3. Autotrophic species – self feeders,
photosynthetic organisms or producers.
Organisms are differentiated into two types:
1. Chlorophyll bearing – with green pigment.
2. Non chlorophyll bearing – absence of
chlorophyll.
4. Autotrophs
Plants
Some Protists
Some Bacteria
Nearly all Archaea
• Heterotrophs
– Animals
– Fungi
– Most Protists
– Most Bacteria
5. • Heterotroph
1. Saprophytes – mushrooms, bread molds and
decay bacteria.
2. Parasites – depend on other organisms for
survival.
6. Why do we see green?
Green color from white light
reflected NOT absorbed
Chloroplast: organelle
responsible for
photosynthesis
Chlorophyll: located within
Chloroplast
Green pigment
7.
8. Photosynthesis – physico-chemical process
by which plants use the energy from sunlight
to produce sugar which cellular respiration
converts into ATP.
9. In plants and simple animals, waste products are
removed by diffusion. Plants, for example, excrete O2
, a
product of photosynthesis.
10.
11. 2 Phases
Light reaction
Dark reaction
Light reaction: converts light energy into
chemical energy; produces ATP molecules to
be used to fuel light-independent reaction
Dark reaction: uses ATP produced to make
simple sugars.
12. LIGHT Reaction
Requires light
Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light
Light excites electron (e-)
Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to an electron transport
chain
Electron transport chain: series of proteins in
thylakoid membrane
Bucket brigade
13. LIGHT Reaction
Energy lost along electron transport chain
Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP
NADPH produced from e- transport chain
Stores energy until transfer to stroma
Plays important role in light-independent reaction
Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2
14. LIGHT Reaction
2 types:
1. Photolysis/Hill reaction – compound is
broken down by light.
2. Photophosphorylation – creating ATP by using
a Proton gradient created by the Energy
gathered by sunlight.
15. Dark Reaction
Does not require light
Calvin Cycle
Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
Requires CO2
Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run
Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen
16. Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter,
water, air, and organisms
Soil is full of microorganisms that break down
and recycle organic debris
Most roots of plants are found within the
topsoil
Topsoil – a mixture of minerals, living organisms
and humus (partly decayed organic matter)
17.
18. Only minerals that are dissolved in water are
available for uptake by roots
Approximately one half of the soil volume is
occupied by spaces known as pores, which
may be filled with air or water
Water held in small pores is readily available to
plants
19.
20. Plants require 9 macronutrients and 7
micronutrients
Macronutrients – used by plant in large
quantities
Micronutrients – used by plant in trace amounts
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
(essential for amino acids), potassium, calcium,
magnesium (the center of the chlorophyll
molecule), phosphorus, and sulfur
21. Carnivorous plants have
modified leaves adapted
for luring and trapping
prey
Prey is digested with
enzymes secreted from
specialized glands
22. Pitcher plants (common in northeast bogs) –
have pitcher-shaped leaves with cavity filled
with digestive fluid
23. Venus flytrap – (grows in bogs in North and
South Carolina) – has 3 sensitive hairs on each
side of leaf that, when touched, trigger the two
halves of the leaf to snap together
Once the prey is enfolded within a leaf, secreted
enzymes from leaf surfaces digest the prey
24.
25. Sundews – secrete sticky mucilage, which
traps small animals, and digestive enzymes
26. Epiphytes – an organism that grows upon, or
attaches to a living plant
Most commonly refers to higher plants, but can
also include bacteria, fungi, lichens, mosses,
and ferns
“Air plants” – do not root in the soil
Obtain moisture from the air or from dampness
(rain and cloud moisture) on the surface of
their hosts
29. The human digestive system is
a marvel of nutritional storage
and acquisition!
30. Process of nutrition
1.Ingestion – process of taking food into the body.
2.Digestion – process of converting complex food
into simple forms.
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
3. Absorption – nutrients are taken into the cells.
31. 4. Assimilation – utilizing nutrients for various
functions.
5. Egestion – process of excreting unusable or
undigested material from cell or digestive tract.
32. Animals are classified on how they obtain food:
Herbivores are animals that eat plants
exclusively
Carnivores are animals that eat other animals
Omnivores are animals that eat both plants
and other animals
33. Animals are classified on how they obtain food:
Scavengers are animals that eat dead
animals.
Insectivores are animals that feed on insects.
35. - Series of tubelike
organs that convert
food into energy and
convert waste into
excretable
materials.
36. Ingested food may be stored or first subjected
to physical fragmentation
Chemical digestion occurs next, which breaks
the food down into subunit molecules
Food particles then pass through the gut’s
epithelial lining into the blood (absorption)
Wastes are excreted from the anus
37. Digestive Tract – tubular passage of mucous
membrane and muscle extending about 8.3
meters from mouth to anus.
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines and anus.
38. Mouth
Accessory Organs
1. Teeth – hard bonelike
structures in the jaws.
1.1 Temporary teeth –
primary teeth (20)
1.2 Permanent teeth – (32)
after the age of 6.
39. Mouth
Incisors – front four teeth.
Canines – longest and most
stable teeth.
Premolars – transitional teeth
between canine and molar.
Molar – large and flat surface.
40. Tongue – fleshy, movable, muscular organ
attached to the floor of the mouth.
Papillae – raised protrusions where majority of
the taste buds are located.
41.
42. 4 types of papillae:
1.Fungiform – slightly mushroom shaped located
at the apex.
2.Filiform – thin, long V-shaped cones without
taste buds.
3.Foliate – ridges and grooves at posterior part of
tongue.
4.Circumvallate – 3-14 in number present at the
back of the oral part of the tongue.
43. Pharynx – passageway for
air and food.
3 parts:
1.Nasopharynx – nasal
cavities
2.Oropharynx – palatine
tonsils
3.Laryngopharynx –
esophagus
44. Esophagus
Straight muscular tube
connecting the oral cavity
to the stomach.
4 basic layers:
1.Mucosa – mucous
2.Submucosa – mucous
secreting gland (papillae)
3.Muscularis – upper part
4.Adventitia – outermost
layer.
45. Stomach
Muscular J – shaped
organ that lies between
esophagus and small
intestine.
Sphincter – located
between esophagus and
stomach.
Pyloric valve – between
stomach and small
intestine.
46. Secretes:
Gastric juices and
gastrin (hormone)
3 general areas:
1. Fundus – upper
portion
2. Body – middle
3. Antrum – pyloric
sphincter.
50. Accessory digestive organs
Liver – largest organ in body; produces bile which
emulsifies fat
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates the bile
Pancreas – produces pancreatic juice which
contains digestive enzymes
Bile and pancreatic juice are secreted into the small
intestine
51. Liver – chemically modifies substances
absorbed from the digestive tract before they
reach the rest of the body
Removes toxins and carcinogens, converting them
to less toxic forms
Regulates levels of steroid hormones (makes them
more water soluble)
Produces most proteins found in blood plasma
52. Digestive Glands – produce secretion needed
for conversion of complex food to simple
substance.
A. Salivary Glands – produces Saliva
Saliva – contains 99% of water
Mucin – present in saliva which helps in
lubrication.
Salivary Amylase (ptyalin) digests starch into
simple substance.
53. 3 major glands that secrete saliva:
1. Parotid – between the ear and back of lower
jaw.
2. Submaxillary – lower side of the jaw.
3. Sublingual – floor of the mouth near the chin.
54. Liver – largest gland on the upper ride of
abdomen.
Secretes: Bile juice and bile salts – helps in
neutralization
Bilirubin and Biliverdin – greenish yellow pigment
in bile juice.
Bile juice – removes wastes from blood stream.
Bile salts – emulsification of fats
55.
56. Functions of Liver:
Digestion of fats
Converts glucose to glycogen in controlling blood
sugar
Deamination of amino acids
Storehouse of fats, glucose, vit. A,D,E,K, iron and
copper
Stores water
57. Functions of Liver:
Produces RBCs in embryo
Destroys old RBC in adults
Produces heparin (clotting factor)
Metabolizes toxic chemicals
Produces 80% cholesterol of human body.
58. Pancreas
- Long, yellowish, irregularly shaped gland
beneath the stomach and connected to small
intestines.
- Secretes digestive enzymes and hormones.
- Neutralizes chyme and break down proteins,
fats and starch.
- Secretes insulin and glucagon in blood stream.
59. Gastric glands – branched, tubular glands in the
mucosa of the fundus and body of stomach.
Secretes:
HCl
Zymogen (produces pepsin)
Mucous cells(mucus)
60. Intestinal glands – simple tubular glands located
in the mucous membrane of the intestine.
Secretes:
Sucrase
Maltase
Endo and exopeptidases
Secretory cells
61. In general, carnivores have shorter intestines
for their size than herbivores
Herbivores ingest a large amount of plant
cellulose, which resists digestion; these
animals have a long, convoluted small intestine
62. In the mouth, food is physically broken down
by teeth (mastication)
Similar in function to the gizzard of birds and
worms
Salivary glands excrete saliva
Antibacterial agents, mucin production
Breaks down starch into glucose
Controlled by the nervous system; tasting,
smelling, or even thinking about food stimulates
salivation
63.
64. Vertebrate teeth are adapted to their food
source
Carnivorous teeth are pointed that lack flat
grinding surfaces
Herbivores have large, flat teeth suited for
grinding cellulose cell walls of plant tissues
Humans (omnivores) have carnivore-like teeth
in the front and herbivore-like teeth in the back
65. Swallowing is initiated by voluntary action, but
is continued under involuntary control
When food is ready to be swallowed, the
tongue moves it to the back of the mouth
In mammals, the soft palate elevates, pushing
against the back of the wall of the pharynx
Elevation of the soft palate seals off the nasal
cavity
Pressure against the pharynx triggers the
swallowing reflex
67. The uvula is the
projection from the
posterior edge of the
middle of the soft palate
Not to be confused with
the epiglottis
Plays a key role in the
articulation of sound
Initiates the gag reflex
Can contribute to snoring
68. The esophagus actively moves a processed
lump of food (bolus) through muscular action
Swallowing stimulates successive, uni-
directional waves of contraction that move food
along the esophagus into the stomach
peristalsis
69.
70. The stomach is a sac-like portion of tract
Has convoluted surface, allowing expansion
Stores food (functions as crop of other
animals)
Contains an extra layer of smooth muscles
for churning food and mixing it with gastric
juice – an acidic secretion of the tubular
gastric glands of the mucosa
71. Parietal cells of stomach secrete hydochloric
acid (HCl)
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen (inactive),
which becomes pepsin (active) at low pH
(~2)
2 liters of HCl and other secretions is
produced by human stomach every day!
The low pH of the stomach helps denature
proteins
72. Acidity of stomach also kills most bacteria
ingested with food
Overproduction of gastric acid can lead to
ulcers, a hole through the wall of the
stomach
The mixture of partially-digested food and
gastric juice is called chyme; chyme leaves
the stomach and enters the small intestine
73.
74. Site of terminal digestion of carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins
Site of absorption of products of digestion
(amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, etc)
Efficient digestion takes time, and so only small
amounts of chyme may be introduced into the
small intestine at any one time
75. Longest part of the digestive tract
Up to 6 meters in humans
Consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Duodenum – first 25 cm; site of most digestion,
receives enzymes from the pancreas and bile
from the liver and gallbladder
Jejunum and ileum – site of absorption
• Very large surface area (3200 ft2
) – folds,
villi and microvilli
– Similar to function of mycorrhizae
78. The large intestine concentrates and stores
wastes
Much shorter than the small intestine, but
larger diameter
Small intestine empties directly into the large
intestine at a junction where 2 vestigal
structures remain
The cecum and appendix
79.
80. No digestion occurs
Absorption of water, remaining electrolytes and
vitamin K (products of bacterial metabolism)
Many bacteria live and reproduce within the
large intestine; excess bacteria are
incorporated into the feces
Feces are moved along by peristalsis and exit
the body through the anus
81. Animals lack the enzymes necessary to digest
cellulose, the structural component of the
primary cell wall of green plants
However, the digestive tracts of some animals
contain bacteria and protists that convert the
otherwise undigestable cellulose into
substances that the host can absorb
82. The activities of the gastrointestinal tract are
coordinated by the nervous system and the
endocrine system
The nervous system stimulates salivary and
gastric secretions in response to sight,
smell, and consumption of food
When food arrives in the stomach, proteins
in the food stimulate the secretion of
gastrin, which triggers the release of HCl
and pepsinogen from the gastric glands
83. After a carbohydrate-rich meal, the liver and
skeletal muscles remove excess glucose from
the blood and store it as glycogen
During fasting or exercise (low levels of
glucose), an increased secretion of glucagon
by the pancreas promotes the breakdown of
glycogen and release glucose
(glycogenolysis)
84.
85. Type 1 diabetes – insulin-dependent
diabetes, common in children
Too much glucose, little or no insulin (mutation,
no insulin made or non-functional), glucose
excreted in urine
Type 2 diabetes – insulin-independent
diabetes, adult onset
Normal or elevated levels of insulin, but cells no
longer respond to the insulin
Insulin is the only hormone that decreases
glucose in the body
Editor's Notes
Organic compounds – such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats; photosynthesis or oxidation of (electron donating) inorganic compounds such as sulfur, CO2, iron
Producers – such as plants on land or algae in the water
Remember photosynthesis evolved in bacteria (cyanobacteria)
Archea (extremophiles) – include methanogens (produce methane as a byproduct from CO2) , common in wetlands, produce marsh gas by oxidizing sulfur products
Remember photosynthesis evolved in bacteria (cyanobacteria)
Archea (extremophiles) – include methanogens (produce methane as a byproduct from CO2) , common in wetlands, produce marsh gas by oxidizing sulfur products
Require “various” nutrients
Much of the activity that supports plant life is hidden within the soil
“naturally occurring” elements
In the pine barrens, the soil is mostly sand, nutrient-poor – distinctive vegetation – scrub oak, pitch pine (including pines that require periodic fire to release seeds); LI formed by glaciers, glacial morraine
A rock is an aggregate of minerals; minerals may be important nutrients
Note earthworm, could also have moles, beetles, centipedes, slugs, bacteria and fungi
In water… “within the spaces or pores among soil particles”
Some of this water is unavailable because it drains immediately due to gravity
Without some space for air circulation in the soil, roots cannot respire;
plants absorb oxygen through all parts of them and this includes their leaves, flowers and their roots. This is why you can drown a plant by watering it too much, thereby preventing the roots from absorbing oxygen. Plants that grow in wet soil, such as rice, will often have air pockets in their roots where they store oxygen absorbed by the parts of the plant above the soil. b) a balance of air and water is essential for root growth c) too little water prevents transpiration in plants
C,O,H found in all organic compounds
Micronuts include chlorine, iron, manganese, zinc, boron, copper and molybdenum
They do not close rapidly
Not necessarily parasitic – some just grow on, do not obtain nutrition from, their hosts
Spanish moss (bromeliad); fern
6lb burger, a ft and a half across
2 hours, 23 minutes
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth or the grinding action of pebbles in the gizzard of earthworms and birds;
Stones have been swallowed
Digestion – food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharydes, fats and proteins are broken down into their smallest subunits (amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids)
Wastes – any molecules in the food that can’t be used by the animal (like when my dog eats footballs and we have a technicolor lawn)
Saliva breaks down starch into glucose
Pharynx – common passage of nasal and oral cavities; pharynx leads to the esophoagus
In stomach, any bacteria are killed, food is broken down into smaller pieces to create larger surface area for food digestion
From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine
Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
Cloaca – receives products of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
Large intestine consists of cecum and colon (cecum is first part)
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
Ingested alcohol and other drugs taken into liver cells are metabolized, drug and alcohol abuse often damages liver
The road to wellville
Pavlov’s dog; mucin – mucus – makes food slippery
Ingested pebbles pulverize food in gizzard; crop – a storage organ, moisture added, makes food softer esp. for seed eaters; pidgeons produce crop milk to feed baby pigeons (male or female)
Larynx = voicebox
Epiglotus is not the same as the uvula; prevents food from entering trachea
Folds up when empty, expands like a balloon as it fills with food
In humans, only proteins are digested in stomach (not fats or carbs)
Pyloric sphincter – junction b/w stomach and small intestine
(stomach – stores food)
Villi are fingerlike projections – greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine
Pancreas also functions as an endocrine gland – secerets hormones into the blood that control the blood level of glucose and other nutrients, produced in the Islet of Langerhans
Cecum – in herbivoes – host a large number of bacteria
Appendix – believed to have no function, however, the appendix produces and protects bacteria that are beneficial
Bacterial fermentation produces gas within the colon; increases greatly after consumption of beans or other types of vegetables b/c the passage of undigested plant material (fiber) into the large intestine provides substrate for bacterial fermentation
Vit K is required for blood cotting
Other hormones listed in book, not going to cover in class (exam?)
Secretion of insulin by the pancreatic inlets after a meal; insulin stimulates opening of cell of channels for glucose to enter cell (stimulates the uptake of glucose from blood)
Must administer insulin for type I
Type II – small meals at regular intervals, control diet, exercise, some target cells remain
