Psychology

1. Memory
Presenter: Dr Shashi Negi
PG1 Student, Psychiatry Department
IGGMC Nagpur

2. Outline (Focus on Psychological Aspects of Memory)
• Introduction
• Physiology of Memory
• Theories Of Memory
• Organisation of Long Term Memory
• Retrieval from Long Term Memory
• Forgetting
• Amnesia

3. Introduction
• Defined As: “Encoding, Storage, and retrieval of
what was learned earlier.”
• Study of Memory emphasises on cognitive, or
mental processes.
• Based upon synaptic plasticity.

4. • Types of memory:
▫ Declarative Memory (Explicit Memory)
▫ Non Declarative Memory (Implicit Memory)
(Memory for
Recognition of
Words)

5. Physiology of Memory
▫ The basis of memory is synaptic plasticity
 Increase in response to repeated activity of the
synapse leads to sensitization and long term
potentiating
 Decrease in response to repeated activity of
synapse leads to Habituation and Long Term
Depression.
▫ Hippocampus which is important part for memory
 STM consolidation (Long term Potentiation) leads to
LTM

6.  CA1 Neurons of Hippocampus activated by different
pathway which helps in consolidation (Long Term
Potentiation).
 Sensory input pathway to hippocampus also called
preforant pathway.

7. Theories of Memory
• Theory of General Memory Functions
• Information Processing Theory
• Level of Processing theory

8. • Theory of General Memory Functions
▫ Most agreed theory
▫ Divided in three phases
 Encoding: Process of receiving sensory input
and transforming it into a form, or code, which
can be stored.
 Storage: Process of putting coded information
into memory.
 Retrieval: Process of gaining access to stored,
coded information when it is needed.

9. • Information Processing Theory
▫ By Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffirin (1968)

10. ▫ Sensory Register or Memory:
 Storage function of sensory channel
 Information that is given attention is sent to
Short term memory, rest is lost.
▫ Short term Memory:
 Information retained for up to 30 Sec, However
lengths of retention depends upon multiple
factors.

11.  Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) gave experiment to
demonstrate features of Short Term memory.
 They used the technique named “Free Recall”.
 Subjective Experiment; List of 15 noun
 Three Conditions:
▫ Zero Delay
▫ 10 Sec Delay
▫ 30 Sec Delay
▫ Delay interval filled with mental activity
(Counting)

12.  Recall Depends upon serial position of Noun
 Better recall in beginning called Primacy effect
 Better recall at end is called Recency effect
 Recency effect affected in Delay Interval due to
interference of transfer from short term to long
term memory due to Mental activity

13. ▫ Rehearsal: Keeping items of information in the
centre of attention.
 Two Types
 Maintenance Rehearsal: Just going over and
over information to be remembered
 Elaborative Rehearsal: Giving Information/
material Organisation and meaning as it is
rehearsed.

15. • Level of processing Theory
▫ Given by Craik and Lockhart 1972, Elaborated by
Craik and Tulving
▫ Information can be worked at different Three
levels
 Perception: Immediate awareness of
environment.
 Structural Level: Structural features of the
Inputs are analyzed (sound, look, other details)
 Meaning Level: deeper Meaning of the input.

16. ▫ Greater the elaboration of Information more likely
it is to be remembered.

17. Organisation of Long Term Memory
• Conscious Long Term memory is divided into
Semantic and Episodic Memory.
• Semantic
▫ “What words means, about the ways they are
related to one another, and about the rules for
using them in communication and thinking.”
▫ Stored in highly organised manner in two possible
ways
 Logical hierarchy from general category to specific
ones.
 Clusters of words with related meaning

18. • Episodic Memory
▫ Memory of specific things that happened to us at a
particular place and time.
▫ Less organised then semantic memory
▫ More Susceptible to be forgotten then semantic
memory.
• Encoding and Storing of Long Term Memory
▫ Encoding and storage are facilitated by organisation of
materials to be remembered.
▫ Organisation: can be Objective i.e. from Material/
Information to be remembered or Subjective i.e.
Imposed by us upon the information.

19. ▫ Forming Images: during Encoding can also
helps in storage of Information.
▫ Constructive Process: Especially with complex
information or Life events details are often
modified or changed or inferences rather then
exact details are stored in memory.

20. Retrieval From Long Term Memory
• Retrieval Cues
▫ Finding information in the organised long term
memory is aided by retrieval cues
▫ More are cues for any encoded memory better are
chances of its retrieval.
▫ There can be state depended memory and cues
as well, e.g. Memory encoded during alcohol
intoxication may only be retrieved under alcohol
intoxication.

21. • Reconstructive Processes in retrieval Memory
▫ Unconscious modification of memory during
retrieval.
▫ Seen in persons with organic memory disorders
when gaps in memory are filled unconsciously by
false information

22. Forgetting
• Most of things we think are forgotten were never
actually encoded and stored in memory.
• Curve of Forgetting
▫ Curve of forgetting depends upon many factors

23. • Interferences
▫ Appears to play role in problems in forming new
memory
▫ Two types
 Retroactive interference: New information
interfere in memory retrieval of old information.
 Proactive interference: Old information interfere
in memory retrieval of new information.
▫ Exact mechanism of interference is still unclear

24. Amnesia
• Amnesia: “Profound Memory deficit due to either
loss of what has been stored or the inability to form
new memories”.
• Broad two Types:
▫ Psychological Amnesia: without any structural or
molecular brain malfunction
▫ Biological Amnesia: with structural or molecular
brain malfunction

25. • Psychological Amnesia
▫ Childhood Amnesia
 Poor early Childhood memory.
 Three Hypothesis
 Repression of forbidden (Sexual/ Aggressive)
memories that may cause anxiety or guilt if brought
into awareness, Freud 1938
 Difference in Encoding and storage of Information in
adults vs. Children; Adults encode memory using
language but children may encode memory using
unknown organisation making retrieval of information
difficult, Schachtel 1959

26.  Lack of maturation of brain structures responsible for
maturation in children so that memory is not stored properly
▫ Dream Amnesia
 Inability to remember all dreams had during sleep
 As per Freud due to repression of forbidden urges seen in
dreams just like childhood amnesia.
 May also be due to different organising of memory in dreams
in comparison to awake state. (State Dependent Memory)
▫ Defensive Amnesia
 Defensive repression of intense, intolerable life situations and
conflicts to prevent anxiety, guilt or other negative emotions.

27. • Biological Amnesia
▫ Transient Global Amnesia
 Profound memory problem with intact
consciousness
 Acute onset and usually short period condition
 Both anterograde as well as retrograde amnesia
 Due to temporary alteration in pattern of blood
flow in brain.

28. ▫ Substance Use and Amnesia
 Cannabis can cause minor problems in encoding
and storage of memory.
 Alcohol
 Known to cause problems in encoding and
storage of memory, can lead to gap in memory
for period of heavy alcohol intoxication.
 Long term alcohol use can also cause difficult
to treat Korsakoff Syndrome due to Thiamine
deficiencies leading to anterograde amnesia.

29. ▫ Senile Dementia
 Old age onset deficit in intellectual abilities like
memory, attention, judgement etc.
 Mostly anterograde amnesia
 Result of reduction of blood flow in brain.
▫ Alzheimer’s Dementia
 It is a type of Primary degenerative dementia
 Due to Acetylcholine deficiencies in brain areas
 Progressive mental deterioration from mild
anterograde to profound anterograde and retrograde
amnesia.

30. Thank You!