular hemorrhage.
 Fluorescein Angiography and OCT can be used to evaluate the CNV activity and to assess
the CNV location for treatment planning.

21. Fundus photo of Right Eye of
High Myopia with -13.5D and
Myopic CNV causing macular
Haemorrhage. The baseline VA
being 20/100.
(A). Spectral-domain optical
coherence tomography (SD-
OCT) showing macular
thickening and subretinal fluid
due to myopic CNV (B). After 2
intravitreal ranibizumab
injections, SD-OCT showed
complete regression of the CNV
with absence of macular
thickening, and the patient’s
visual acuity improved to 20/30
(C).

22. History and Prognosis
 The natural history of myopic CNV is generally poor.
 A large proportion of patients will tend to have visual acuity of 20/200 or worse after 5 years.
 Poor prognostic factors for patients with myopic CNV include advanced age, large area of CNV, and poor
initial visual acuity.
 Due to the poor natural history of myopic CNV, active interventions should be considered to avoid visual
loss.
MANAGEMENT
 Direct thermal laser photocoagulation of myopic CNV has been used for treating myopic CNV, but this
will likely lead to visual loss due to expansion of the laser scar in the long term, so the procedure is no
longer performed.
 Other treatment modalities such as submacular surgery and macular translocation surgery for myopic
CNV have also been performed, but these procedures are technically demanding and are potentially
associated with a high CNV recurrence rate.
 Photodynamic therapy (PDT) with verteporfin (Visudyne, Novartis) was the first treatment approved for
myopic CNV, and studies have shown that PDT can result in stabilization of vision following treatment.
Only around 20% to 30% of patients, however, will have improvement in vision after PDT.

23.  The long-term visual outcomes with PDT for myopic CNV could become worse, with significant mean
visual loss to be observed at 3 years after PDT.
 This may be because many highly myopic eyes have preexisting RPE atrophy, and PDT further
exacerbates the development chorioretinal atrophy following treatment.
 Photodynamic therapy may also result in possible irreversible damage to the choroidal vasculature
and RPE.
 Current Trends:
 The availability of anti-VEGF agents, such as intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin, Genentech) and
ranibizumab (Lucentis, Genentech), has revolutionized the management of various forms of
ocular neovascularization, including myopic CNV.
 The use of anti-VEGF therapy in myopic CNV demonstrates beneficial visual outcomes following
anti-VEGF therapy for myopic CNV.
 Therefore, even without the support of level 1 evidence, anti-VEGF therapy is being used as a
first-line treatment for myopic CNV.
 More recently, based on the results of the RADIANCE study, intravitreal ranibizumab has been
approved in various countries for the treatment of myopic CNV.

24. CONCLUSIONS
Individuals with high myopia are subjected to the development of various
macular pathologies such as myopic foveoschisis, myopic MH, and myopic
CNV.
Recent advances in diagnostic instruments, vitreoretinal surgical
techniques, and the use of anti-VEGF agents have led to improved visual
outcomes for patients.
As more effective surgical and medical treatments become available for
the conditions associated with pathologic myopia, clinicians will have the
ability to promptly address these macular complications and prevent
severe visual loss.

25. Short Note on Metamorphopsia
 It is type of distorted vision in which the straight lines appears wavy and parts of the grid may appear
blank. People can first notice they suffer with the condition when looking at mini-blinds in their home.
 With metamorphopsia (perceptual distortion), the patient reports that linear objects appear curved or
discontinuous. This symptom is characteristic of macular diseases and may occur with epiretinal,
intraretinal or subretinal pathology, such as
 Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
 Cystoid Macular Edema
 RPE Detachments
 Subretinal neovascular membranes
 Choroidal circulatory problems
 With Intraretinal edema, the retinal elements are often pushed apart, causing perceived imaged
shrinkage (Micropsia), Macropsia can occur if the photoreceptors are pushed together.
 The retina may be the source of changes in color perception associated with drug effects.
Examples: digoxin-induced yellowish of vision, sildenafil citrate (Viagra)- induced blue tinge.
Other changes of color perception may be related to choroidal or retinal ischemia, as in Giant Cell Arteritis,
which can also lead to persistent afterimages.

26. THANK YOU