Methodologies
AAS 211
March 15, 2022
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AgendaCheck in: “Talk story””What will you do during the break?”Go over Ethnography and autoethnography
No need to wait or go anywhereWriting down your observations and thoughts ("taking field notes" or doing "participant observation” - ethnography) is "research." Talking to people in your community and family ("doing oral history interviewing") is research. Reflecting on your experiences, especially in the context of various (intersecting) forms of oppression based on race, class, gender, sexuality, ability, age, etc. ("autoethnography") is research.
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The original goals of Ethnic Studies and Asian American Studies were to make academic work relevant and accountable to real people and real communities, so your research is part of this lineage.The methodologies that I will go over today might help you start right away (if you already haven't).
Quantitative Method“Quantitative research (the word ‘quantitative’ comes from the word ‘quantity’) involves information or data in the form of numbers. This allows us to measure or to quantify a whole range of things. For example: the number of people who live below the poverty line; the number of children between specific ages who attend school; the average spending power in a community; or the number of adults who have access to computers in a village or town.”
Surveys are common way of doing quantitative researchQuestionnaire“Respondents” answers exact same questionsWhen have enough responses, put data together and analyse in a way that answers your research question or what you want to know/explore
Observation researchWatch for instances of certain behaviors, patterns, phenomenon, etc.Media research based on “monitoring criteria” (e.g. specific focus of the article, author, date of publication, length, etc.) For example, “of all articles in major newspapers about the Wen Ho Lee incident, ____% assumed that he was guilty when the story first broke out.”
Quantitative research may reveal important information, but you might want to go into depth with qualitative research
For example, through a survey you may find out that major newspapers portray Asian Americans a certain way, but you want to know the reasons why they do. For that you would want to do interviews the writers, publishers, etc. at the newspapers.
Advantages of surveys
Good for comparative analysis.
Can get lots of data in a relatively short space of time.
Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet, for example).
Can take less time for respondents to complete (compared to an interview or focus group).
Disadvantages of surveys
Responses may not be specific.Questions may be misinterpreted.May not get as many responses as you need.Don’t get full story.
"The aim of qualitative research is to deepen our understanding about something, and usually this means going beyond the numbers and the statistics.”
Qualitative research helps us to give reasons why the ...
1. Interviewing ethnic minorities presents considerations for researchers who do not belong to the ethnic minority group being studied. Access to respondents, issues of voice, and how respondents' answers are influenced by the researcher must be taken into account.
2. Researchers should be aware of cultural differences that may impact access, and build rapport with respondents to make them feel more comfortable. Respondent answers are also shaped by the perceived social roles and power dynamics between the researcher and respondent.
3. To accurately represent ethnic minority groups, researchers must recognize how their own backgrounds and biases could influence data interpretation and present the groups' perspectives without stereotyping. Understanding context is key to obtaining and analyzing responses.
This document summarizes Dexter Chapin's approach to teaching cultural anthropology at Seattle Academy of Arts and Sciences. He designs the course to be flexible and relevant to current issues. Students write a paper comparing their own worldview to concepts from anthropological works. They also do assignments like writing creation myths. The course fits into the school's curriculum by promoting understanding of different perspectives in a community that is open to people of all backgrounds.
Disadvantages Of Applied EthnomethodologyAshley Fisher
Participant observation was used to study drug dealers and smugglers. This qualitative method allowed the researchers to gain the trust of and interact with their subjects. However, it also presented challenges, such as subjects experiencing drug withdrawal during interviews, becoming malicious without warning. The researchers had to take precautions and balance overt and covert roles with different levels of relationships within the group to overcome issues.
FINDING YOUR STORY DATA ANALYSISCH. 7 Finding Your Story Data MerrileeDelvalle969
FINDING YOUR STORY: DATA ANALYSIS
CH. 7 Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.). Pearson.
Chapter 7
Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
I can no longer put off the inevitable. I’ve been home three weeks, and I’ve found as many distractions as I could to avoid coding. I’ve organized my files, I’ve set up the study and done a major reorganization so I can spread out the stacks that will soon pile up. I’m reading, I’m thinking, and as a way of really beginning, I took out the prospectus I wrote in November. During the last months at my site, I put a few Post-it notes into the prospectus file with other BIG looming ideas, ones that showed me I would have to tinker with the planned structure. Today I thought I’d just print out a sheet of the tentative chapter structure to put up on the wall (and delay coding once again?). I began typing it, and what did I find? It’s all wrong, it doesn’t capture the way I’ve been thinking at all. The power of the shift hit me head on. I tried to reorganize the chapters, but I found that wouldn’t work either. So instead I wrote out the big themes I have been thinking about in my sleep, while I drive, when I cook Passover food . . . and that’s where I’ll have to start.
(Pugach, personal correspondence, March 31, 1994)
Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so you can figure out what you have learned and make sense of what you have experienced. Working with the data, you describe, compare, create explanations, link your story to other stories, and possibly pose hypotheses or develop theories. How you go about doing so, however, can vary widely. Linguistic traditions, for example, focus upon words and conversations, treating “text as an object of analysis itself” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and may use procedures such as formal narrative analysis, discourse analysis, or linguistic analysis as tools for making sense of data. Researchers from sociological traditions tend to treat “text as a window into human experience” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and use thematic analysis procedures to deal with data through coding and segregating data for further analysis, description, and interpretation. Thematic analysis, the approach most widely used in ethnographic work, receives primary attention in this chapter, but for comparison, several other forms of data analysis are introduced as well.
Varying Forms of Analysis
The form of analysis you use is linked to your methodology, research goals, data collection methods, and so on. This chapter does not attempt to explain the multiple approaches to data analysis that are available, but four different approaches are presented to introduce how and why analysis procedures may vary. Read more widely on modes that resonate with you, and on data analysis in general. This section begins with an introduction to thematic analysis, the kind of data analysis focused upon throughout th ...
This document provides an overview of fieldwork as a method for studying culture. It defines fieldwork as the systematic study of people's behaviors and activities in their natural settings. The purpose of fieldwork is to understand daily life from the perspectives of the people being studied by personally experiencing and observing their lives firsthand. It discusses that culture shapes people's perceptions and behaviors, and fieldwork aims to learn the social scripts and identify the cultural performances of the group. The document outlines some key aspects of conducting fieldwork such as the different phases of research and methods for gathering different types of data.
This document discusses ethnographic research methods. It defines ethnography as the observation of groups of people or cultures in natural settings using qualitative research methods like observations and interviews. Ethnographies are long-term studies that allow researchers to experience regular patterns and routines of a community. The document outlines the typical steps of an ethnography, including identifying a research question, gaining access to subjects, collecting data through observations and interviews, analyzing data concurrently with collection, and writing a final report that brings the culture to life.
This document provides an overview of narrative inquiry as a research method. It defines narrative inquiry as generating data in the form of stories and typologies of stories. It compares narrative inquiry to other methods and notes that it preserves the complexity and temporal context of lived experience. Examples are provided of narrative inquiry research projects conducted at the University of Sydney, including one exploring narratives around childhood sexual abuse and another exploring motivations for choosing psychology as a career.
Qualitative research focuses on understanding human experiences and behaviors through methods like interviews, observations and document analysis rather than statistical analysis. It seeks to understand phenomena in their natural settings from participants' perspectives. The key approaches to qualitative research include phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case studies. Qualitative data is typically in the form of words rather than numbers.
1. Interviewing ethnic minorities presents considerations for researchers who do not belong to the ethnic minority group being studied. Access to respondents, issues of voice, and how respondents' answers are influenced by the researcher must be taken into account.
2. Researchers should be aware of cultural differences that may impact access, and build rapport with respondents to make them feel more comfortable. Respondent answers are also shaped by the perceived social roles and power dynamics between the researcher and respondent.
3. To accurately represent ethnic minority groups, researchers must recognize how their own backgrounds and biases could influence data interpretation and present the groups' perspectives without stereotyping. Understanding context is key to obtaining and analyzing responses.
This document summarizes Dexter Chapin's approach to teaching cultural anthropology at Seattle Academy of Arts and Sciences. He designs the course to be flexible and relevant to current issues. Students write a paper comparing their own worldview to concepts from anthropological works. They also do assignments like writing creation myths. The course fits into the school's curriculum by promoting understanding of different perspectives in a community that is open to people of all backgrounds.
Disadvantages Of Applied EthnomethodologyAshley Fisher
Participant observation was used to study drug dealers and smugglers. This qualitative method allowed the researchers to gain the trust of and interact with their subjects. However, it also presented challenges, such as subjects experiencing drug withdrawal during interviews, becoming malicious without warning. The researchers had to take precautions and balance overt and covert roles with different levels of relationships within the group to overcome issues.
FINDING YOUR STORY DATA ANALYSISCH. 7 Finding Your Story Data MerrileeDelvalle969
FINDING YOUR STORY: DATA ANALYSIS
CH. 7 Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.). Pearson.
Chapter 7
Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
I can no longer put off the inevitable. I’ve been home three weeks, and I’ve found as many distractions as I could to avoid coding. I’ve organized my files, I’ve set up the study and done a major reorganization so I can spread out the stacks that will soon pile up. I’m reading, I’m thinking, and as a way of really beginning, I took out the prospectus I wrote in November. During the last months at my site, I put a few Post-it notes into the prospectus file with other BIG looming ideas, ones that showed me I would have to tinker with the planned structure. Today I thought I’d just print out a sheet of the tentative chapter structure to put up on the wall (and delay coding once again?). I began typing it, and what did I find? It’s all wrong, it doesn’t capture the way I’ve been thinking at all. The power of the shift hit me head on. I tried to reorganize the chapters, but I found that wouldn’t work either. So instead I wrote out the big themes I have been thinking about in my sleep, while I drive, when I cook Passover food . . . and that’s where I’ll have to start.
(Pugach, personal correspondence, March 31, 1994)
Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so you can figure out what you have learned and make sense of what you have experienced. Working with the data, you describe, compare, create explanations, link your story to other stories, and possibly pose hypotheses or develop theories. How you go about doing so, however, can vary widely. Linguistic traditions, for example, focus upon words and conversations, treating “text as an object of analysis itself” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and may use procedures such as formal narrative analysis, discourse analysis, or linguistic analysis as tools for making sense of data. Researchers from sociological traditions tend to treat “text as a window into human experience” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and use thematic analysis procedures to deal with data through coding and segregating data for further analysis, description, and interpretation. Thematic analysis, the approach most widely used in ethnographic work, receives primary attention in this chapter, but for comparison, several other forms of data analysis are introduced as well.
Varying Forms of Analysis
The form of analysis you use is linked to your methodology, research goals, data collection methods, and so on. This chapter does not attempt to explain the multiple approaches to data analysis that are available, but four different approaches are presented to introduce how and why analysis procedures may vary. Read more widely on modes that resonate with you, and on data analysis in general. This section begins with an introduction to thematic analysis, the kind of data analysis focused upon throughout th ...
This document provides an overview of fieldwork as a method for studying culture. It defines fieldwork as the systematic study of people's behaviors and activities in their natural settings. The purpose of fieldwork is to understand daily life from the perspectives of the people being studied by personally experiencing and observing their lives firsthand. It discusses that culture shapes people's perceptions and behaviors, and fieldwork aims to learn the social scripts and identify the cultural performances of the group. The document outlines some key aspects of conducting fieldwork such as the different phases of research and methods for gathering different types of data.
This document discusses ethnographic research methods. It defines ethnography as the observation of groups of people or cultures in natural settings using qualitative research methods like observations and interviews. Ethnographies are long-term studies that allow researchers to experience regular patterns and routines of a community. The document outlines the typical steps of an ethnography, including identifying a research question, gaining access to subjects, collecting data through observations and interviews, analyzing data concurrently with collection, and writing a final report that brings the culture to life.
This document provides an overview of narrative inquiry as a research method. It defines narrative inquiry as generating data in the form of stories and typologies of stories. It compares narrative inquiry to other methods and notes that it preserves the complexity and temporal context of lived experience. Examples are provided of narrative inquiry research projects conducted at the University of Sydney, including one exploring narratives around childhood sexual abuse and another exploring motivations for choosing psychology as a career.
Qualitative research focuses on understanding human experiences and behaviors through methods like interviews, observations and document analysis rather than statistical analysis. It seeks to understand phenomena in their natural settings from participants' perspectives. The key approaches to qualitative research include phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case studies. Qualitative data is typically in the form of words rather than numbers.
This document discusses various types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and comparisons of these different approaches. For basic qualitative studies, the goal is to understand a phenomenon or experience from the participant's perspective through techniques like interviews and observation. Case study research provides an in-depth look at a single unit or case using multiple data sources. Content analysis examines written or visual materials to describe their characteristics and identify themes. Ethnographic research studies culture and social behavior of a group in their natural setting through immersion and observation.
The document discusses 8 types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and examples of each method, focusing on the goals, data collection techniques, and key characteristics of basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, and grounded theory research. The document is intended to inform readers about these common qualitative research approaches.
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1-TYPES oF Qualitative researchMean6
Here are two sentences for each focus of the verb:
1. Pokus sa sanhi:
- Tumakbo si Mario upang manalo sa laro.
- Kinain nila ang karne dahil gutom sila.
2. Pokus sa ganapan:
- Kinain nila ang karne sa hapag-kainan.
- Pinitas ni Gemma ang mga rosa sa hardin ng bahay.
3. Pokus sa sanhi:
- Pinaghugasan ni Rhea ang mga pinggan dahil marumi ito.
- Bumili si Karla ng pagkain dahil gut
Research Methodologies In Cultural PsychologyBenjamin Cheung
Cultural psychologists face difficulties studying cultural differences due to limitations of various research methodologies. Questionnaire studies using explicit questions are simple but prone to reference group effects and response biases. Implicit measures avoid some biases but have questionable validity. Behavioral studies objectively measure values but are difficult to define and implement. Cultural product analyses reflect cultural influences but lack generalizability. The best approach uses multiple complementary methodologies to overcome individual limitations and validate findings.
The document discusses qualitative research methods. It begins by defining qualitative research as a method that focuses on gathering in-depth insights through interviews, observations, and stories rather than quantitative data. It then outlines several key themes in qualitative research, including phenomenology, ethnography, case studies, narrative analysis, participatory action research, and feminist research. The document also discusses what constitutes a good research question, including that it should be relevant, specific, and meaningful. It provides steps for developing a research question and examples of good and bad research questions.
Introduction to Methods in Cultural AnthropologyIn this topic,.docxnormanibarber20063
Introduction to Methods in Cultural Anthropology
In this topic, you will explore how anthropologists conduct research with a special focus on ethics in anthropology. You will also have an opportunity to develop your own research proposal in Activity 1.
Please note that you have 5 Activities due in this class ( If you are taking the class as the 8 week option you have 3 activities and if you are taking the class as a 12 week option you have four activities). Please note that no matter what option you are taking, you do end up doing all the work of the acitivies but in a different format). Due dates for the activities are noted on the When Assignments are Due page. Be sure to allow adequate time to complete. Please review all the assignments now and make plans in your schedule to work on them. These assignments are meant to help you learn the material as well as give you an opportunity to show what you are learning beyond just quizzes and exams.
Horizontal Rule
Objectives
After completing the learning activities for this topic, you will be able to:
List, define, and apply the steps in conducting fieldwork.
Describe and cite examples of data-gathering techniques.
Analyze the nature of ethical dilemmas in anthropological field work.
Click on the image below to view a photo gallery.
How Anthropologists Do Research -- The Importance of Ethics
Written by Dr. Katherine R. Rowell, Professor of Sociology, Sinclair Community College
Your textbook discusses the 5 steps of conducting anthropological research or fieldwork. I typically add another step in the beginning known as preparation. Thus, there are six steps to conducting anthropological fieldwork. In fact, the first step, preparation, is important for anyone visiting another culture or working with people from another culture.
Step 1: Preparation
Preparing to conduct research on a different culture or visit another culture can be time consuming. One of the most important issues is geographical location of the culture you plan to visit or study. There are funding issues, health precautions (shots and medications), governmental permissions (visas and passports), language issues (Do you have an interpreter? or Do you know the language?), Personal affairs (Who is going to pay your bills? Feed your cat?), Packing issues (How much are you allowed to take? What items are a necessity?) and finally, do you have an informant and a site to do research? (Someone within that culture to help you with your research or help you on your visit). These issues take a lot of time to work out and are an important first step.
Step 2: Selecting a Research Problem
In the past the goal of anthropological research was to describe a culture in as much detail as possible (ethnography). Today, the research is typically problem based. For example, when I went to Botswana, Swaziland, and South Africa my goal was to understand the AIDS crisis and compare approaches to reducing HIV/AIDS in these countries. Often times the re.
Ethnography is a research method used by professionals and academics to understand how people interact within a specified environment. It requires the researcher to immerse themselves in the environment and take on a role similar to those being studied. There are three main types of ethnographic research: business, educational, and medical. Business ethnography helps understand target markets and consumer habits. Educational ethnography observes learning and teaching methods’ effects. Medical ethnography provides insight into patient experiences and healthcare practices. To conduct ethnography, researchers identify a question, select a location for research, get necessary permissions, observe and participate in the environment, interview subjects, collect additional data, and analyze their findings.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods including phenomenology, ethnography, historical research, and case studies. It defines each method and provides examples of topics that have been studied using each approach. Phenomenology seeks to understand lived experiences, ethnography studies social groups and cultures, historical research interprets past events, and case studies provide an in-depth analysis of a specific situation. The document also contrasts qualitative and quantitative research.
8Some Implications for Research and Practice[C]ultural meanings,.docxsleeperharwell
8
Some Implications for Research and Practice
[C]ultural meanings, practices, norms, and social institutions … constitute the matrix in which are embedded the intentions, rules, practices, and activities through which people live their lives (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus & Nisbett, 1998, p. 917).
What goals or objectives must our profession and society adopt to become truly multicultural in vision, values, and practice? (Sue, Bingham, Porche-Burke & Vasquez, 1999, p. 1067).
This final chapter is the most difficult one to write. The quotations above suggest the complexity of understanding individual behavior within a cultural matrix. With the broad definition of culture proposed in this book, applicable to all significant groups that meet the criteria, complexity increases. To take seriously the multicultural nature of persons is to raise theoretical and empirical questions that are very difficult to answer. As a science and profession, we are not accustomed to thinking routinely and easily of individuals in this way. Our discipline will be enriched, however, if we can design creative new research strategies to address these questions.
The implications for practice may be least problematic because, whether in counseling, therapy, or education, theoretical emphasis has long been on taking into account “the whole person.” And in these areas, there is typically one-on-one interaction between persons – between client and mental health worker, or between student and teacher. An individual’s unique social identities or cultural memberships will be evident in behavior – overt or subtle. Whether they are recognized, acknowledged, respected and used positively in the actual practice of counseling, therapy, or education (beyond statements of theory) is a central concern. In research, a multicultural perspective presents a different set of interrelated problems pertaining to sampling, study design, methods, data analysis and interpretation.Research
Each participant or respondent in an investigation brings to it unique experiences and beliefs, perceptions, and response potentials that reflect far greater individual complexity and far more cultural memberships than most researchers are prepared to identify. We agree with Shields (2008, p. 304) that “[t]he facts of our lives reveal that there is no single identity category that satisfactorily describes how we respond to our social environment or are responded to by others.” We also agree with Mann and Kelley (1997, p. 392) that “knowledge is and should be situated in people’s diverse social locations.… [and] grounded in the social biography of … the observed.” Such agreement, however, does not lead easily or directly to researchable empirical questions that can be investigated in a practical way. Multiple issues and problems face the researcher who is accustomed to obtaining demographic descriptions of participants that are usually limited to age, ethnicity, and gender, or to the single-identity or group-members.
Here are brief explanations for the test questions:
1. Qualitative research is a form of social inquiry that focuses on understanding and interpreting how people make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live.
2. The three types of approach to research are: scientific approach, naturalistic approach, and triangulation/mixed method. The naturalistic approach focuses on discovering the real meaning behind people's lifestyles and social relations in a natural setting using qualitative methods like interviews.
3. Hard sciences like biology, chemistry and physics study natural phenomena using quantitative, objective and experimental methods. Soft sciences like sociology, psychology and history study human behavior and social phenomena using qualitative, subjective methods focused on meaning and discovery through interpretation.
The document outlines and describes various qualitative research techniques including ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, case study, biography, conversation analysis, narrative inquiry, and content analysis. It provides the key questions addressed by each technique, their disciplinary roots, typical data collection and analysis methods, and narrative focus.
Overview In this you will select an issue or.docxbkbk37
In this activity, students will select a topic related to globalization and analyze it through four lenses: history, humanities, natural/applied sciences, and social sciences. For their topic, students will write a 1-2 page paper applying each lens by using the language and perspectives of that discipline. Specifically, students will describe their existing knowledge of the topic, then analyze it through the history lens by discussing relevant events and dates. Next, they will apply the humanities lens to discuss the topic's cultural meaning and human expression. Then they will apply the natural/applied sciences lens to examine how the scientific method could be used or how it relates to the physical world. Finally, students will apply the social sciences lens to discuss who
1. The document outlines learning tasks and lessons for students on research design and sampling methods. It defines key terms like sampling, sampling frame, probability and non-probability sampling.
2. It describes the five main qualitative research designs - case study, ethnography, historical study, phenomenology, and grounded theory. For each, it provides the goals, methods of data collection, advantages and disadvantages.
3. It also defines sampling and the difference between probability and non-probability sampling. Sampling originated from early political surveys to understand public opinion. Probability sampling aims to give all members of the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected.
This document provides an overview of ethnographic research. It defines ethnography as the in-depth study of a culture or social group through techniques like observation and interviews. There are different types of ethnographic designs, including realist ethnographies which provide an objective account, case studies which focus on a specific event or activity, and critical ethnographies which aim to advocate for marginalized groups. Key characteristics of ethnographic research include studying cultural themes, a culture-sharing group, collecting data through fieldwork, analyzing shared patterns of behavior, and interpreting findings within their proper context while being reflexive of the researcher's role.
Exploratory Research Module_PhD XUB_July 16-1.pptxssuser1f4a4b
The document discusses exploratory research methodology. It explains that exploratory research involves initially exploring questions about a topic through processes like literature review, contemplation, or qualitative research methods. The goal is to build an organized body of knowledge about a subject matter and develop valid and reliable explanations for phenomena within a domain. Exploratory research is flexible and allows researchers to gain insights and ideas about a topic to help guide future research.
Homework assignmentPlease annotate one artwork you like from this.docxAbramMartino96
Homework assignment:
Please annotate one artwork you like from this week’s textbook
reading or Smarthistory. Whenever I am writing for research
presentation or publication, this is how I begin. The point is to make
sure you’re not missing anything in terms of basic data or
interpretive frameworks. When I take notes on a lecture at a
conference, this is the way I like to organize my notes, as well.
Format
Identify the artwork
Identify Period Style
Identify Subject Matter
Discuss Historical Context
Discuss Visual Elements (Line, Color, Texture, Composition etc.)
Discuss Its Place in Ideas or Culture of the Time
.
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense an.docxAbramMartino96
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense and Defense Support of Civil Authorities (DSCA), which are missions executed by the Department of Defense (DOD), most specifically by the Combatant Command, United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). In supporting the nation when requested by DHS, FEMA, or other lead federal agencies, or as directed by the president or the secretary of defense, DOD provides many unique capabilities for crisis response. One specific function used most notably during the post-Hurricane Katrina period was the use of airborne assets to provide damage assessments and to gauge the extent of the sea surge at various times during the recovery.
The function of deploying such assets is traditionally called
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
(ISR). Yet the U.S. military cannot legally collect intelligence on U.S. citizens. Consequently, the action, as performed during the hurricane recovery operations described here, is known as
incident awareness and assessments
(IAA). For some, the difference between these terms is merely semantics; for many, IAA differs both symbolically and practically from ISR, if not in how information is collected, then in how it is used and the motivation behind the collection. (The Web site for IAA reference is under Web sites references below.)
Assignment Guidelines
Address the following in 5–7 paragraphs:
Do you believe the distinction between ISR and IAA lies simply with terminology (and therefore there is little or no difference) or that there is a separation between the concepts? Explain and defend your answer fully. You may choose to research the topic more fully.
Contemplating the ethics of using IAA in the homeland, list at least 3 benefits of its use where ethics might potentially be secondary.
List at least 2–3 costs or opposing views to its use and how IAA—or the information gathered—might be misused or abused.
What if criminal activity (like acres of tended marijuana) was observed during IAA missions intended to conduct damage assessments? How should such information be handled?
Do you believe converting the term
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
to
incident awareness and assessments
for operations conducted in the homeland was wise or frivolous (or described otherwise)? Explain and defend your answer fully.
What is the value of using carefully selected terminology for operations in the homeland?
How does the symbolism of IAA potentially aid homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
How does the symbolism of ISR potentially hinder homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
Among the Web sites listed for this unit, you will find the Air Forces North (AFNORTH) Incident Awareness and Assessment Handbook, June 2010.
Why do you think this manual on IAA is available from open-source sites?
Do you think there might be ethical considerations to publicizing the use and purposes of IAA? Name and discuss at least 1.
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this repo.docxAbramMartino96
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this report you are going to provide a background information about Homecoming (for example, what is homecoming, what type of activities do people do, why it is celebrated in the U.S….) You must report your findings in an essay format (at least two long paragraphs) and cite any resources that you use.
.
Homer
Assignment
II
Read
three
of
the
books
from
The
Odyssey
including
Book
I.
Choose
one
character
and
trace
that
character’s
traits
throughout
your
reading
assignment.
Write
a
five-‐paragraph
character
analysis-‐interesting
insights
about
the
character-‐of
the
character
of
your
choice.
Choose
from
the
books
listed
below:
Book
I:
You
MUST
read
Book
I.
Invocation
and
part
summary
–council
of
the
gods-‐
Athena
visits
Telemachos
in
Ithaka
and
urges
him
to
go
in
search
of
his
father-‐the
suitors
feast
in
the
house
of
Telemachos.
Book
VIII:
Odysseus
at
the
games
of
the
Phaiakians-‐
he
is
asked
top
tell
his
name
and
his
story.
Book
XIII:
Return
of
Odysseus
to
Ithaka-‐
hi
is
landed,
alone-‐
strange
return
of
the
Phaiakian
ship-‐Athena
comes
to
Odysseus
and
advises
him.
Book
XVI:
Telemachos
visits
Eumaios-‐Odyssues
reveals
himself
to
Telemachos-‐Penelope
and
suitors
learn
that
Telemachos
has
returned-‐
night
at
the
house
of
Eumaios.
Book
XXI:
The
test
of
the
bow-‐the
suitors
fail-‐Odysseus
succeeds.
Book
XXII:
The
killing
of
the
suitors-‐punishment
of
the
faithless
maids
and
thrall.
Book
XXIII:
Recognition
of
Odysseus
by
Penelope-‐reunion-‐Odysseus
goes
to
Laertes’
farm.
.
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of t.docxAbramMartino96
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of the country.
How has society’s response to that population changed over time? Consider the following in your response: Cite references. Min 200 words
·
How has society’s response to that group changed over the past 300 years?
·
How has it changed in your lifetime?
·
What changes do you anticipate in society’s response in the next 50 years?
·
What factors have influenced those changes?
.
Homework Assignments One pagewhat the functional currency .docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignments One page
what the functional currency for Johnson& Johnson
Research your JOHNSON&JOHNSON and report on any major issue(s) of international taxation that is (are) addressed in this chapter.
Post this assignment in the chapter conference.
Discuss how your JOHNSON&JOHNSON handles transfer pricing.
Topics of discussion can include but are not limited to:
Are transfers from a subsidiary to its parent (upstream)? From the parent to a subsidiary (downstream)?
Or from one subsidiary to another of the same parent?
Transfer pricing methods?
What are the objectives of your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs transfer pricing practices?
What law(s) govern your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs practices?
What method is used?
The enforcement of transfer pricing regulations in the country where you JOHNSON&JOHNSON is located?
.
This document discusses various types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and comparisons of these different approaches. For basic qualitative studies, the goal is to understand a phenomenon or experience from the participant's perspective through techniques like interviews and observation. Case study research provides an in-depth look at a single unit or case using multiple data sources. Content analysis examines written or visual materials to describe their characteristics and identify themes. Ethnographic research studies culture and social behavior of a group in their natural setting through immersion and observation.
The document discusses 8 types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and examples of each method, focusing on the goals, data collection techniques, and key characteristics of basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, and grounded theory research. The document is intended to inform readers about these common qualitative research approaches.
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1-TYPES oF Qualitative researchMean6
Here are two sentences for each focus of the verb:
1. Pokus sa sanhi:
- Tumakbo si Mario upang manalo sa laro.
- Kinain nila ang karne dahil gutom sila.
2. Pokus sa ganapan:
- Kinain nila ang karne sa hapag-kainan.
- Pinitas ni Gemma ang mga rosa sa hardin ng bahay.
3. Pokus sa sanhi:
- Pinaghugasan ni Rhea ang mga pinggan dahil marumi ito.
- Bumili si Karla ng pagkain dahil gut
Research Methodologies In Cultural PsychologyBenjamin Cheung
Cultural psychologists face difficulties studying cultural differences due to limitations of various research methodologies. Questionnaire studies using explicit questions are simple but prone to reference group effects and response biases. Implicit measures avoid some biases but have questionable validity. Behavioral studies objectively measure values but are difficult to define and implement. Cultural product analyses reflect cultural influences but lack generalizability. The best approach uses multiple complementary methodologies to overcome individual limitations and validate findings.
The document discusses qualitative research methods. It begins by defining qualitative research as a method that focuses on gathering in-depth insights through interviews, observations, and stories rather than quantitative data. It then outlines several key themes in qualitative research, including phenomenology, ethnography, case studies, narrative analysis, participatory action research, and feminist research. The document also discusses what constitutes a good research question, including that it should be relevant, specific, and meaningful. It provides steps for developing a research question and examples of good and bad research questions.
Introduction to Methods in Cultural AnthropologyIn this topic,.docxnormanibarber20063
Introduction to Methods in Cultural Anthropology
In this topic, you will explore how anthropologists conduct research with a special focus on ethics in anthropology. You will also have an opportunity to develop your own research proposal in Activity 1.
Please note that you have 5 Activities due in this class ( If you are taking the class as the 8 week option you have 3 activities and if you are taking the class as a 12 week option you have four activities). Please note that no matter what option you are taking, you do end up doing all the work of the acitivies but in a different format). Due dates for the activities are noted on the When Assignments are Due page. Be sure to allow adequate time to complete. Please review all the assignments now and make plans in your schedule to work on them. These assignments are meant to help you learn the material as well as give you an opportunity to show what you are learning beyond just quizzes and exams.
Horizontal Rule
Objectives
After completing the learning activities for this topic, you will be able to:
List, define, and apply the steps in conducting fieldwork.
Describe and cite examples of data-gathering techniques.
Analyze the nature of ethical dilemmas in anthropological field work.
Click on the image below to view a photo gallery.
How Anthropologists Do Research -- The Importance of Ethics
Written by Dr. Katherine R. Rowell, Professor of Sociology, Sinclair Community College
Your textbook discusses the 5 steps of conducting anthropological research or fieldwork. I typically add another step in the beginning known as preparation. Thus, there are six steps to conducting anthropological fieldwork. In fact, the first step, preparation, is important for anyone visiting another culture or working with people from another culture.
Step 1: Preparation
Preparing to conduct research on a different culture or visit another culture can be time consuming. One of the most important issues is geographical location of the culture you plan to visit or study. There are funding issues, health precautions (shots and medications), governmental permissions (visas and passports), language issues (Do you have an interpreter? or Do you know the language?), Personal affairs (Who is going to pay your bills? Feed your cat?), Packing issues (How much are you allowed to take? What items are a necessity?) and finally, do you have an informant and a site to do research? (Someone within that culture to help you with your research or help you on your visit). These issues take a lot of time to work out and are an important first step.
Step 2: Selecting a Research Problem
In the past the goal of anthropological research was to describe a culture in as much detail as possible (ethnography). Today, the research is typically problem based. For example, when I went to Botswana, Swaziland, and South Africa my goal was to understand the AIDS crisis and compare approaches to reducing HIV/AIDS in these countries. Often times the re.
Ethnography is a research method used by professionals and academics to understand how people interact within a specified environment. It requires the researcher to immerse themselves in the environment and take on a role similar to those being studied. There are three main types of ethnographic research: business, educational, and medical. Business ethnography helps understand target markets and consumer habits. Educational ethnography observes learning and teaching methods’ effects. Medical ethnography provides insight into patient experiences and healthcare practices. To conduct ethnography, researchers identify a question, select a location for research, get necessary permissions, observe and participate in the environment, interview subjects, collect additional data, and analyze their findings.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods including phenomenology, ethnography, historical research, and case studies. It defines each method and provides examples of topics that have been studied using each approach. Phenomenology seeks to understand lived experiences, ethnography studies social groups and cultures, historical research interprets past events, and case studies provide an in-depth analysis of a specific situation. The document also contrasts qualitative and quantitative research.
8Some Implications for Research and Practice[C]ultural meanings,.docxsleeperharwell
8
Some Implications for Research and Practice
[C]ultural meanings, practices, norms, and social institutions … constitute the matrix in which are embedded the intentions, rules, practices, and activities through which people live their lives (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus & Nisbett, 1998, p. 917).
What goals or objectives must our profession and society adopt to become truly multicultural in vision, values, and practice? (Sue, Bingham, Porche-Burke & Vasquez, 1999, p. 1067).
This final chapter is the most difficult one to write. The quotations above suggest the complexity of understanding individual behavior within a cultural matrix. With the broad definition of culture proposed in this book, applicable to all significant groups that meet the criteria, complexity increases. To take seriously the multicultural nature of persons is to raise theoretical and empirical questions that are very difficult to answer. As a science and profession, we are not accustomed to thinking routinely and easily of individuals in this way. Our discipline will be enriched, however, if we can design creative new research strategies to address these questions.
The implications for practice may be least problematic because, whether in counseling, therapy, or education, theoretical emphasis has long been on taking into account “the whole person.” And in these areas, there is typically one-on-one interaction between persons – between client and mental health worker, or between student and teacher. An individual’s unique social identities or cultural memberships will be evident in behavior – overt or subtle. Whether they are recognized, acknowledged, respected and used positively in the actual practice of counseling, therapy, or education (beyond statements of theory) is a central concern. In research, a multicultural perspective presents a different set of interrelated problems pertaining to sampling, study design, methods, data analysis and interpretation.Research
Each participant or respondent in an investigation brings to it unique experiences and beliefs, perceptions, and response potentials that reflect far greater individual complexity and far more cultural memberships than most researchers are prepared to identify. We agree with Shields (2008, p. 304) that “[t]he facts of our lives reveal that there is no single identity category that satisfactorily describes how we respond to our social environment or are responded to by others.” We also agree with Mann and Kelley (1997, p. 392) that “knowledge is and should be situated in people’s diverse social locations.… [and] grounded in the social biography of … the observed.” Such agreement, however, does not lead easily or directly to researchable empirical questions that can be investigated in a practical way. Multiple issues and problems face the researcher who is accustomed to obtaining demographic descriptions of participants that are usually limited to age, ethnicity, and gender, or to the single-identity or group-members.
Here are brief explanations for the test questions:
1. Qualitative research is a form of social inquiry that focuses on understanding and interpreting how people make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live.
2. The three types of approach to research are: scientific approach, naturalistic approach, and triangulation/mixed method. The naturalistic approach focuses on discovering the real meaning behind people's lifestyles and social relations in a natural setting using qualitative methods like interviews.
3. Hard sciences like biology, chemistry and physics study natural phenomena using quantitative, objective and experimental methods. Soft sciences like sociology, psychology and history study human behavior and social phenomena using qualitative, subjective methods focused on meaning and discovery through interpretation.
The document outlines and describes various qualitative research techniques including ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, case study, biography, conversation analysis, narrative inquiry, and content analysis. It provides the key questions addressed by each technique, their disciplinary roots, typical data collection and analysis methods, and narrative focus.
Overview In this you will select an issue or.docxbkbk37
In this activity, students will select a topic related to globalization and analyze it through four lenses: history, humanities, natural/applied sciences, and social sciences. For their topic, students will write a 1-2 page paper applying each lens by using the language and perspectives of that discipline. Specifically, students will describe their existing knowledge of the topic, then analyze it through the history lens by discussing relevant events and dates. Next, they will apply the humanities lens to discuss the topic's cultural meaning and human expression. Then they will apply the natural/applied sciences lens to examine how the scientific method could be used or how it relates to the physical world. Finally, students will apply the social sciences lens to discuss who
1. The document outlines learning tasks and lessons for students on research design and sampling methods. It defines key terms like sampling, sampling frame, probability and non-probability sampling.
2. It describes the five main qualitative research designs - case study, ethnography, historical study, phenomenology, and grounded theory. For each, it provides the goals, methods of data collection, advantages and disadvantages.
3. It also defines sampling and the difference between probability and non-probability sampling. Sampling originated from early political surveys to understand public opinion. Probability sampling aims to give all members of the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected.
This document provides an overview of ethnographic research. It defines ethnography as the in-depth study of a culture or social group through techniques like observation and interviews. There are different types of ethnographic designs, including realist ethnographies which provide an objective account, case studies which focus on a specific event or activity, and critical ethnographies which aim to advocate for marginalized groups. Key characteristics of ethnographic research include studying cultural themes, a culture-sharing group, collecting data through fieldwork, analyzing shared patterns of behavior, and interpreting findings within their proper context while being reflexive of the researcher's role.
Exploratory Research Module_PhD XUB_July 16-1.pptxssuser1f4a4b
The document discusses exploratory research methodology. It explains that exploratory research involves initially exploring questions about a topic through processes like literature review, contemplation, or qualitative research methods. The goal is to build an organized body of knowledge about a subject matter and develop valid and reliable explanations for phenomena within a domain. Exploratory research is flexible and allows researchers to gain insights and ideas about a topic to help guide future research.
Similar to MethodologiesAAS 211March 15, 2022Age (16)
Homework assignmentPlease annotate one artwork you like from this.docxAbramMartino96
Homework assignment:
Please annotate one artwork you like from this week’s textbook
reading or Smarthistory. Whenever I am writing for research
presentation or publication, this is how I begin. The point is to make
sure you’re not missing anything in terms of basic data or
interpretive frameworks. When I take notes on a lecture at a
conference, this is the way I like to organize my notes, as well.
Format
Identify the artwork
Identify Period Style
Identify Subject Matter
Discuss Historical Context
Discuss Visual Elements (Line, Color, Texture, Composition etc.)
Discuss Its Place in Ideas or Culture of the Time
.
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense an.docxAbramMartino96
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense and Defense Support of Civil Authorities (DSCA), which are missions executed by the Department of Defense (DOD), most specifically by the Combatant Command, United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). In supporting the nation when requested by DHS, FEMA, or other lead federal agencies, or as directed by the president or the secretary of defense, DOD provides many unique capabilities for crisis response. One specific function used most notably during the post-Hurricane Katrina period was the use of airborne assets to provide damage assessments and to gauge the extent of the sea surge at various times during the recovery.
The function of deploying such assets is traditionally called
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
(ISR). Yet the U.S. military cannot legally collect intelligence on U.S. citizens. Consequently, the action, as performed during the hurricane recovery operations described here, is known as
incident awareness and assessments
(IAA). For some, the difference between these terms is merely semantics; for many, IAA differs both symbolically and practically from ISR, if not in how information is collected, then in how it is used and the motivation behind the collection. (The Web site for IAA reference is under Web sites references below.)
Assignment Guidelines
Address the following in 5–7 paragraphs:
Do you believe the distinction between ISR and IAA lies simply with terminology (and therefore there is little or no difference) or that there is a separation between the concepts? Explain and defend your answer fully. You may choose to research the topic more fully.
Contemplating the ethics of using IAA in the homeland, list at least 3 benefits of its use where ethics might potentially be secondary.
List at least 2–3 costs or opposing views to its use and how IAA—or the information gathered—might be misused or abused.
What if criminal activity (like acres of tended marijuana) was observed during IAA missions intended to conduct damage assessments? How should such information be handled?
Do you believe converting the term
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
to
incident awareness and assessments
for operations conducted in the homeland was wise or frivolous (or described otherwise)? Explain and defend your answer fully.
What is the value of using carefully selected terminology for operations in the homeland?
How does the symbolism of IAA potentially aid homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
How does the symbolism of ISR potentially hinder homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
Among the Web sites listed for this unit, you will find the Air Forces North (AFNORTH) Incident Awareness and Assessment Handbook, June 2010.
Why do you think this manual on IAA is available from open-source sites?
Do you think there might be ethical considerations to publicizing the use and purposes of IAA? Name and discuss at least 1.
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this repo.docxAbramMartino96
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this report you are going to provide a background information about Homecoming (for example, what is homecoming, what type of activities do people do, why it is celebrated in the U.S….) You must report your findings in an essay format (at least two long paragraphs) and cite any resources that you use.
.
Homer
Assignment
II
Read
three
of
the
books
from
The
Odyssey
including
Book
I.
Choose
one
character
and
trace
that
character’s
traits
throughout
your
reading
assignment.
Write
a
five-‐paragraph
character
analysis-‐interesting
insights
about
the
character-‐of
the
character
of
your
choice.
Choose
from
the
books
listed
below:
Book
I:
You
MUST
read
Book
I.
Invocation
and
part
summary
–council
of
the
gods-‐
Athena
visits
Telemachos
in
Ithaka
and
urges
him
to
go
in
search
of
his
father-‐the
suitors
feast
in
the
house
of
Telemachos.
Book
VIII:
Odysseus
at
the
games
of
the
Phaiakians-‐
he
is
asked
top
tell
his
name
and
his
story.
Book
XIII:
Return
of
Odysseus
to
Ithaka-‐
hi
is
landed,
alone-‐
strange
return
of
the
Phaiakian
ship-‐Athena
comes
to
Odysseus
and
advises
him.
Book
XVI:
Telemachos
visits
Eumaios-‐Odyssues
reveals
himself
to
Telemachos-‐Penelope
and
suitors
learn
that
Telemachos
has
returned-‐
night
at
the
house
of
Eumaios.
Book
XXI:
The
test
of
the
bow-‐the
suitors
fail-‐Odysseus
succeeds.
Book
XXII:
The
killing
of
the
suitors-‐punishment
of
the
faithless
maids
and
thrall.
Book
XXIII:
Recognition
of
Odysseus
by
Penelope-‐reunion-‐Odysseus
goes
to
Laertes’
farm.
.
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of t.docxAbramMartino96
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of the country.
How has society’s response to that population changed over time? Consider the following in your response: Cite references. Min 200 words
·
How has society’s response to that group changed over the past 300 years?
·
How has it changed in your lifetime?
·
What changes do you anticipate in society’s response in the next 50 years?
·
What factors have influenced those changes?
.
Homework Assignments One pagewhat the functional currency .docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignments One page
what the functional currency for Johnson& Johnson
Research your JOHNSON&JOHNSON and report on any major issue(s) of international taxation that is (are) addressed in this chapter.
Post this assignment in the chapter conference.
Discuss how your JOHNSON&JOHNSON handles transfer pricing.
Topics of discussion can include but are not limited to:
Are transfers from a subsidiary to its parent (upstream)? From the parent to a subsidiary (downstream)?
Or from one subsidiary to another of the same parent?
Transfer pricing methods?
What are the objectives of your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs transfer pricing practices?
What law(s) govern your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs practices?
What method is used?
The enforcement of transfer pricing regulations in the country where you JOHNSON&JOHNSON is located?
.
Homework Assignment Company Research This assignment req.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment: Company Research
This assignment requires you to research a company which is (
The Union Pacific Railroad
)
. You are to assume that you will be interviewing with this company for a job right after graduation. As such, you want to perform in-depth research about your company so you will be the best prepared candidate to be interviewed. Your goal is to learn as much as you can about the company including their strengths and weaknesses. Your research should include
Marketing issues due
·
Product market (major products)
·
Geographic market (where it operates –
local, regional, national, international)
·
Competitors
·
Brands
Current issues
·
Effect of current economic recession
·
Opportunities for and threats to the company based on current and projected events
·
Strengths and Weaknesses
·
Career opportunities
Financial issues
·
Trend analysis (e.g. trends in income, stock price, dividends)
·
Financial stability
Management issues
·
Core competency
·
Innovation (evidence that the company is or is not innovative)
·
Ethics and social responsibility (evidence of the company’s values and how those values have been reflected in its conduct)
·
Sustainability
Overview of the company
·
History
·
Mission
·
Vision
·
Organizational Structure
·
Primary industry(ies) in which it operates
Written Summary and Reference List
·
A five to eight page well organized executive summary of your company as well as a list of the references used. The reference list should be formatted according to APA style. Additionally, your team must provide evidence of “collaborative effort”, (Meeting Agendas, Minutes, etc.)
.
Homework Assignment #1Directions Please answer each of the foll.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment #1
Directions: Please answer each of the following questions in as detailed a manner as possible, and be sure to include all appropriate material discussed in the lectures and the assigned reading material.
1) Define what we mean by money and how it is used in the day to day functioning of the U.S. economy. Be sure to include the major components that make up what is defined as money and which of these components is used most widely to identify what money is. Also, include the major functions that money serves as a part of the overall economy and how banks act to create and maintain money.
2) Name and discuss the four major theories that address the term structure of interest rates. In your discussion, indicate the strengths and weaknesses of each of the theories and which theory or theories appear to be the most well accepted as explanations of term structure.
3) Explain the role that money plays under the Classical Macroeconomic Model. As a part of your discussion, include the impact the Quantity Theory of Money and Say’s Law have on this model and state in algebraic terms how the money supply relates to prices.
4) Compare and contrast pure discount bonds with coupon bonds and provide at least one example of such government or corporate bonds that can be bought and sold by investors. Describe the way interest rates are determined for these bonds by using the appropriate formula or formulas and explain the overall relationship between bond prices and interest rates.
.
Homework Assignment 9Due in week 10 and worth 30 pointsSuppose t.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment 9
Due in week 10 and worth 30 points
Suppose that there are two (2) candidates (i.e., Jones and Johns) in the upcoming presidential election. Sara notes that she has discussed the presidential election candidates with 15 friends, and 10 said that they are voting for candidate Jones. Sara is therefore convinced that candidate Jones will win the election because Jones gets more than 50% of votes.
Answer the following questions in the space provided below:
Based on what you now know about statistical inference, is Sara’s conclusion a logical conclusion? Why or why not?
How many friend samples Sara should have in order to draw the conclusion with 95% confidence interval? Why?
How would you explain your conclusion to Sara without using any statistical jargon? Why?
.
Homework Assignment 4 Guidelines1. Write the paper in Microsoft Wo.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment 4 Guidelines
1. Write the paper in Microsoft Word or in a comparable program saved as a Word document.
2. The text should be in 12 point CG Times, Times Roman, or New Times Roman.
3. Single spacing is fine but skip a line between questions.
4. Use a spell checker!
5. Include the corresponding question before each answer in your document.
6. Use Chicago or Turabian style citations to inform me of exactly where you found the information to answer the questions. The citation formatting does not need to be perfect, but do your best. For citation guides please see http://hub.miracosta.edu/library/ResearchGuides/Chicago.pdf
7. The title of the assignment in the Bb Section Folder is a hyperlink that opens the Assignment Submission window. Click to open. Upload your file. Copy the text of your assignment into the Assignment Materials text box on the assignment upload page. Make sure the formatting is cool by previewing before you submit.
8. Submit the assignment before the deadline.
Part A) A Reaction to Racism in American Literature, Art, and Music In the latter part of the 19th century, "Realism" became the dominant feature in American literature and influenced the Progressive Era writers of the early 20th century. In the years immediately following World War I, a number of American authors of the realist school began to explore race relations. Dramatists such as Eugene O'Neill and Paul Green wrote plays based on African American themes. O'Neill's The Emperor Jones (1920) and All God's Chillun Got Wings (1924) were immensely popular. Green won the Pulitzer Prize for In Abraham's Bosom, a play performed by a predominately African American cast in a period when few African American artists were able to find work outside vaudeville or minstrel shows. At the same time, a number of African American writers came to prominence writing novels and poetry based on their experiences as African Americans. This literary movement, originally centered in Harlem, New York, became known as the "Harlem Renaissance" (1920s-1930s). It was the outgrowth of a number of factors including the Great Migration to northern cities and the growing anger over both overt and covert racism. Authors, musicians, and painters gathered in Harlem and in other large urban areas throughout the North and developed a distinctly African American cultural movement cognizant of the political, economic, and social issues of prejudice and discrimination that were part of the Black experience in America. Historians have described the Harlem Renaissance as a period in which the African American writer ". . . had achieved a degree and kind of articulation that make it possible for him to transform his feelings into a variety of literary forms. Despite his intense feelings of hate and hurt, he possessed sufficient restraint and objectivity to use his materials artistically, but no less effectively." (John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans, .
Hi we are a group doing a research and we split up the work ev.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
we are a group doing a research and we split up the work every one took apart and my part is to do
the Value Chain Analysis only
FOR the
company in question
(
company info you will find it in the attachment
)
so
there is no need to do introduction or anything
else just go directly to the topic and start doing the Value Chain Analysis
instruction in general
1-
12 font Double space
2-
2-3 pages maximum
3-
Add appendix
4-
Reliable sources important
I will check plagiarism just in case
Specific
my part is to do the value chain analysis only again do not write introduction or any thing just start with the analysis
please do not waste my and your time
read the attachment carefully first then start do the reaserch
if you have any regards
contact me
.
hi I need research paper about any topics in Manufacturing Proc.docxAbramMartino96
hi
I need research paper about any topics in
Manufacturing Processes
a.
To introduce students to some of the fundamentals of materials (behavior and manufacturing properties)
b.
To give students a working knowledge of production processes of casting, forming and shaping, machining and machine tools, sheet metal, and joining processes
c.
To introduce students computer integrated manufacturing, flexible manufacturing systems and other modern technologies in manufacturing
d.
To give students common aspects of manufacturing including statistical control and life expectancy of some products.
e.
Students will design a simple artifact, present case studies or designs, and write reports
.
HMIS Standards Please respond to the followingFrom the e-A.docxAbramMartino96
"HMIS Standards"
Please respond to the following:
From the e-Activity, determine a key factor that has delayed the widespread implementation of electronic health records in health care organizations. Provide an example of the effects of each factor to support your rationale.
Determine two areas where HIPPA has influenced the development of HIMS standards. Justify your response.
.
Hi i need a paper about (Head On )German film ( Turkey part)3 to.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
i need a paper about (Head On )German film ( Turkey part)
3 to 5 sentences each
Summary:
Time context:
Details about the film:
Thesis: explain
Characters:
Camera technique:
Light:
Music:
Situation effects:
Power struggle:
Sources: 3 academic
.
Hi i have new work can you do it, its due in 6 hours Boyd, Ga.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
i have new work can you do it, it's due in 6 hours
Boyd,
Gayle M.,
Jan Howard,
and
Robert A. Zucker
.
Alcohol Problems among Adolescents: Current Directions in Prevention Research.
Psychology Press
, 2013.
Lowe, Geoff
,
David R. Foxcroft,
and
David Sibley
.
Adolescent Drinking and Family Life
.
Taylor & Francis, 1993
.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Underage Drinking: A Major Public Health Challenge
. Apr. 2003. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
Office of Juvenile Jus
tice and Delinquency Prevention.
Effects and Consequences of Underage Drinking
. Sept.
2012
. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
I want you to chose any two of these sources and write two pergraph for each, total 4 pergraghs. Can you do it?
.
HIT Management and Implementation Please respond to the followi.docxAbramMartino96
"HIT Management and Implementation"
Please respond to the following:
Determine a key process in the delivery of health care services that would be more efficient and effective through the application of a specific model of HIT. Support your response.
Analyze the barriers to the implementation of HIMS in a complex adaptive system (CAS). Propose a strategy to help reduce the level of resistance from the clinical staff during a transition from CAS to HIMS innovations. Provide a rationale to support your response
"Innovationin HIMS"
Please respond to the following:
•Compare and contrast the functionality and efficiency of the complaint-push model and data-pull model within the process of health care service delivery. Recommend a strategy improving the effectiveness of each method for delivering patient care.
•Determine a significant aspect of a complex health care system that represents barriers to a more rapid diffusion of HIT. Next, suggest how these barriers can be removed or minimized. Support your rationale.
.
History and TheoryConsiderthe eras, life histories.docxAbramMartino96
History and Theory
Consider
the eras, life histories, and personalities of Freud and Rogers.
Identify
two research articles published in the last 5 years: one that investigates a psychoanalytic or Freudian construct and one that investigates a client-centered, humanistic, or Rogerian construct.
Write
a 700- to 1,050-word paper about Freud and Rogers that addresses the following:
Provide a summary of each article, highlighting the processes that contemporary psychologists use to develop the theories of Freud and Rogers.
Explain their views of human nature and their worldviews as expressed in their respective theories.
Which aspect of their theory do you think would be different if they were alive and working today?
Explain how social and cultural factors influenced the development of Freud's and Rogers' respective theories of personality.
Do
NOT
use about.com, psychology.about.com, ask.com, simplypsychology.org, AllPsych.com, SparkNotes.com, wikipedia, or other sources that are not scholarly in nature.
You
MUST
have a minimum of 2 scholarly sources as references. You may use your textbook but it does not count as one of these sources.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Read the Case of Jim in Chapter 6
Each team member should discuss the case using the humanistic theory as a model. Then use the humanistic theory to discuss how you would use it to assess the client.
Post an initial response
to this case analysis (approximately 350 words with at least 1 scholarly source).
THE CASE OF JIM
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL: PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY
Jim completed ratings of the concepts self, ideal self, father, and mother using the semantic differential (
Chapter 5
), a simple rating scale. Although the semantic differential is not the exact measure recommended by Rogers, its results can be related to Rogerian theory since its procedures have a phenomenological quality and assess perceptions of self and ideal self.
First, consider how Jim perceives his self. Based on the semantic differential, Jim sees himself as intelligent, friendly, sincere, kind, and basically good—as a wise person who is humane and interested in people. At the same time, other ratings suggest that he does not feel free to be expressive and uninhibited. Thus, he rates himself as reserved, introverted, inhibited, tense, moral, and conforming. There is a curious mixture of perceptions: being involved, deep, sensitive, and kind while also being competitive, selfish, and disapproving. There is also the interesting combination of perceiving himself as being good and masculine but simultaneously weak and insecure. One gets the impression of an individual who would like to believe that he is basically good and capable of.
History of an argument Are there too many people There h.docxAbramMartino96
History of an argument: Are there too many people?
There have been several points in history at which someone has argued that we have too many people, and that this will be a problem.
Please do some research and choose at least one of these arguments to discuss in some detail in a paper of about 2-3 pages.
Who was making the argument?
Which people were identified as being too many?
Was a solution proposed, and if so, what was it?
Did the predicted overpopulation crisis come to pass, and why or why not?
How many people would be about right?
How many are too many?
Who decides?
What are the criteria for the decision?
The usual formatting and proper mechanics of good writing apply.
.
history essays- 1000 words each essay- mla and 2 works cited. every .docxAbramMartino96
history essays- 1000 words each essay- mla and 2 works cited. every question should be submitted in its own sheet.
1.Trace the patterns of international migration since 1970, with reference to at least two examples. How do these differ from migration patterns of a century earlier?
2.
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of globalization in contemporary world. Who has benefited and who has not? Has globalization brought the world together or driven it further apart?
.
Historical Background of Housing PolicyHousing is one of the requi.docxAbramMartino96
Historical Background of Housing Policy
Housing is one of the requirements in human life
(not true!)
. Therefore,
it
greatly influences the day to day life of citizens in a country as well as the country's economy. As a result of
its
importance, there
should be
secure policies in the state that protect citizens against exploitation and the economy of the nation
This is not a neutral statement of the evidence
(Turis, 2011).
Good
housing provided with essential social amenities means healthy lives for the citizens since
they will be enjoying all the services
. Poor housing, for instance, can result in health issues for the individuals of a given society. Crime rates are also found to be higher in places with inadequate housing and this
becomes a threat
may be a threat
to the security of the community.
The housing policy
,
??????
therefore, was formed
so as to
address the housing challenges facing the nation and its citizens (Turis, 2011).
indent
To deal with the housing problems
(what housing problems?)
the Section 8 Housing Choice Voucher program
(The correct name is Section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937 (42 U.S.C. § 1437f)
was established in 1974 as the Housing Act (Turis, 2011). This housing policy enables low income earners
to pay for houses of their choice
in the private market. The state funds the program and as a result, it benefits over five million low-income families as it enables them to pay for the housing
with ease
. Provision of
the
vouchers is one of the
policies
ways
in which
the state addresses the housing problem for its citizens (Turis, 2011). Compared to other policies
such as….
, vouchers provide a wider range of shelter and they are less expensive. For the low-income earners to use the vouchers, the kind of houses they find
should not
exceed the maximum allowable rent by the vouchers and must be in line with the program policies. The program also
covers a wide variety of houses
which include single family home; this was aimed at small families. Apartments and houses in towns are also covered by the program.
This description of the HCV is not clear.
indent
The housing voucher programs is managed by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (Kotz, 2012)
.
Public Housing Agencies (PHAs) are
the ones
responsible for carrying out the local programs outlines
(Kotz, 2012)
.
The mode of operation of this program is that an individual finds a suitable house for them to live and they pay rent to the landlords. The subsidy for the rent is paid by the PHAs to the owners of the house directly, and the person receiving such voucher will have to pay the remaining amount of money to the landlord (Kotz, 2012)
.
Therefore, in this program, the kind of benefits the citizens receive is subsidies on the rent they pay to the owners. A Certain amount is paid by the PHAs on the behalf of the low-income families, which makes houses relatively cheaper for citizens to choose where they want to li.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
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Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. Methodologies
AAS 211
March 15, 2022
*
AgendaCheck in: “Talk story””What will you do during the
break?”Go over Ethnography and autoethnography
No need to wait or go anywhereWriting down your observations
and thoughts ("taking field notes" or doing "participant
observation” - ethnography) is "research." Talking to people in
your community and family ("doing oral history interviewing")
is research. Reflecting on your experiences, especially in the
context of various (intersecting) forms of oppression based on
race, class, gender, sexuality, ability, age, etc.
("autoethnography") is research.
*
2. The original goals of Ethnic Studies and Asian American
Studies were to make academic work relevant and accountable
to real people and real communities, so your research is part of
this lineage.The methodologies that I will go over today might
help you start right away (if you already haven't).
Quantitative Method“Quantitative research (the word
‘quantitative’ comes from the word ‘quantity’) involves
information or data in the form of numbers. This allows us to
measure or to quantify a whole range of things. For example:
the number of people who live below the poverty line; the
number of children between specific ages who attend school;
the average spending power in a community; or the number of
adults who have access to computers in a village or town.”
Surveys are common way of doing quantitative
researchQuestionnaire“Respondents” answers exact same
questionsWhen have enough responses, put data together and
analyse in a way that answers your research question or what
you want to know/explore
Observation researchWatch for instances of certain behaviors,
patterns, phenomenon, etc.Media research based on “monitoring
criteria” (e.g. specific focus of the article, author, date of
publication, length, etc.) For example, “of all articles in major
newspapers about the Wen Ho Lee incident, ____% assumed
that he was guilty when the story first broke out.”
3. Quantitative research may reveal important information, but you
might want to go into depth with qualitative research
For example, through a survey you may find out that major
newspapers portray Asian Americans a certain way, but you
want to know the reasons why they do. For that you would want
to do interviews the writers, publishers, etc. at the newspapers.
Advantages of surveys
Good for comparative analysis.
Can get lots of data in a relatively short space of time.
Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet, for example).
Can take less time for respondents to complete (compared to an
interview or focus group).
Disadvantages of surveys
Responses may not be specific.Questions may be
misinterpreted.May not get as many responses as you
need.Don’t get full story.
"The aim of qualitative research is to deepen our understanding
about something, and usually this means going beyond the
numbers and the statistics.”
Qualitative research helps us to give reasons why the numbers
tell us what they do. It is often contrasted to quantitative
4. research – and they are very often used together to get the
‘bigger picture’ of what we are trying to find out. “Qualitative
research helps us ‘flesh out the story’.”
Face-to-face interviews/oral historiesFocus
groupsEthnographic/Participant observationAutoethnography
EthnographyStudying a culture’s relational practices, common
values and beliefs, and shared experiences to insiders (cultural
members) and outsiders (cultural strangers) better understand
the culture.Researchers become participant observers in the
culture by taking field notes of cultural happeningsResearch
may also interview cultural membersExamine members' ways of
speaking and relatingInvestigate uses of space and placeAnalyze
artifacts (clothing, architecture, etc.) and texts (books, movies,
photos, etc.)
1. Jottings are the brief words or phrases written down while at
the fieldsite or in a situation about which more complete notes
will be written later. Usually recorded in a small notebook,
jottings are intended to help us remember things we want to
include when we write the full-fledged notes. While not all
research situations are appropriate for writing jottings all the
time, they do help a great deal when sitting down to write
afterwards.
2. Description of everything we can remember about the
occasion you are writing about - a meal, a ritual, a meeting, a
5. sequence of events, etc. While it is useful to focus primarily on
things you did or observed which relate to the guiding question,
some amount of general information is also helpful. This
information might help in writing a general description of the
site later, but it may also help to link related phenomena to one
another or to point our useful research directions later.
Autoethnography: An Overview1)Carolyn Ellis, Tony E. Adams
& Arthur P. BochnerForum: Qualitative Social Research,
Volume 12, No. 1, Art. 10 – January 2011
Autoethnography is an approach to research and writing that
seeks to describe and systematically analyze (graphy) personal
experience (auto) in order to understand cultural experience
(ethno) (ELLIS, 2004; HOLMAN JONES, 2005). This approach
challenges canonical ways of doing research and representing
others (SPRY, 2001) and treats research as a political, socially-
just and socially-conscious act (ADAMS & HOLMAN JONES,
2008). A researcher uses tenets of autobiography and
ethnography to do and write autoethnography. Thus, as a
method, autoethnography is both process and product. [1]
“Crisis of confidence”“In particular, scholars began illustrating
how the "facts" and "truths" scientists "found" were inextricably
tied to the vocabularies and paradigms the scientists used to
represent them (KUHN, 1996; RORTY, 1982); they recognized
the impossibility of and lack of desire for master, universal
narratives (DE CERTEAU, 1984; LYOTARD, 1984)”Scholar
begin considering social science as literature rather than
physics:Stories rather than theoryValue-centered rather than
6. value free
“Autoethnographers recognize the innumerable ways personal
experience influences the research process.” “Consequently,
autoethnography is one of the approaches that acknowledges
and accommodates subjectivity, emotionality, and the
researcher's influence on research, rather than hiding from these
matters or assuming they don't exist.”
“For the most part, those who advocate and insist on canonical
forms of doing and writing research are advocating a White,
masculine, heterosexual, middle/upper-classed, Christian, able-
bodied perspective.” In such case, a researcher disregards other
ways of knowing but also implies that other ways are
unsatisfactory and invalidAutoethnography, on the other hand,
expands and opens up a wider lens on the world, Challenges
rigid definitions of what is meaningful and useful researchHelps
us understand how we influence interpretations of what we
study, how we study it, and what we say about our topic
EpiphaniesRemembered moments perceived to have
significantly impacted the trajectory of a person's lifeTimes of
existential crises that forced a person to attend to and analyze
lived experience Events after which life does not seem quite the
same“…these epiphanies reveal ways a person could negotiate
"intense situations" and "effects that linger—recollections,
memories, images, feelings—long after a crucial incident is
supposedly finished”
7. Doing Autoethnography“When researchers do autoethnography,
they retrospectively and selectively write about epiphanies that
stem from, or are made possible by, being part of a culture
and/or by possessing a particular cultural identity.”However,
must also analyze those experiences if you want to publish
Therefore…Must use methodological tools and research
literature to analyze experienceAlso, must consider ways others
may experience similar epiphanies; they must use personal
experience to illustrate facets of cultural experience, and, in so
doing, make characteristics of a culture familiar for insiders and
outsiders. To accomplish this might require comparing and
contrasting personal experience against existing research
Focus GroupsDiscussions with two or more
participantsQuestions need to be prepared to guide and focus
the discussionsHowever, participants are encouraged to explore
issues you are researching in an in-depth way. Therefore,
responses are often free-ranging
Focus groups and interviews can produce quantitative dataFor
example, “20% of participants in focus group believed that
Jeremy Lin was not as good as the hype” or “100% of Japanese
American tenure track professors in College of Ethnic Studies
that were interviewed are of Okinawan descent.Follow up with
looking for reasons behind the statistical data.
8. Research tips for focus groups
Focus groups can take time to arrange
Prepare in advance
Use intermediary to help (not spirit medium: someone who is in
close contact with potential participants)
Refer to your research question to determine who you want in
your focus group:
What age group? Male or female? Income bracket? Generation?
Race/ethnicity?
Separate focus groups for different attributes
Issues of powerFacilitator has much power in the discussionsBe
aware of this especially in discussions o sensitive Paying
participants?
Advantages of focus groups
Good for community participation (grassroots input);
Helpful in developing ideas and sharing latent, or hidden,
knowledge spontaneously;
Enables you to get information from a number of individuals
simultaneously.
Disadvantages of focus groups
Can be difficult to set up;
Participants may need to be paid;
Need to be sensitive to who the facilitator is;
May need a translator;
Sometimes difficult to organize and analyse information.
9. 2022/3/8 “Autoethnography” in “Ethnography Made Simple” on
Manifold Scholarship at CUNY
https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/read/untitled-fefc096b-ef1c-4e20-
9b1f-cce4e33d7bae/section/210e7cfa-52e3-4412-b107-
d38cfb124de5 1/18
Autoethnography
Alia R.Tyner-Mullings
While it is an ethnographic method on its own, an
autoethnography can also be a good
place to begin an ethnographic investigation. Through it, you
can begin to situate yourself
within the larger structural and social system. It allows you to
explore your own positionality
before you begin to examine the lives of others as an
autothenography is a way to turn
ethnography on yourself and to learn about your life in the same
way you might learn about
someone else's. The process of creating an autoethnography
allows you to be reflective on
what makes you who you are and how you came to be. Through
this process, an
authoethnography can also help you to look at the larger context
in which you live. 1
10. Autoethnography is an approach to research and writing that
seeks to describe and
systematically analyze (graphy) personal experience (auto) in
order to understand cultural
experience (ethno) (Ellis, 2004; Holman Jones, 2005). This
approach challenges canonical
ways of doing research and representing others (Spry, 2001) and
treats research as a political,
socially-just and socially-conscious act (Adams & Holman
Jones, 2008). A researcher uses
tenets of autobiography and ethnography to do and write
autoethnography. Thus, as a
method, autoethnography is both process and product.2
History of Autoethnography
So how did autoethnography come to be? In the 1980s, scholars
introduced new and
abundant opportunities to reform social science and reconceive
the objectives and forms of
social science inquiry. Scholars became increasingly troubled
by social science's ontological,
epistemological, and axiological limitations (Ellis & Bochner,
2000). Furthermore, there was an
increasing need to resist colonialist, sterile research impulses of
authoritatively entering a
11. culture, exploiting cultural members, and then recklessly
leaving to write about the culture for
monetary and/or professional gain, while disregarding relational
ties to cultural members
(Conquergood, 1991; Ellis, 2007; Riedmann, 1993).
Gradually, scholars across a wide spectrum of disciplines began
to consider what social
sciences would become if they were closer to literature than to
physics, if they proffered
stories rather than theories, and if they were self-consciously
value-centered rather than
pretending to be value free (Bochner, 1994). Many of these
scholars turned to
autoethnography because they were seeking a positive response
to critiques of canonical
ideas about what research is and how research should be done.
In particular, they wanted to
concentrate on ways of producing meaningful, accessible, and
evocative research
grounded in personal experience, research that would sensitize
readers to issues of identity
politics, to experiences shrouded in silence, and to forms of
representation that deepen our
12. capacity to empathize with people who are different from us
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000).
Autoethnographers recognize the innumerable ways personal
experience influences the
research process. For instance, a researcher decides who, what,
when, where, and how to
research, decisions necessarily tied to institutional requirements
(e.g., Institutional Review
Boards), resources (e.g., funding), and personal circumstance
(e.g., a researcher studying
cancer because of personal experience with cancer). A
researcher may also change names
and places for protection (Fine, 1993), compress years of
research into a single text, and
2022/3/8 “Autoethnography” in “Ethnography Made Simple” on
Manifold Scholarship at CUNY
https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/read/untitled-fefc096b-ef1c-4e20-
9b1f-cce4e33d7bae/section/210e7c fa-52e3-4412-b107-
d38cfb124de5 2/18
construct a study in a pre-determined way (e.g., using an
introduction, literature review,
methods section, findings, and conclusion; Tullis Owen, McRae,
Adams & Vitale, 2009). Even
13. though some researchers still assume that research can be done
from a neutral, impersonal,
and objective stance (Atkinson, 1997; Buzard, 2003; Delamont,
2009), most now recognize that
such an assumption is not tenable (Bochner, 2002; Denzin &
Lincoln, 2000; Rorty, 1982).
Consequently, autoethnography is one of the approaches that
acknowledges and
accommodates subjectivity, emotionality, and the researcher's
influence on research, rather
than hiding from these matters or assuming they don't exist.
Furthermore, scholars began recognizing that different kinds of
people possess different
assumptions about the world—a multitude of ways of speaking,
writing, valuing and believing
—and that conventional ways of doing and thinking about
research were narrow, limiting,
and parochial. These differences can stem from race (Anzaldúa,
1987; Boylorn, 2006; Davis,
2009), gender (Blair, Brown & Baxter, 1994; Keller, 1995),
sexuality (Foster, 2008; Glave, 2005),
age (Dossa, 1999; Paulson & Willig, 2008), ability (Couser,
1997; Gerber, 1996), class (Hooks,
2000; Dykins Callahan, 2008), education (Delpit, 1996;
14. Valenzuela, 1999), or religion
(Droogsma, 2007; Minkowitz, 1995). Often, those who advocate
and insist on canonical forms
of doing and writing research are advocating a White,
masculine, heterosexual,
middle/upper-classed, Christian, cis-gendered and able-bodied
perspective. Following these
conventions, a researcher not only disregards other ways of
knowing but also implies that
other ways are unsatisfactory and invalid. Autoethnography, on
the other hand, expands and
opens up a wider lens on the world, eschewing rigid definitions
of what constitutes meaningful
and useful research; this approach also helps us understand how
the kinds of people we
claim, or are perceived, to be influence interpretations of what
we study, how we study it, and
what we say about our topic (Adams, 2005; Wood, 2009).
The Structure of Autoethnographies
As described above, autoethnography combines characteristics
of autobiography and
ethnography and in writing an autobiography, an author
retroactively and selectively writes
15. about past experiences. Usually, the author does not live
through these experiences solely to
make them part of a published document; rather, these
experiences are assembled using
hindsight (Bruner, 1993; Denzin, 1989, Freeman, 2004). In
writing, the author also may interview
others as well as consult with texts like photographs, journals,
and recordings to help with recall
(Delany, 2004; Didion, 2005; Goodall, 2006; Herrmann, 2005).
Most often, autobiographers write about "epiphanies"—
remembered moments perceived to
have significantly impacted the trajectory of a person's life
(Bochner & Ellis, 1992; Couser, 1997;
Denzin, 1989), times of existential crises that forced a person to
attend to and analyze lived
experience (Zaner, 2004), and events after which life does not
seem quite the same. While
epiphanies are self-claimed phenomena in which one person
may consider an experience
transformative while another may not, these epiphanies reveal
ways a person could negotiate
"intense situations" and "effects that linger—recollections,
memories, images, feelings—long
after a crucial incident is supposedly finished" (Bochner, 1984,
16. p.595). This is one justification for
focusing the autoethnography on a student’s path to college and
how they arrived at our
school like we do at Guttman Community College. When
researchers do autoethnography,
they retrospectively and selectively write about epiphanies that
stem from, or are made
possible by, being part of a culture and/or by possessing a
particular cultural identity.
However, in addition to telling their audiences about
experiences, autoethnographers often
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are required by social science publishing conventions to analyze
these experiences. As Mitch
Allen says, an autoethnographer must
"look at experience analytically. Otherwise [you're] telling
[your] story—and that's
nice—but people do that on Oprah [a U.S.-based television
program] every day.
17. Why is your story more valid than anyone else's? What makes
your story more valid is
that you are a researcher. You have a set of theoretical and
methodological tools
and a research literature to use. That's your advantage. If you
can't frame it around
these tools and literature and just frame it as 'my story,' then
why or how should I
privilege your story over anyone else's I see 25 times a day on
TV?" (personal
interview, May 4, 2006)3
Autoethnographers must not only use their methodological tools
and research literature to
analyze experience, but also must consider ways others may
experience similar epiphanies;
they must use personal experience to illustrate facets of cultural
experience, and, in so doing,
make characteristics of a culture familiar for insiders and
outsiders. To accomplish this might
require comparing and contrasting personal experience against
existing research (RONAI,
1995, 1996), interviewing cultural members (Foster, 2006;
Marvasti, 2006; Tillmann-Healy, 2001),
18. and/or examining relevant cultural artifacts (Boylorn, 2008;
Denzin, 2006).
In her piece “Evaluating Ethnography,” Laurel Richardson
examines the divide that has
persisted between literary and scientific writing (253). This is
similar to the division that has
existed between academic and personal writing. She notes the
“oxymoronic” naming of
genres that have tried to bridge this gap, thus blurring
distinctions among categories such as
“creative nonfiction; faction; ethnographic fiction; the
nonfiction novel; and true fiction”
(253). And she seeks to lay out the criteria she uses to judge
ethnography’s success.4
In attempting to create new standards that allow writers to move
more freely in their
ethnographic work, Richardson establishes the following as
important evaluative criteria. She
believes the work should: make a substantive contribution, have
aesthetic merit, have
reflexivity, make an impact, and express a reality (254). In this
way, Richardson intends to show
the related nature of scientific research and creative expression.
Arthur Bochner responds to Richardson in “Criteria Against
19. Ourselves” and sets up his own
evaluation criteria for what he terms “alternative ethnography,”
another name often
assigned to ethnography that deviates from traditional social
science norms. He sees
alternative ethnographies as “narratives of the self” that
“extract meaning from
experience rather than depict experience exactly as it was lived”
(270). When looking at this
personal writing, he wants abundant concrete detail, structurally
complex narratives,
emotional credibility, a tale of two selves, and ethical self-
consciousness (270-71).
In “Evocative Autoethnography: Writing Emotionally About
Our Lives,” Carolyn Ellis describes
her gradual departure from traditional sociological methods into
an approach that is more
personally meaningful. She achieves this balance in her writing
by using multiple voices,
starting and restarting to establish her point of view through
both analysis and storytelling. “I
made myself begin again in an autoethnographic voice that
concentrates on telling a
personal, evocative story to provoke others’ stories and adds
20. blood and tissue to the
abstract bones of the theoretical discourse” (117). Throughout
the piece, she clearly
establishes a point of view, which she emphasizes in many of
her works about
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autoethnography, “I think that sociology can be emotional,
personal, therapeutic,
interesting, engaging, evocative, reflexive, helpful, concrete,
and connected to the world of
everyday experience” (120). She aims to be true to her feelings,
move away from time
ordered structures and convey her emotions (128).
Ellis draws on interviews, notes, conversations, and diaries to
construct her writing and seeks to
find herself in the context of a larger world. “The inner
workings of the self must be
investigated in reciprocal relationship with the other: concrete
action, dialogue, emotion, and
21. thinking are featured, but they are represented within
relationships and institutions, very much
impacted by history, social structure, and culture, which
themselves are dialectically revealed
through action, thought, and language” (133).
She seeks to find value in autoethnography through the impact
it has on her audience. “A
story’s ‘validity’ can be judged by whether it evokes in readers
a feeling that the
experience described is authentic and lifelike, believable and
possible; the story’s
generalizability can be judged by whether it speaks to readers
about their experience” (133).
She believes that by sharing stories this way, we open up a
world that allows others to share
their stories (134).
To accomplish this, your first attempt at autoethngraphy might
begin with Allen’s simple
retelling of a “story”. This story connects with something
powerful in your life and may lead
you to a particular conclusion about how your individual world
works and how that is affected
by larger social institutions. If you are able to do multiple
22. drafts, the opportunity for reflection
grows and the connection to larger social institutions is more
easily made.5
Preparing for the Autoethnograhy
In writing an autoethnography, you will be asked to analyze
your epiphany, position in the
subculture or the educational path you are currently on as well
as the positioning of others
and how it might affect your perspective. Autoethnographic
analysis in this case might
include interviewing other members of the subculture,
conducting field observation, analyzing
textual materials, investigating histories, and engaging in self-
reflection. Previous involvement
in or attachment to a subculture provides a vested interest in the
project, a sense of authority,
and a position from which to analyze.6
When conducting autoethnographic research, as opposed to
traditional ethnographic
research, you start out with a certain amount of knowledge
about the subculture or epiphany
you are investigating because you have some expertise about it.
At the same time, because it
23. is necessary to explain the subculture to those who are
unfamiliar with it, you must also learn
how to translate that knowledge to an outside audience. In
addition, when considering any
observations you might make, you need to look at the subculture
afresh and describe
elements you may have taken for granted. You must account for
rituals, language and
subtleties that make it operate as something unique and situated.
You might consider
interviewing members of the subculture who inhabit a different
position than you do, and you
can also gather new perspectives from insiders that will help
you to further articulate your own
ideas and question your own authority in communicating exactly
what the subculture is.
Interviewing and conducting observations can both empower
you and decenter you from
your own experience, forcing you to question and revise your
representation of your
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experience to an intended audience (your instructor and
classmates, who may see this writing
at multiple stages).7
When you draw on visceral experiences as well as textual
evidence, it can also create a richer
understanding of the subculture and an ethical responsibility to
convey its multiple facets and
to avoid being reductive. This can increase your understanding
and involvement in the
subculture and produce a new appreciation for an activity that
perhaps had been an
unexamined part of your life outside the classroom. In this way,
the writing carries an impact
that extends beyond the scope of the assignment and its
evaluation against classroom
standards.
One of the first steps you want to take in preparing for your
autoethnograpy is to determine its
structure. An autoethnography assignment will generally
provide you with an overall question,
a particular subculture or epiphany or a series of smaller
questions related to an overall theme.
25. You should pay close attention to what is being asked of you
including what you will need to
submit, the research required to complete it and what the
differences are between any
subsequent drafts. At Guttman, we generally begin with an
exercise that helps you to think
about your path to college. This might be a brainstorm, a list of
questions or an exploration of
your own notes, posts, assignments or journal entries.8
Collecting data for your autoethnography
If you have not been provided a list of questions, you may need
to develop your own. In this
case, you will need to review whichever aspect of your world
your professor has asked you to
examine and any experiences, people and artifacts that are
related.9
At Guttman, we focus on the general question "How Did I Get
Here?" and ask you to reflect
on your unique experiences, positions and perspectives in this
world. You should think about
who were the people that lead you to this college? What has
happened with your schooling
and work experiences, your family and friends, your
26. spiritual/religious beliefs, and/or your
neighborhoods that brought you to Guttman?
For your autoethnography, you will think deeply about your
own understanding of how you
got to Guttman—the people, places and experiences in your life
that led you to New York, to
Guttman, through your first year and to a possible major and
career. This is called an
autoethnography because the primary source of analysis is your
experience and perceptions
of the events in your life. Your introduction should engage
readers with your story and your
purpose of writing and your conclusion should state your main
findings about your path to
Guttman and reflect more broadly on how your experience may
indicate larger
ideas/experiences/structures in our social world.
Some professors may also ask you to consider the following
questions:
1. How do your experiences reflect broader societal issues about
education?
2. How does race, socio-economic class, gender and other
aspects of identity play
27. out in your narrative?
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3. What is important about the main challenges and
opportunities you
experienced?
4. What is the role of social institutions—such as family,
schools, religion, etc--and
your pathway to Guttman?
The structure of your autoethnography should be similar to how
you might write up an
ethnography. This will generally include one or more narrative
stories that describe the
particular aspects of your subculture or epiphany that are
referred to in your assignment. You
might include pictures or images that capture your experiences.
As part of this assignment,
you may find it useful to speak to family or friends who might
also have insight into those parts
28. of your life, examining journals, photos and pictures to collect
information can also provide
information.
As you think about your autoethnography, you must also
understand that memory is fallible. As
a rule, people remember only a very small amount of what they
experience. If this were not
true, we would not be able to function on a daily basis.
Consider whether you have a memory
of something that others dispute—maybe something that
happened in childhood or an
experience with a friend on which you disagree about what
actually occurred.
It is important to establish that just because memories differ
does not mean they are invalid.
There is a fine line between remembering something to the best
of our ability and willfully
misremembering something. Talking to others who were
involved in memories, if possible, can
be helpful in fleshing out details. . Since memory is fallible,
interviewing others who were
present at important events, speaking to multiple people directly
involved in the memories or
reading journals or other first-hand accounts can be an
29. important part of the writing. It may
come as a surprise that writing about your own life can require
research.10
Once you have your data, you want to begin to organize it.
There are two general ways to
organize your autoethnography—chronologically and by theme.
If you are describing your
path to or through something, you will likely want to write this
chronologically. You should
begin with the earliest event, person or activity and share a
story or multiple stories through to
the current time.11
If you are not writing your essay as building up to something or
this is later draft that includes
some analysis or examination of social institutions, you might
want to organize your paper by
theme. In this case, you might collect particular examples that
share a particular pattern or
connect to a theme.
Ethnographic Narratives
The forms of autoethnography also differ in how much emphasis
is placed on the study of
others, the researcher's self and interaction with others,
30. traditional analysis, and the interview
context, as well as on power relationships.12 Many assignments
in a class are likely to focus
more on the self but others might ask you to pull on data outside
of your own experiences.
These are built off of different structures of ethnographic
research and the ways in which
narratives are composed.13
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Indigenous/native ethnographies, for example, develop from
colonized or economically
subordinated people, and are used to address and disrupt power
in research, particularly a
(outside) researcher's right and authority to study (exotic)
others. Once at the service of the
(White, masculine, heterosexual, middle/upper-classed,
Christian, cis-gendered, able-bodied)
ethnographer, indigenous/native ethnographers now work to
construct their own personal
31. and cultural stories; they no longer find (forced) subjugation
excusable (see Denzin, Lincoln &
Smith, 2008).14
Narrative ethnographies refer to texts presented in the form of
stories that incorporate the
ethnographer's experiences into the ethnographic descriptions
and analysis of others. Here
the emphasis is on the ethnographic study of others, which is
accomplished partly by
attending to encounters between the narrator and members of
the groups being studied
(Tedlock, 1991), and the narrative often intersects with analyses
of patterns and processes.
Reflexive, dyadic interviews focus on the interactively
produced meanings and emotional
dynamics of the interview itself. Though the focus is on the
participant and her or his story, the
words, thoughts, and feelings of the researcher also are
considered, e.g., personal motivation
for doing a project, knowledge of the topics discussed,
emotional responses to an interview,
and ways in which the interviewer may have been changed by
the process of interviewing.
32. Even though the researcher's experience isn't the main focus,
personal reflection adds context
and layers to the story being told about participants (Ellis,
2004).
Reflexive ethnographies document ways a researcher changes as
a result of doing fieldwork.
Reflexive/narrative ethnographies exist on a continuum ranging
from starting research from
the ethnographer's biography, to the ethnographer studying her
or his life alongside cultural
members' lives, to ethnographic memoirs (Ellis, 2004, p.50) or
"confessional tales" (Van
Maanen, 1988) where the ethnographer's backstage research
endeavors become the focus
of investigation (Ellis, 2004).
Layered accounts often focus on the author's experience
alongside data, abstract analysis,
and relevant literature. This form emphasizes the procedural
nature of research. Similar to
grounded theory, layered accounts illustrate how "data
collection and analysis proceed
simultaneously" (Charmaz, 1983, p.110) and frame existing
research as a "source of questions
and comparisons" rather than a "measure of truth" (p.117). But
33. unlike grounded theory, layered
accounts use vignettes, reflexivity, multiple voices, and
introspection (Ellis, 1991) to "invoke"
readers to enter into the "emergent experience" of doing and
writing research (Ronai, 1992,
p.123), conceive of identity as an "emergent process" (Rambo,
2005, p.583), and consider
evocative, concrete texts to be as important as abstract analyses
(Ronai, 1995, 1996).
Interactive interviews provide an "in-depth and intimate
understanding of people's
experiences with emotionally charged and sensitive topics"
(Ellis, Kiesinger & Tillmann-Healy,
1997, p.121). Interactive interviews are collaborative endeavors
between researchers and
participants, research activities in which researchers and
participants—one and the same—
probe together about issues that transpire, in conversation,
about particular topics (e.g.,
eating disorders). Interactive interviews usually consist of
multiple interview sessions, and, unlike
traditional one-on-one interviews with strangers, are situated
within the context of emerging
and well-established relationships among participants and
34. interviewers (Adams, 2008). The
emphasis in these research contexts is on what can be learned
from interaction within the
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interview setting as well as on the stories that each person
brings to the research encounter
(Mey & Mruck, 2010).
Similar to interactive interviews, community autoethnographies
use the personal experience
of researchers-in-collaboration to illustrate how a community
manifests particular
social/cultural issues (e.g., whiteness; Toyosaki, Pensoneau-
Conway, Wendt & Leathers, 2009).
Community autoethnographies thus not only facilitate
"community-building" research
practices but also make opportunities for "cultural and social
intervention" possible (p.59; see
Kardorff & Schönberger, 2010).
35. Co-constructed narratives illustrate the meanings of relational
experiences, particularly how
people collaboratively cope with the ambiguities, uncertainties,
and contradictions of being
friends, family, and/or intimate partners. Co-constructed
narratives view relationships as jointly-
authored, incomplete, and historically situated affairs. Joint
activity structures co-constructed
research projects. Often told about or around an epiphany, each
person first writes her or his
experience, and then shares and reacts to the story the other
wrote at the same time (see
Bochner & Ellis, 1995; Toyosaki & Pensoneau, 2005; Vande
berg & Trujillo, 2008).
Generally, the autoethnographies you will write for classes will
be personal narratives--stories
about authors who view themselves as the phenomenon and
write evocative narratives
specifically focused on their academic, research, and personal
lives (e.g., Berry, 2007;
Goodall, 2006; Poulos, 2008; Tillmann, 2009). These often are
the most controversial forms of
autoethnography for traditional social scientists, especially if
they are not accompanied by
36. more traditional analysis and/or connections to scholarly
literature. Personal narratives
propose to understand a self or some aspect of a life as it
intersects with a cultural context,
connect to other participants as co-researchers, and invite
readers to enter the author's world
and to use what they learn there to reflect on, understand, and
cope with their own lives (Ellis,
2004, p.46)
Even if it is not assigned, an autoethnography can be a good
exercise before embarking on
ethnographic research. It allows you to begin to think like an
ethnographer with familiar data.
It can also provide space for you to began to think about your
perspectives on a particular
research subject, as well as your biases and blindspots. In
addition, the reflective purposes it
serves can be invaluable in moving your own research
forward.15
a. Outlining the overall structure
Come up with a name that isn’t “how I got here” “my trip here”
“Why I’m
here” Something reflective of the paper.
37. b. Writing an introduction
c. Writing a conclusion
d. Revision
Revise your document by incorporating any and all edits on
your previous draft
and make sure that you have an introduction and a conclusion.
You also should
make sure that the new paragraphs fit with the paper as a whole.
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1. Learning from your autoethnography
e. Re-coding your autoethnography
You will also be expected to return to and revise your first
autoethnography to
ensure that it fits your additions and to add more information
covering your first
year. This may also include information from reflections or
work in any of your other
38. classes. You will also do the ethnographic coding that you have
learned since your
previous autoethnography and describe the themes and patterns
that emerged.
Read through the entire paper and pull out the theoretical notes.
What are the
patterns in your life? The people, places, attitudes and/or
opinions that have had
an effect on your life? Select at least three theoretical notes and
describe their
importance to you.
Chapter Summary
Autoethnography is a reflective practice that allows the
researcher to use their own
experience in understanding social phenomena
The researcher may need to consult sources outside of
themselves
A researcher can do an autoethnography on their own
experiences but can also ask
research subjects to do them on themselves
Key Terms
Autoethnography
39. Value-centered
Epiphanies
Questions
1. How has autoethnography been used over time?
2. If you had to develop three themes that illustrated your life
so far, what would they be
and what epiphanies led to them or are a result of them?
3. How should autoethnographies be organized?
References
Adams, Tony E. & Holman Jones, Stacy (2008).
Autoethnography is queer. In Norman K.
Denzin, Yvonna S. Lincoln & Linda T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook
of critical and indigenous
methodologies (pp.373-390). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Adams, Tony E. (2005). Speaking for others: Finding the
"whos" of discourse. Soundings, 88(3-4),
331-345.
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41. friendly the community is in terms of signage, parking,
accommodations, etc.
Start with an open-mind and fresh eyes. Objectivity is
mandated.
Don't begin observing a situation with preconceived notions.
They
can color your observations and keep you from getting to the
truth.
For example. an observer from a big city may assume that
people in
rural communities are jealous of his or her lifestyle. The
researcher
may be surprised to discover that such an assumption may be
completely opposite from the truth. Forget what the brand is or
what
the client wants it to be. Try to figure out what it really is.
Remember that you are a researcher and not a spy. All
researchers --
especially those who represent this university -- are expected to
engage in ethical conduct. It is not necessary to lie to someone
who
may be curious about what you are doing. It is all right to tell
someone who you are, who you represent and the reason you are
observing. The worst case scenario is that the person may not
wish to
talk to you or will ask you to leave. If that's the case,
disengage with
courtesy. However, more often than not, such a disclosure may
open
a useful line of conversation that provides meaningful
information.
Be super-vigilant. Don't try to decide what is and is not
important while
42. you are in the field. Take it all in. The time for deciding which
data
are meaningful and which are not comes later during analysis.
Sometimes the smallest, most innocuous observation can
become an
important key in addressing your client's needs. Ask yourself:
What does it look like?
What does it smell like?
What does it sound like?
What does it taste like?
What does it feel like?
To put it another way, pay attention to all of your senses. For
example, Tacoma, Washington, is known for the pungent smell
emanating from its local paper mills. Outsiders call it the
"Tacoma
Aroma," an image the local Chamber of Commerce would just
as
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soon forget. Individual observations may seem meaningless.
However, in combination with other observations, may serve
like
individual puzzle pieces completing a picture.
Take notes. Have a note pad or a small tape recorder with you.
If it is
practical, a camera can be very useful. A good ethnographic
43. observation takes in a lot of detail. Don't rely on your memory.
If you
are in a situation where a note pad or recorder are not practical,
possible or may have a negative effect on interaction, try to
capture
on paper or on a recorder what you have observed and heardas
soon as possible after the fact.
Engage in meaningful small-talk. Some forms of ethnography
involve
informal interviews. These may be "off-the-cuff" conversations
researchers have with people they meet, such as small talk with
a
server in a restaurant. Meeting and talking with people can be a
source of valuable data. Remember the first point -- you have a
game plan and are looking for certain kinds of information.
Keep the
conversation informal and light. If you want to take notes or
record
the conversation, ask first - but keep in mind that doing so may
influence the conversation and remove its spontaneity. The key
is to
make people you encounter comfortable. They are more likely
to
trust you as a casual friend than as a formal interrogator. And,
again,
never lie about who you are and what you are doing.
Write your ethnographic descriptions in a neutral, third-person
voice.
When it comes time to commit your research to paper, deliver
just the
facts. Save any opinions you might have for the analysis
(which is
addressed in the next point). Stay away from the first-person
"I" and
44. "we," as well as the second-person "you." The observer writes
the
description as if he or she is on the outside looking in. If you
use
people's names, always use the full name (if known) in first
reference
and the family (last) name in second an subsequent references.
Calling a person by his or her first name is too causal and can
be
considered, by some, as disrespectful.
Analyze, don't recommend. It is permissible to make
suggestions
about future avenues of research and possible tactics/strategies
to
pursue. But remember that recommendations are not made
during
the research stage. Those come in the planning process and in
conjunction with a comprehensive examination of goals,
objectives
and tactics. All observations and suggestions should be
supported by
evidence. For example, it is not enough to say a town's
downtown
area is unattractive. Cite specific reasons and standards by
which
you make such a judgment.
Write your report as if you expect those you have observed will
read it.
It is all right to have passion for your work. But don't let that
passion
spill over into this narrative. This is research and, therefore,
not the
place for it. Your tone should be neutral, not strident. Frame
your
45. comments in positive terms. It is permissible to make
criticisms.
However, if you do, remember the Mary Poppins Rule: "A
spoonful of
sugar helps the medicine go down."
Ethnography is considered primary research in that it is original
research
created by the observer. It is also qualitative, informal
research, which
means it is not necessarily representative of that which is being
studied. (For
example, activity within a community may be different on a
weekend than
it is on a weekday.) Upon its completion, ethnographic research
may raise
questions and suggest solutions that merit further research.
Ethnography
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should not be the only research you conduct, but should be part
of a more
comprehensive research strategy.
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