The document provides definitions and classifications of motor skills. It defines skill as a learned ability to produce predetermined results with maximum certainty and minimum effort. There are three categories of skills: cognitive, perceptual, and motor. Motor skills are further classified along continua including open vs closed skills, discrete vs continuous skills, self-paced vs externally-paced skills, and simple vs complex skills. Theories of learning include Fitts and Posner's stages of learning, schema theory, stimulus-response theory, and Bandura's social learning theory. Effective teaching methods consider the task and performer characteristics to structure practice in a whole, part, progressive part, massed or distributed format.

1. CHAPTER
THE LEARNINGAND PERFORMANCE OF
MOTOR SKILLS

2. SkillAcquisition DefinitionsWhich ones do you know ?
Skill
Ability
Perceptual ability
Gross motor skill
Continuum
Open/Closed skills
Discrete/continuous skills
Serial skills
Self paced/externally paced skills
Fine/gross skills
Simple/complex skills
Coherent/incoherent skills

3. CharacteristicsofSkill
 Learned
 Controlled
 Goal directed
 Aesthetic
 Fluent
 Consistent
 Efficient
 Smooth
 Economical

4. Skills
Ability
Foundation skills
Sports specific skills

5. Abilities enhanced by
Childhood
Learning
Play
Early Coaching
Variety of
experience
Schema

6. Definitions
“Skill is a learned ability to bring about predetermined
results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum
outlay of time, energy or both”
Guthrie 1952
“Skill is learned- it is the efficient attainment of a pre
specified goal. It involves speed accuracy and the
adaptation of the task”
Bull 1994

7. Skill is the “learned ability to bring about predetermined results with a maximum of
certainty, often with a minimum outlay of time or energy, or both”
Skill Categories
There are 3 basic categories of skills;
1. Cognitive skills involving primarily the brain
E.g: reading, analysing a problem.
2. Perceptual skills involving how an individual
interprets stimuli
E.g: two players receive the same information from
the environment but interpret it differently.
Correct interpretation of stimuli improves performance.
3. Motor skills involving physical movement
E.g: catching, throwing, running.

8. ClassificationOfSkills
Fine skills-
Those involving more intricate
movements using small muscle
groups
Gross skills-
Those involving large muscle
movement
Body Involvement Continuum

9. Classification of Skills
based on Environment
Open skills Closed skills
 Affected by the environment
 Predominantly perceptual
 Movements must be
adapted
 Most externally paced
 No clear beginning or
end
 Not affected by the
environment
 Predominantly habitual
 Set movements
 Self paced

10. Discrete Skills Continuous Skills
Serial Skills
 Clear
beginning/end
 No obvious
beginning/end
 Several discrete
elements put
together to make
integrated
movement/sequence
 Skills can be
repeated but
performer
starts again
 Single
specific skill
 Continues for as
long as the
performer wishes
 The end of one
cycle is the beginning
of the next
No clear sub routines
 The order of
the elements
are important
Classification of Skills

11. ClassificationofSkills-Pacing Continuum
Self-Paced Externally Paced
 The performer
has control over the
rate at which the
skill is carried out
 Involves
pro-action by
the performer
 The performer
has no control over
the rate at which
the skill is carried
out
 Involves reaction
by the performer

12. ClassificationofSkills-Complexity continuum
Highly Complex Skill Simple Skill
 Large amount of info to
be processed
 A number of decisions
to be made quickly
 A high number of sub
routines that need to be
performed quickly and
accurately
 Feedback is available
 Small amounts of
info to be processed
 Few decisions to
be made

13. Classification of Skills - Organisation Continuum
Highly Organised Skills Low Organised Skills
 Sub routines are closely
integrated and difficult to
separate in practice
 Best practiced as a
whole
 Sub-routines tend to be
discrete
 Best practiced
separately and then
integrated into the whole
skill
 Can be learnt/practiced
using part method

14. Continuum
• Continuum give a range
• Skills change with the situation
e.g.
X
Open Closed
X
Football pass Tennisreturn
PASSand RETURNare bothopen, but Pass is more OPEN?
All skills are classified on a continuum, why?
serve
x

15. Knowledge of the task
Danger –
tell them
command
Perceptual
requirements
/decision
making
Complex? Break it down
Open or closed-
Vary practice or
keep it the
same
Organisation
- Can I break
it down part-
practice
Self-paced/
externally
paced- Do I
need to
pressure the
performer?
Time/facilities-
is the skill
discrete- whole
practice, do
they need a
rest
(continuous?)
Knowledge of
the task

16. Knowledge of the performer
How
motivated?
Keep them
going
(massed)
How experienced?
Experts or
beginners?
What
abilities?
Strength
for contact
drills? How much
technical
knowledge have
they got?
Your decision of the
type of teaching
practice or guidance
Knowledge
of the
performer

17. Thanks for attending

18. As a result of your analysis of task and performer you might
decide to teach in a command style, -when the teacher
makes all the decisions
Quick
Large groups
Eliminate
danger
No feedback
No responsibility
Does not
differentiate
ability
Disadvantages
Advantages

19. Reciprocal style is when the coach allows
people in the group to teach their peers
Communication
Interaction
Decision
making
Conflict
Less control
Time
consuming
Advantages
Disadvantages

20. Problems solving/ discovery/ laissez-faire
Individual sense of
achievement
Very motivating
Own pace
Not enough information
No feedback on incorrect actions
Danger
Students allowed to work it out for themselves
Advantages
Disadvantages

21. WholePractice
The task can be presented in its entirety with sub-
routines intact
When? – Skill is - Fast/ ballistic
- Closed
- Discrete
- Simple
- Highly organised
Why? - To promote - Fluency
- Understanding
- To keep links between
sub-routines
- Efficiency
- Motor programmes
e.g. Golf
swing

22. PartPractice
Part Practice is when the skill is split into its sub-
routines
Pure Part – Each component is practiced
separately
When? – Skill is
Why? - To promote
- Low organised
- Complex
- Dangerous
- Safety
- To ensure success on
each part = motivation

23. Progressive Part Practice
 When each part of the skill is added gradually
When? – Skill is - Serial
- Complex
- Dangerous
Why? - To promote - Safety
- To keep links between parts
e.g. Gym routine

24. Massedpractice
 Enables formation of motor programmes
 Good for grooving in a skill
 Good for discrete skills
 Enhances over learning
 Good for habitual responses/ closed skills
 Increases fitness
 No rest intervals
Fatigue
No time for
feedback
Disadvantages
For: - Experts
- Discrete skills
- Simple skills
No rest intervals

25. Distributivepractice
 Rest intervals between sessions
Rest intervals
allow recovery
Allows mental
rehearsal
Less dangerous
Facilitates
coaching
Less mental
pressure
Advantages
Disadvantages
Time consuming
Negative transfer
For: - Beginners
- Complex/serial skills

26. THEORIESOF
LEARNING

27. Learning
•Learning may be considered to be a more
or less permanent change in performance
associated with experiences but excluding
changes which occur through maturation
and degeneration, or through alterations in
the receptor or effect or organs.
Bull 2000

28. Performance
•Performance may be thought of
as a temporary occurrence…..
Fluctuating from time to time
because of many potentially
operating variables.
Bull 2000

29. The phases of learning Fitts and Posner
• 1. Cognitive stage
• Movement may lack co-ordination
• Performer needs to think whilst using feedback
• Trial and error may be used
• Example – a beginner watching a demo and working out
what needs to be done.

30. 2. The Associative Stage
• Motor programmes start to be formed
• Practice is used to perfect movement.
• Movements are compared to a more perfect example –
modelling.
• Trial and error may be used.
• Movement is more smooth.
• Example practicing on the ice.

31. 3. The Autonomous Phase
• Motor programmes are formed
• The task is completed with efficiency and attention to
detail.
• The performer may use open loop control
• Practice must continue to stay in this phase

32. “TellmeandIforget;showmeandIremember;involveme
andIunderstand”
Cognitive THEORY of learning
- Thinking and understanding
- Insight learning
- Use of “schema”
- Seeing the skill as a “whole” rather than a
collection of parts

33. Influenceoftransfer
 Positive
- Facilitates/ aids learning and performance
 Negative
- Hinders learning and performance
 Zero
- No impact on learning and performance
 Bilateral
- From one side of the body to the other e.g. lay up
in basketball
Proactive?
Retroactive?

34. Topromotepositivetransfer
Vary practice
Experience
Point out similarities
Go from basic to complex
Realism!!!

35. Schema
 A rule or concept
 An adapted motor programme, that can then
be used in different situations
 Skill specific
 Yet sporting generalisation

36. Schema
Open loop Closed loop
Motor programme feedback
Schema
e.g
Water polo
Basketball
Rugby
Pass
Netball

37. 4Partsofaschema
1. Initial conditions
Where?
2. Response specifications
What?
= Recall
3. Sensory consequences
4. Response outcome
Result
= Recognition
e.g. back line in netball

38. Stimulusresponsebond
• Stimuli which are connected to appropriate responses
 A response is closely related to a stimulus
 E.g. in badminton a shuttle high and in front half of
court-responses = smash shot

39. HowdoesateacherstrengthenanS-Rbond
 Reinforcement (+ve and –ve)
 Rewards
 Repetition, drills (Law exercises)
 Ensure readiness (Thorndike)
 Teach as a whole (understanding)
 Feedback (correct errors)
 Mental rehearsal
 Punishment (when incorrect response)

40. Positivereinforcement
The use of a reward/praise to increase the likelihood of
the response being repeated
 Use of rewards e.g. swimming cert/ badges
 Use praise e.g. “well done, that was very good”
Negative reinforcement
 Weakens the link between the stimulus and incorrect
responses
 May say nothing to an incorrect response (after
praising correct response)

41. Reinforcement
 The process causing behaviour to re-occur by
strengthening the S/R bond
 Any action that increases the likelihood of a
response/behaviour occurring again

42. Bandura’ssocial(observational)learningtheory
 Explains how our behaviour is influenced by other
people
 Teachers/coaches use demonstrations
 Role models influence young people
 We have no control over what young people watch
and therefore learn

43. Bandura’ssociallearningtheory
 Four processes for observational learning
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor production (practice)
4. Motivation

44. Attention
 Learner must give careful and specific attention to the
model
 Demonstrations should be:
Attractiveness
Success
Depends on
Power
Functional behaviour
Clearly seen and
heard
Accurate
Focusing on specific details
and cues
Maintain
motivation
?

45. Retention
 The process of remembering the modelled behaviour
-The ability to retain the skill in the memory and recall it
when needed
 It is helped by:
- Making learning interesting
- Repeating it
- Making it meaningful and relevant
- Use of catch phrases

46. MotorReproduction
 Make sure the performer is capable of the task
 Allow success
 Set tasks appropriate to ability

47. Motivation
 Use motivational strategies
- Rewards
- Praise
- Encouragement
- Positive feedback

48. Information processing.
• 3 Stages.
• Stimulus identification.
-Using senses to detect from display.
• Response selection.
-Decision making.
• Response programme.
-Initiating movement.

49. Information Processing- Terms
• Display- Sporting Environment from which information
is gathered.
• Sensory Input – Receptors. Used to sense
information-Vision, Audition, Equilibrium, Touch,
Kinesthesis.
• Perceptual Mechanisms – Information is collected and
sorted. Selective Attention is used to filter relevant
from irrelevant info.

50. (contd)
• Translatory mechanisms – making decisions.
• Effector mechanisms – Sending impulses to
initiate movement.
• Muscles- Muscular contractions during
movement.
• Response- Action!
• Feedback –information used to amend
performance.

51. Information processing.
• Can you place the items from the previous slide in the
order that you think they might occur?
• To help you try to think of playing a shot in tennis or a
pass in a game and think of the first thing you would need
to do before you make the play. Then off you go!
• In your answer you may be beginning to make an
information processing model.

52. Information Processing- Welford’s
Model
Display Sense Perceptual Effector Muscular response
organs mechanisms mechanisms contractions
Intrinsic Feedback
Extrinsic Feedback

53. Information processing Whitings Model.
Feedback
Input
from the
display
Sense Organs
Perceptual Mechanism
Translatory Mechanism
Effector Mechanism
Muscular System
Central Mechanism

54. Feedback. “ Information after the
response to correct errors”
• Types
Positive- What you got right.
Negative- What you got wrong.
Intrinsic- From within.
Extrinsic – From outside source eg. Coach,
Knowledge of results – Success / failure.
Knowledge of performance – Technique.

55. Benefits of feedback
• Builds confidence.
• Motivates.
• Corrects errors.
• Tells you what to do.
• Makes the S-R bond stronger.
• Develops motor programmes.
• Gives reinforcement.

56. Reaction Time
Definitions
Reaction Time = Onset of stimulus to onset of response
Movement Time = Start to completion of task
Response Time = Onset of stimulus to completion of task
Response Time = Reaction Time plus Movement time

57. Example of Reaction Time
Reaction Time
Gun –Just about to go
Movement Time
Start to Finish
Response Time
Gun to finish
Example Reaction Time 100 metre
sprint

58. Factors Affecting Reaction Time
Age,
Gender,
Drugs / Alcohol,
Experience,
Stimulus Intensity,
Example of each?