Molecular evolution, four class of chromosomal mutation, Negative Selection and Positive Selection, Mutations in DNA and protein, Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution, Evidence supporting neutral evolution, Phylogenetic trees, Methods of Tree reconstruction
Molecular evolution, four class of chromosomal mutation, Negative Selection and Positive Selection, Mutations in DNA and protein, Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution, Evidence supporting neutral evolution, Phylogenetic trees, Methods of Tree reconstruction
Introduction:
Adaptation to environment is one of the basic characteristics of the living organisms. Living organisms are plastic and posses the inherent properties to respond to a particular environment.
It is a facet of evolution and involve structural diversities amongst living organisms that are heritable. Organisms exhibit numerous structural and functional adaptations that help them to survive as species and to overcome the tremendous competition in nature.
All classes of vertebrates have their representatives leading to partial or total aquatic life.
Water is a homogenous medium for animals.
As a medium, it is heavy in concentration than air.
Stable gaseous and osmotic concentration in a specific region.
Temperature fluctuation is minimum for a particular region.
Water bodies generally have very rich food resources.
Characters of an Aquatic Animal:
An aquatic animal should have the ability to swim to overcome the resistance of the surrounding medium.
Therefore, it should have a streamlined body with an organ or ability to float.
The animal should also have to overcome the problem of osmoregulation.
There are two types of animals living in the present day water, which have undergone aquatic adaptation.
According to their origin, they are primary and secondary aquatic animals.
Adaptations to water habitat are of two types:
Primary aquatic adaptations which includes primitive gill-breathing vertebrates (fishes); Those animals, whose ancestors and themselves are living in the water from the very beginning of their evolution, are called primary aquatic animals. In other words, primary aquatic animals never had a terrestrial ancestry. They exhibit perfect aquatic adaptations. All fishes are primary aquatic animals.
Secondary aquatic adaptations which are acquired as in reptiles, birds and mammals. Those animals whose ancestors were lung breathing land animals, migrated to the water for some reason and ultimately got adapted to live in aquatic habitat, are called secondary aquatic animals. Some of them live partially while others live totally in the water. All aquatic reptiles, aves and mammals are representatives of secondary aquatic animals. Amphibians are in a transitional form between primary and secondary aquatic life.
Sensory adaptations like, electroreception for electrolocation and electro communication, olfaction (vomeronasal system), balance (spatial orientation, movement perception), vision (cornea curvature, retinal topography), and hearing (acoustics, ear anatomy) under the underwater sound reception mechanisms in various aquatic amniotes are well developed.
This document will help you and will clear your concepts about the terms of Orthogenesis, Allometry & Adaptive Radiations, which are usually studied in evolution.
Introduction:
Adaptation to environment is one of the basic characteristics of the living organisms. Living organisms are plastic and posses the inherent properties to respond to a particular environment.
It is a facet of evolution and involve structural diversities amongst living organisms that are heritable. Organisms exhibit numerous structural and functional adaptations that help them to survive as species and to overcome the tremendous competition in nature.
All classes of vertebrates have their representatives leading to partial or total aquatic life.
Water is a homogenous medium for animals.
As a medium, it is heavy in concentration than air.
Stable gaseous and osmotic concentration in a specific region.
Temperature fluctuation is minimum for a particular region.
Water bodies generally have very rich food resources.
Characters of an Aquatic Animal:
An aquatic animal should have the ability to swim to overcome the resistance of the surrounding medium.
Therefore, it should have a streamlined body with an organ or ability to float.
The animal should also have to overcome the problem of osmoregulation.
There are two types of animals living in the present day water, which have undergone aquatic adaptation.
According to their origin, they are primary and secondary aquatic animals.
Adaptations to water habitat are of two types:
Primary aquatic adaptations which includes primitive gill-breathing vertebrates (fishes); Those animals, whose ancestors and themselves are living in the water from the very beginning of their evolution, are called primary aquatic animals. In other words, primary aquatic animals never had a terrestrial ancestry. They exhibit perfect aquatic adaptations. All fishes are primary aquatic animals.
Secondary aquatic adaptations which are acquired as in reptiles, birds and mammals. Those animals whose ancestors were lung breathing land animals, migrated to the water for some reason and ultimately got adapted to live in aquatic habitat, are called secondary aquatic animals. Some of them live partially while others live totally in the water. All aquatic reptiles, aves and mammals are representatives of secondary aquatic animals. Amphibians are in a transitional form between primary and secondary aquatic life.
Sensory adaptations like, electroreception for electrolocation and electro communication, olfaction (vomeronasal system), balance (spatial orientation, movement perception), vision (cornea curvature, retinal topography), and hearing (acoustics, ear anatomy) under the underwater sound reception mechanisms in various aquatic amniotes are well developed.
This document will help you and will clear your concepts about the terms of Orthogenesis, Allometry & Adaptive Radiations, which are usually studied in evolution.
Use of DNA barcoding and its role in the plant species/varietal Identifica...Senthil Natesan
Plant DNA barcoding research is shifting beyond performance comparisons of different DNA regions towards practical applications. The main aim of DNA barcoding is to establish a shared community resource of DNA sequences that can be used for organismal identification and taxonomic clarification. This approach was successfully pioneered in animals using a portion of the cytochrome oxidase 1(CO1) mitochondrial gene. In plants, establishing a standardized DNA barcoding system has been more challenging. The studies on cucumis sp for the application of DNA barcode shows the possibility of discrimination at species level not the varietal level using the matK gene barcode. The phylogenetic tree constructed by using matK gene sequences clearly differentiated the species C. sativus and C. melo which will help for the future application in cucumis taxonomy and phylogeny studies
Microbial Taxonomy - Dr. R Subashkumar, Associate Professor in Biotechnology, Sri Ramakrishna College of Arts and Science (Autonomous), Coimbatore-641006
Using Supercomputers and Supernetworks to Explore the Ocean of LifeLarry Smarr
07.06.07
Director's Colloquium
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Title: Using Supercomputers and Supernetworks to Explore the Ocean of Life
Los Alamos, NM
PENSOFT ARTICLE COLLECTION ABOUT MYANMAR
https://pensoft.net/about#Company-Profile
Pensoft is an independent academic publishing company, well known worldwide for its innovations in the field of semantic publishing and for its cutting-edge publishing tools and workflows. Founded in 1992 "by scientists, for the scientists" and initially focusing on book publishing, it has grown to become a leading publisher of innovative open access journals, such as: Research Ideas and Outcomes (RIO), ZooKeys, Biodiversity Data Journal, PhytoKeys, MycoKeys, Nature Conservation, NeoBiota, Comparative Cytogenetics, and others. Pensoft has published more than 1,000 books and over 4,000 open access articles, mostly in the field of natural history.
Pensoft is a member or partner of several professional publishing organisations and data publishing platforms, including CrossRef, OASPA, PubMedCentral, CLOCKSS, Research Data Alliance (RDA), OpenAIRE, LifeWatch, DataONE, Dryad Data Repository, Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), Encyclopedia of Life (EoL), and others.
https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/24248/
A new remarkable species of Alloscorpiops Vachon, 1980 from Myanmar (Burma) (Scorpiones, Scorpiopidae)
https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/24453/
Filling the BINs of life: Report of an amphibian and reptile survey of the Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) Region of Myanmar, with DNA barcode data
https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/24198/
Taxonomic notes on Babinskaiidae from the Cretaceous Burmese amber, with the description of a new species (Insecta, Neuroptera)
https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/22510/
Laubuka tenella, a new species of cyprinid fish from southeastern Bangladesh and southwestern Myanmar (Teleostei, Cyprinidae, Danioninae)
https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/22310/
New genus and species of sisyrids (Insecta, Neuroptera) from the Late Cretaceous Myanmar amber
https://www.facebook.com/groups/799902210118950/permalink/1642543752521454/
https://www.facebook.com/Pensoft/
Rapid Impact Assessment of Climatic and Physio-graphic Changes on Flagship G...Arvinder Singh
‘NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MAN AND ENVIRONMENT’October 15 – 16, 2012
Organized by
Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Punjabi University, Patiala (Pb.) – 147 002, India
week66.pdfP A R T I I ITheories ofEnvironmental.docxphilipnelson29183
week6/6.pdf
P A R T I I I
Theories of
Environmental Ethics
Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
6
Biocentric Ethics and the
Inherent Value of Life
DISCUSSION: Synthetic Biology and the Value of Life
Does life itself have inherent moral value?
Several criteria for moral standing were
examined in the previous chapter, includ-
ing sensation and being conscious. For
many observers, such attributes as sensa-
tion and consciousness themselves serve a
higher end of life, and therefore they
conclude that only life itself seems to be
plausible candidate for the inherent value
that moral standing implies. A “biocen-
tric” ethics is an approach that begins
with the inherent value of life as its
foundational principle of value.
The diversity of life on earth is amaz-
ingly complex. Biological science has been
categorizing animal and plant species
since before Aristotle began his taxonomy
of living organisms more than 2,000 years
ago. Current estimates suggest that more
than 1.4 million different species have
been scientifically categorized.1 But, these
categorized species represent only a small
percentage of the actual number of spe-
cies that exist. On the basis of research
conducted in tropical forests, some esti-
mates place the number at more than 30
or 40 million species. Biologist E. O. Wilson
estimates that invertebrate species alone
may number as many as 30 million. Each
species contains from a few members (for
example, the California condor) to many
billions of members (such as bacteria).
Each species exists in an ecological niche in
which its members interact with their
environment to maintain life. Wilson tells
of many highly specialized life-forms.
One of my favorite examples of such
specialists living in microniches are the
mites that live on the bodies of army
ants: one kind is found only on the
mandibles of the soldier caste, where it
sits and feeds from the mouth of its
host; another kind is found only on the
hind foot of the soldier caste, where it
sucks blood for a living, and so on
through various bizarre
configurations.2
125
Copyright 201 Cengage .
Evolution of North American MicruracarusRachel Shoop
My research focuses on the evolution of North American water mites in the genus Arrenurus, Subgenus Micruracarus. In this presentation, I discuss why I chose to study these little known critters, and present some preliminary findings. Please contact me for more info.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
1. MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS AND BIODIVERSITY
PRESENTED TO: DR. MUHAMMAD TAHIR
PRESENTED BY: SARWAR ALLAH DITTA
COURSE CODE: Z-8118
PHD SEMESTER-I
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY LAHORE
2. Naturalistic Systematic
Around the 18th century,
naturalists sought to classify
nature in a way that reflected
nature, rather than the way
humans use nature.
Of course, there was
disagreement about what
constituted a “natural”
system, or even if a “natural”
system was necessary.
From the early history of human being, he has been
classified the organisms for getting more and more
benefits and information
3. Linnaean System
Three Kingdoms of
nature: Plants,
Animals, Protista.
Within each Kingdom,
organisms were
organized into nested
hierarchies.
4. Domains • More recently, a new
taxonomic level has been
added above Kingdoms:
Domains.
• Living things are divided
into three non-hierarchical
Domains:
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Eukarya
Domains
Domain
Kingdoms
within
Domain
Eukarya
6. It is impossible to describe biological
diversity with traditional approaches.
Molecular methods are the way forward —
especially, perhaps, in the form of DNA
barcodes.
Multidisciplinary characterization of
biological and genetic resources at
biochemical, cytological and molecular
level; identification of potential
genotypes of economic and other
interest; conservation of genes and
nucleotides in DNA libraries.
7. For 200 years taxonomists have recognized two
living species of elephant, the African and the
Indian. According to molecular evidence,
however, this understanding is wrong.
Although the details are still under discussion, two
or maybe three groups of ‘African’ elephant are
as distinct from each other as either is from the
Indian, and so may constitute distinct taxonomic
groups — a finding with implications for
conservation. This kind of discovery, using
molecular markers, epitomizes a sea change
occurring in taxonomy.
8. A proposal, published by Hebert et al. in
Proceedings of the Royal Society, for a DNA-
based barcoding system for all animal species.
Hebert et al. now formally suggest that a
molecular barcode inventory should be made
of known animal taxa, and that this data-base
should become the basis of biodiversity
assessment and taxon identification.
9. For taxa with large body sizes, such as
vertebrates, the catalogue may be essentially
complete. For smaller taxa (with bodies 0.5–10
mm long) that is far from the case.
For instance, there are some 1 million described
species of arthropods (insects and allies), but
estimates of actual diversity range from 3
million to 30 million.
Only 20,000 species of nematode (roundworms)
have been described out of a predicted million
or so
10. For the smallest organisms — the bacteria,
archaea and single-celled eukaryotes — we
may be ignorant of over 99% of actual
diversity.
It is not feasible to catalogue that diversity by
traditional methods based on taxon-by-taxon,
specimen-by-specimen morphological
description.
Instead, emerging technologies must be
harnessed to the task.
11. All cellular organisms have the highly conserved
small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU) gene,
which can be isolated specifically even from
bulk samples of ‘environmental DNA’.
By surveying SSU gene sequences in a sample, it
is possible to identify how many different taxa
are present, and assess their relationships to
previously described and sequenced groups.
12. All environments sampled yield the same pattern:
many of the constituent microorganisms come
from major groups unknown to traditional
microbiology, and the diversity of prokaryotes
is probably 100 times higher than was
previously expected.
Similar SSU gene surveys of communities of
eukaryotic microbes, such as marine
picoplankton, also suggest that traditional,
descriptive methods have sampled only the tip
of diversity.
13. There may be over 100
million extant species
on Earth, but only a tiny
proportion of them have
been described.
The scale of the
descriptive deficit varies
widely for different
groups of organisms
14.
15. Thus a DNA sequence can be used to both
identify and classify an organism, much as
a barcode identifies supermarket
products.
It is now accepted in bacteriology that taxa can be
identified using sequence data, and rules of thumb for
defining taxa based on sequence difference are
developing.
The taxa so defined have
been termed 'phylo-
types‘ or 'molecular
operational taxonomic
units'.
16. • Hebert et al. extend this idea to non-microbes, and
propose that a database of DNA barcodes for
identification of all animal taxa should be established.
• The gene region that is being used as the standard
barcode for almost all animal groups is a 648 base-pair
region in the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1
gene (“CO1”).
• COI is proving highly effective in identifying birds,
butterflies, fish, flies and many other animal groups.
• COI is not an effective barcode region in plants
because it evolves too slowly, but two gene regions in
the chloroplast, matK and rbcL, have been approved as
the barcode regions for plants.
17. In a survey of moths collected around Guelph,
Ontario, the authors show that the COI
barcode can in most cases yield a reliable
assignment to previously identified and
sequenced species.
Other insect specimens were correctly assigned
to the superfamily level,
Hebert et al. claim that in general the approach
can identify which phylum a sequence derives
from.
18. Many potential barcode sequences already exist in public
databases: about 12,000 COI sequences, over 20,000
SSU gene sequences (from all organisms),
and more than 50,000 sequences from the ‘ribosomal
internal transcribed spacer segment’ (from higher
eukaryotes).
Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) was created and is
maintained by University of Guelph in Ontario. It
offers researchers a way to collect, manage, and
analyze DNA barcode data.
Consortium for the Barcode of Life-CBOL's Data Analysis
Working Group has created the Barcode of Life Data
Portal which offers researchers new and more flexible
ways to store, manage, analyze and display their barcode
data.
19. Nonetheless, a taxonomic genomics programme
should yield huge benefits for biodiversity science
and ecology, much as the sequencing of
genomes has benefited other areas of biology.
As was the case with the initial work of Hebert and
colleagues, the first stages of such a programme
will need identified specimens to represent known
diversity and link barcodes to biology.
Subsequently, barcoding of environmental samples
or collections of unidentified specimens will reveal
novelties: flocks of taxa where one species was
expected, or divergent taxa with possible novel
biology.
20. One of the advantages of this approach is that the
raw data — the DNA sequence — can be
stored in data-bases and accessed through the
Internet for comparison and reanalysis.
Another is that debate about what usefully defines
a taxon, how many taxa there are and what
taxon diversity means will become a data-rich
science, rather than resembling theological
speculation as to how many angels can dance
on the head of a pin.
21. Sequence statistics
Species coverage (formally
described)
Barcode clusters for
animals (BINs) 550,825 Animals 189,919
All Sequences 6,951,393 Plants 66,836
Barcode Sequences 6,042,516 Fungi & Other Life 21,224
23. One of the advantages of
this approach is that the
raw data — the DNA
sequence — can be stored
in databases and
accessed through the
Internet for comparison
and reanalysis.
24. Techniques used in Molecular Systematic
Allozyme electrophoresis,
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP),
Single-stranded conformational polymorphisms (SSCP),
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP),
Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD).
Sequencing is generally the most appropriate for studies at
interspecific levels and higher . However, questions of intraspecific
population structure, species limits, and species diagnosis often can
be effectively addressed using time-honored techniques like
The best strategy for certain problems will often use one or more of
these in combination with sequencing.
25. DNA sequences are often used in constructing phylogenetic
trees. Ancestral DNA may be inferred from living species. In rare
instances, DNA may be recovered from fossils.
26. Summary
• Modern Systematic seeks to classify organisms
according to evolutionary relationships.
• Anatomical and molecular data are used to infer
relatedness between modern organisms.
• Different Molecular techniques are used to find
more biodiversity.
27. References
Blaxter, M. (2003). Molecular systematics: counting
angels with DNA. Nature, 421(6919), 122.
http://v3.boldsystems.org/index.php/Public_BarcodeIndex
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