This document discusses multi-word items in English, including:
1. Collocations, idioms, and other multi-word items are semi-fixed phrases that native speakers have internalized as single choices.
2. Multi-word items consist of sequences of two or more words that form meaningful and inseparable units through processes of fossilization and word formation.
3. Types of multi-word items include compounds, phrasal verbs, idioms, fixed phrases, and prefabs. Models categorize multi-word items based on their semantics and syntax.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances (Yule, 1996, p. 9). It means “pointing via” language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexical.
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Fell free to use this PPt.
What is syllabus and 6 types of syllabuses are discusses here. By this ppt you be able to understand how many kinds of syllabuses are there and how they are performed in the classroom for learning L2 languages. Syllabus design is very much essential for foreign language learning in terms of different strategies. In this PowerPoint presentation the definition and examples are discusses very well so that acquisition will easy for learners.
Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances (Yule, 1996, p. 9). It means “pointing via” language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexical.
----------------------------------------------------------
Fell free to use this PPt.
What is syllabus and 6 types of syllabuses are discusses here. By this ppt you be able to understand how many kinds of syllabuses are there and how they are performed in the classroom for learning L2 languages. Syllabus design is very much essential for foreign language learning in terms of different strategies. In this PowerPoint presentation the definition and examples are discusses very well so that acquisition will easy for learners.
Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
2. Collocation
• Sinclair sets out 2 principles which account for the
structural patterning of lexis.
Is a way of
Is essentiallya traditional
seeng language
approach to language:
text as the result
compare slot-and-filler
of a very large
Open Choice
approaches, and the Principle
number of
distinction between
complex choices.
syntagm and paradigm.
Is that a language user has
It restricts the
available to him or her a large
choices not just
number of semi-preconstructed
in a given slot, The Idiom
phrases that constitute single
but in the Principle
choices, even though they might
surrounding co-
appear to be analysable into
textual slots
segments.
3. Multi-word items: terms and categories
Multi-word Item
• A multi-word item is a Multi word items are the result of
vocabulary item which consists lexical (and semantic) processes of
of a sequence of two or more fossilisation and word-formation.
words. This sequence of words
semantically and/or syntactically Rather than the results of the
forms a meaningful and operation of grammatical rules
inseparable unit.
4. Multi-word items: terms and categories
• There are three important criteria which help distinguish holistic multi word
items from other kinds of string
• Is the degree to which a multi-word item is
conventionalised in the language.
Institutionalisation • Discusses the process and fact of
institutionalisation or, in his terms,
“lexicalization”.
• Is the degree to which a multi-word item is
Fixedness frozen as a sequence of words.
• Is the degree to which a multi-word item cannot
be interpreted on a word-by-word basis, but has
Non- a specialised unitary meaning.
compositionaly • Non-compositionality can also relate to
grammar or pragmatic function.
5. Types of Multi-word Item
Compounds
Are the largest and most tangible group, but the least interesting.
They may differ from single words only by being written as two or more orthographic
words.
They cannot be separated, since variable hyphenation conventions blur the distinction
between compound multi-word items and polymorphemic single words.
Phrasal Verbs
Are combinations of verbs and adbervial or prepositional particles.
The verbs are typically monosyllabic.
The commonest particles are up and out, followed by off, in, on and down.
Phrasal verbs have particular syntactic problems such as the placement of any
nominal or pronominal objects with respect to the verb.
6. Types of Multi-word Item
Idioms
They have holistic meanings which cannot be retrieved from the individual meanings
of the component words.
Idioms are typically metaphorical in historical or etymological terms.
Idioms rate highly in terms of non-compositionality.
Fixed phrases
They include items such as of course, at least, in fact, etc.
Many of these are strongly institutionalised, in that they are very high frequency items,
and many are strongly fixed.
Prefabs
Prefabs are preconstructed phrase, phraseological chunks, stereotyped collocations,
or semi fixed strings which are tied to discoursal situations and which form
structuring devices. Example: The thing/fact/point/ is that…
They are institutionalised because they are consistently and frequently used as
particular kinds of signal or convention, but they often vary rather than being
completely frozen.
7. Models of multi-word items
Semantics-based Syntax-based
The most traditional
They attempt to differetiate
between categories of multi- Take grammatical well-
word items according to formedness as their starting-
degrees of compositionality. point.
They aim to identify, as it
were, the irreducible semantic
building-blocks of the lexicon
Models provide ways of categorising the different kinds of unit in the lexicon:
rather like sorting out chemical compounds from elements.
8. Multi-words items and Corpus evidence
First generation Second generation
Corpora of up to one million
words showed limited evidence Corpora of around 20 million
for many multi-word items: they words were able to improve on
proved simply too rare and too this situation.
genre-specific to show up.
9. Variability in multi-word items
British/American variations
(Hold the fort)
(Hold down the fort)
Varying lexical Unstable verbs
component (cost/pay/spend/charge an arm
(Throw in the towel/sponge) and a leg)
Truncation Transformation
(silver lining/every cloud has a (break the ice/ice-breaker/ice
silver lining) breaking)
10. Multi-word items in text and discourse
Multi-word item, text and genre by looking briefly at three extracts (pages 54 and
55)
Handbook on Opening of a report Short extract from
Painting on a soccer match screenplay
This is a higly
Technical piece of emotive and
writing. evaluative text. This interchange
It includes a lot of Multi-word items attempts to
compound words. include the replicate natural
The multi word item compound speech patterns.
chosen reflect the adjective gung-ho It includes
genre: technical and some phrasal compounds,
terms and clear verbs. informal phrasal
signalling of the idioms both verbs, prefabs and
structure and clause evaluate and form fixed phrases.
relationships. prefaces to
evaluations.
Multi-word items have important roles with respect with the structure of the text.
11. Second-Language learning perspectives
Multi-word items are
Their non-
typically presented as a
compositionality, whether
problem in teaching and
syntactic, semantic or
learning a foreign
pragmatic in nature,
language
means that they must be
recognised, learned,
The phenomena of multi- decoded and encoded as
holistic units. Foreign learners
word items and
idiomaticity are generally are therefore likely
held to be universals in to be aware of
natural languages. similar phenomena
in their firs
language.