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The document discusses why semantics and pragmatics are important areas of linguistic study. It explains that semantics looks at how meaning is constructed from words and sentences, and pragmatics examines how context and shared understandings influence meaning. Studying semantics and pragmatics reveals principles that improve language tools and understanding of communication.
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The document summarizes the key ideas of relevance theory, proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. It argues that communication relies on implicit inferences rather than encoding of messages. There are two methods of communication - coded, where messages are encoded and decoded, and ostensive-inferential, where the communicator provides just enough information relying on the audience to infer the intended meaning based on context. Relevance theory explains ostensive-inferential communication, where new information is relevant if it has contextual implications, strengthens existing assumptions, or contradicts assumptions. Every act of communication implicitly presumes to be optimally relevant to the audience.
Gottlob Frege's Sense and Reference
This is a lesson in Philosophy of Language discussing Frege's seminal points with examples and illustrations for deepening and clarification.
Timo Honkela: Introductory lecture of the seminar course on Computational Pra...
T-61.6020 Computational Pragmatics
Timo Honkela, Aalto University School of Science
Spring 2012
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in
which context contributes to meaning. It studies how the transmission
of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge of the speaker
and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge
about the status of those involved, the intent of the speaker, etc.
Even though pragmatics is traditionally considered as an area of
linguistics, similar considerations related to meaning in context are
also relevant for information systems design and especially
interactive systems development. An interesting issue within computer
science is the interface between pragmatics and semantics. Ontologies
are used in semantic web to define prototypical meanings but in the
real-world contexts, pragmatics deals with the subjective and
contextual variation around prototypical meanings. In human-to-machine
communication, information systems may have practical uses in new
contexts beyond the ones defined originally by the designer of the
system. In machine-to-machine communication, formal semantics may fall
short in solving interoperability issues and thus issues related to
pragmatics need to be considered. In overall, the focus is in how
understanding takes place, not in how meanings are defined.
During the course, the participants are introduced with the main
linguistic theories related to pragmatics including but not limited to
the theories about the functions of languages, the speech act theory,
and the theory of conversational maxims. The participants will
familiarize themselves with computational models in the area of
pragmatics with specific focus on dynamic and adaptive systems and
statistical machine learning. They will also conduct a small empirical
study related to the subjectivity and contextuality of meaning using
the grounded intersubjective concept analysis (GICA). The collected
data will be analyzed using statistical methods.
Semantic vs Pragmatics
It is my PPt about Semantics and Pragmatics; it only ver basic information about it, but hopefully it will be useful for your educational process or useful as your reading resources. You can contact me if you have a suggestion, critique, or maybe we can discuss this topic further.
On Sense and Reference
This document discusses the difference between sense and reference in language as introduced by philosopher Gottlob Frege. Frege was interested in differentiating between the terms "sense" and "reference" based on the observation that people continued to use the terms "morning star" and "evening star" to refer to the planet Venus, even after it was known to be the same astronomical object. The document explores applications of this distinction between sense and reference in literary interpretation, case teaching, and case-based research. It argues the distinction is important for understanding how to properly invoke and interpret cases for different purposes like teaching decision-making versus conducting research on strategy.
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This document discusses various types of meaning and context in language. It defines meaning as what is meant by words, phrases, sentences, actions and deeds. There are several types of meaning discussed, including conceptual meaning (the core or denotative meaning), connotative meaning (additional meanings beyond denotation), affective meaning (meaning about social circumstances conveyed), collocative meaning (conventional combinations of words), and associative meaning (all meanings a person thinks of for a word). Context is defined as the circumstances that provide the setting to understand an event or idea fully, and includes linguistic context, context of situation, and context of culture.
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This document discusses key concepts in pragmatics including inference, presupposition, pragmatic implicature, and entailment. It explains that inference involves interpreting utterances based on available context, while presupposition leads speakers to form utterances assuming listeners can infer their meaning. Pragmatic implicature conveys additional meaning beyond the literal message. Entailment is related to semantics as it describes logical relationships between propositions. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts.
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The document summarizes the key ideas of relevance theory, proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. It argues that communication relies on implicit inferences rather than encoding of messages. There are two methods of communication - coded, where messages are encoded and decoded, and ostensive-inferential, where the communicator provides just enough information relying on the audience to infer the intended meaning based on context. Relevance theory explains ostensive-inferential communication, where new information is relevant if it has contextual implications, strengthens existing assumptions, or contradicts assumptions. Every act of communication implicitly presumes to be optimally relevant to the audience.
Gottlob Frege's Sense and Reference
This is a lesson in Philosophy of Language discussing Frege's seminal points with examples and illustrations for deepening and clarification.
Timo Honkela: Introductory lecture of the seminar course on Computational Pra...
T-61.6020 Computational Pragmatics
Timo Honkela, Aalto University School of Science
Spring 2012
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in
which context contributes to meaning. It studies how the transmission
of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge of the speaker
and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge
about the status of those involved, the intent of the speaker, etc.
Even though pragmatics is traditionally considered as an area of
linguistics, similar considerations related to meaning in context are
also relevant for information systems design and especially
interactive systems development. An interesting issue within computer
science is the interface between pragmatics and semantics. Ontologies
are used in semantic web to define prototypical meanings but in the
real-world contexts, pragmatics deals with the subjective and
contextual variation around prototypical meanings. In human-to-machine
communication, information systems may have practical uses in new
contexts beyond the ones defined originally by the designer of the
system. In machine-to-machine communication, formal semantics may fall
short in solving interoperability issues and thus issues related to
pragmatics need to be considered. In overall, the focus is in how
understanding takes place, not in how meanings are defined.
During the course, the participants are introduced with the main
linguistic theories related to pragmatics including but not limited to
the theories about the functions of languages, the speech act theory,
and the theory of conversational maxims. The participants will
familiarize themselves with computational models in the area of
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statistical machine learning. They will also conduct a small empirical
study related to the subjectivity and contextuality of meaning using
the grounded intersubjective concept analysis (GICA). The collected
data will be analyzed using statistical methods.
Semantic vs Pragmatics
It is my PPt about Semantics and Pragmatics; it only ver basic information about it, but hopefully it will be useful for your educational process or useful as your reading resources. You can contact me if you have a suggestion, critique, or maybe we can discuss this topic further.
On Sense and Reference
This document discusses the difference between sense and reference in language as introduced by philosopher Gottlob Frege. Frege was interested in differentiating between the terms "sense" and "reference" based on the observation that people continued to use the terms "morning star" and "evening star" to refer to the planet Venus, even after it was known to be the same astronomical object. The document explores applications of this distinction between sense and reference in literary interpretation, case teaching, and case-based research. It argues the distinction is important for understanding how to properly invoke and interpret cases for different purposes like teaching decision-making versus conducting research on strategy.
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- Other semantic relationships like synonymy, antonymy, complementarity, and meronymy. Synonyms have the same meaning, antonyms have opposite meanings, and complementaries have mutually exclusive meanings. Meronyms refer to part-whole relationships.
- How semantic features can help explain why some sentences seem odd, by looking at the conceptual features words have like [+/- animate].
- Prototype theory
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1. Conceptual or denotative meaning refers to the basic dictionary definition.
2. Connotative meaning includes attributes and associations beyond the literal meaning.
3. Social meaning conveys information about the social context and characteristics of the speaker.
4. Affective or emotive meaning refers to the feelings and attitudes expressed by the speaker.
5. Reflected meaning arises when a word has multiple meanings that influence one another.
6. Collocative meaning refers to associations based on habitual co-occurrence with other words.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized and what is emphasized.
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This document discusses several key aspects of semantics and pragmatics, including:
1) It examines different definitions and perspectives of meaning, such as dictionary definitions, descriptivism, and what linguists consider.
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Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning, speaker meaning, and how more is communicated than what is explicitly said. It involves the study of invisible meaning, deixis, reference, inference, presupposition, speech acts, and politeness. Pragmatics examines how context, both linguistic and physical, affects meaning, and how language is used to manage social relationships and interactions.
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This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
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The document discusses the importance of context in discourse analysis. It makes three key points:
1. A discourse analyst must consider the context in which a piece of discourse occurs, as context helps establish the meanings of linguistic elements. Context provides information about participants, time, location, and relationships between utterances.
2. Interpreting language requires understanding reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference based on the context. Determining implied versus literal meaning depends on context.
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Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context and how meaning is derived based on context. It emerged in the 18th century from philosophers' ideas about language use. Pragmatics considers language users, context, and meaning potential. It differs from discourse analysis in focusing on sentences rather than entire texts. Some argued it was a "wastebasket" for linguistic topics not addressed by semantics, but it is now recognized as a legitimate field. Pragmatics is studied to understand how implied meaning is constructed in interactions and conversations.
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Frege's triangle is a model that distinguishes between a real object, the concept or idea of an object, and the linguistic symbol that represents it. It illustrates the difference between the sense of a symbol, which is its meaning or concept, and its reference, which is the real-world object it denotes. For example, the word "tree" has a sense of a tall plant with wood and leaves, while its reference would be an actual tree. Frege argued that understanding the distinction between sense and reference is important for accurately communicating information through language.
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The document discusses the study of semantics, which is defined as the study of meaning in language. It provides several definitions of semantics from different authors that generally agree it is the study of how meaning is organized and expressed through language. The document then discusses different aspects of meaning, including how meaning is understood in psychology, philosophy, and linguistics. It also discusses how children acquire language and the components of linguistic knowledge, including vocabulary, grammar (consisting of semantics, phonology, syntax, and morphology).
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Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted through language use. Semantics is interested in how meaning works in individual words and sentences, relationships between words, ambiguity, and different interpretations of meaning. Precisely defining meaning is important, and semantics defines it as both the thing referred to in the world and the mental concepts evoked. There are different types of meaning studied in semantics, including linguistic meaning involving sense and reference, social meaning involving social characteristics inferred from language, and affective meaning involving emotional connotations of words.
semantics the study of meaning
The document discusses semantics, which is defined as the systematic study of meaning. It provides several definitions of semantics from different linguistic sources that emphasize its focus on the study of meaning in language. It also presents examples to demonstrate speakers' semantic knowledge, such as distinguishing anomalies from paraphrases, identifying synonyms and antonyms, recognizing contradictions, and understanding entailments and presuppositions.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in semantics, including:
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- How semantic features can help explain why some sentences seem odd, by looking at the conceptual features words have like [+/- animate].
- Prototype theory
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This document discusses the seven types of meaning:
1. Conceptual or denotative meaning refers to the basic dictionary definition.
2. Connotative meaning includes attributes and associations beyond the literal meaning.
3. Social meaning conveys information about the social context and characteristics of the speaker.
4. Affective or emotive meaning refers to the feelings and attitudes expressed by the speaker.
5. Reflected meaning arises when a word has multiple meanings that influence one another.
6. Collocative meaning refers to associations based on habitual co-occurrence with other words.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized and what is emphasized.
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This document discusses semantics and different aspects of word and sentence meaning. It covers lexical semantics, including word meanings, theories of word meaning involving reference and sense, and lexical relations such as synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms. Compositional semantics is also discussed, which is the principle that the meaning of an expression is determined by the meanings of its constituent parts and how they are combined. Semantic rules are provided for deriving sentence meaning from word meanings and syntactic structure.
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Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. A semantic theory aims to characterize a speaker's linguistic knowledge, including word meanings, compositional sentence meanings, and how context influences interpretation. However, developing such a theory poses challenges such as avoiding circular definitions, distinguishing linguistic from encyclopedic knowledge, and accounting for individual and contextual variation in meaning. Theories utilize a semantic metalanguage and concepts to characterize core meanings independently of language. They also distinguish semantics from pragmatics, where contextual implications are considered.
Communication in the Real World An Introduction to Communication .docx
Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies, v. 1.0
by Richard G. Jones Jr.
3.3 Using Words Well
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss how the process of abstraction and the creation of whole messages relate to language clarity.
2. Employ figurative and evocative language.
3. Identify strategies for using language ethically.
Have you ever gotten lost because someone gave you directions that didn’t make sense to you? Have you ever puzzled over the instructions for how to put something like a bookshelf or grill together? When people don’t use words well, there are consequences that range from mild annoyance to legal actions. When people do use words well, they can be inspiring and make us better people. In this section, we will learn how to use words well by using words clearly, using words affectively, and using words ethically.
Using Words Clearly
The level of clarity with which we speak varies depending on whom we talk to, the situation we’re in, and our own intentions and motives. We sometimes make a deliberate effort to speak as clearly as possible. We can indicate this concern for clarity nonverbally by slowing our rate and increasing our volume or verbally by saying, “Frankly…” or “Let me be clear…” Sometimes it can be difficult to speak clearly—for example, when we are speaking about something with which we are unfamiliar. Emotions and distractions can also interfere with our clarity. Being aware of the varying levels of abstraction within language can help us create clearer and more “whole” messages.
Level of Abstraction
The ladder of abstraction is a model used to illustrate how language can range from concrete to abstract. As we follow a concept up the ladder of abstraction, more and more of the “essence” of the original object is lost or left out, which leaves more room for interpretation, which can lead to misunderstanding. This process of abstracting, of leaving things out, allows us to communicate more effectively because it serves as a shorthand that keeps us from having a completely unmanageable language filled with millions of words—each referring to one specific thing.[1] But it requires us to use context and often other words to generate shared meaning. Some words are more directly related to a concept or idea than others. If I asked you to go take a picture of a book, you could do that. If I asked you to go and take a picture of “work,” you couldn’t because work is an abstract word that was developed to refer to any number of possibilities from the act of writing a book, to repairing an air conditioner, to fertilizing an organic garden. You could take a picture of any of those things, but you can’t take a picture of “work.”
Figure 3.2 Ladder of Abstraction
Source: Adapted from S. I. Hayakawa and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990), 85.
You can see the semanticist S. I. Hayakawa’s classic example of the abstraction ladder with “B ...
Ways of knowing language summary
This document discusses several key aspects of language:
1. Language is rule-governed through grammar and vocabulary. Rules help determine meaning and structure.
2. Language is intended for communication, though not all communication is linguistic. Language conveys intended meanings.
3. Language is creative and open-ended. Its rules allow for new sentences and an infinite number of grammatically correct combinations, adding new words over time.
4. The nature and meaning of language involves interpretation and is problematic due to vagueness, ambiguity, and metaphorical/ironic uses that add layers of possible meanings.
word meaning.ppsx
The document discusses several classic approaches to understanding the meaning and representation of words, including semantic networks, semantic features, prototype and exemplar theories, and how concepts are combined. It also covers figurative language like metaphor and idioms, as well as connectionist approaches and the neuroscience of semantics. Key topics include how semantic memory is organized, how word meanings relate to concepts and categories, and experimental evidence from tasks like sentence verification.
A Contrastive Study of Interpretations of Metaphor from Pragmatic Perspective
A Contrastive Study of Interpretations of Metaphor from Pragmatic PerspectiveEnglish Literature and Language Review ELLR
Metaphor is a pervasive phenomenon, the study of metaphor is a complicated task, and the exploration of metaphor is still going on. This present paper attempts to interpret metaphor from pragmaticapproaches from the perspectives of Indirect Speech Act Theory, Conversational Implicature Theory and Relevance Theory respectively, aiming at making a contrastive study of these three interpretations and finding features including similarities and differences and limitations among them.1 introduction to the study of language (1)
The document discusses the differences between semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics examines how meaning depends on context and the intentions of speakers and listeners. It also provides examples of semantic versus pragmatic meaning in sentences and explores how meaning is attributed to words through definitions, mental images, reference, language use, and truth conditions.
1 introduction to the study of language (1)
The document discusses the differences between semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics examines how meaning depends on context and the intentions of speakers and listeners. It also provides examples of semantic versus pragmatic meaning in sentences and explores how meaning is attributed to words through definitions, mental images, reference, language use, and truth conditions.
1 introduction to the study of language (1)
The document discusses the differences between semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of words and phrases, while pragmatics examines how meaning depends on context and the intentions of speakers and listeners. It also provides examples of semantic versus pragmatic meaning and explores how meaning is attributed to words and language.
READING COMPREHENSION- Comprehensive reading.pdf
1) Reading comprehension is an active process that involves the interaction between the reader, the text, and the reader's background knowledge. It requires the reader to intentionally problem solve and think, not just recall information.
2) Comprehension depends on the reader's background knowledge and use of strategies to connect new information to existing knowledge. Readers understand texts differently based on their own experiences and perspectives.
3) Effective comprehension instruction teaches students strategies to aid understanding like making inferences, generating questions, and summarizing. It also exposes students to different genres of text.
Knowledge of meaning an introduction-to_semantic_theory-buku
This document provides information about the book "Knowledge of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Theory" by Richard Larson and Gabriel Segal. It includes a preface written by the authors describing the goals and approach of the book, as well as acknowledgments thanking those who influenced and supported their work. The preface outlines their view that semantics can be pursued as an empirical study of linguistic knowledge, and that truth-conditional semantics based on Donald Davidson's work provides a framework for developing a formal semantic theory. It is intended to present their specific theoretical commitments clearly while addressing conceptual and empirical questions of interest to both linguists and philosophers.
Semantics ii what definitions offer
This document discusses different approaches to defining words and determining their meaning. It begins by explaining prototypes and mental images, noting that while useful for determining common associations, they do not fully capture a word's meaning. Dictionaries are then discussed, pointing out their limitations in relying on other defined words and being influenced by those who write them. The document advocates for usage-based definitions, using examples of different meanings of the word "fine" based on context. It concludes by introducing corpus linguistics as a way to study language usage through large databases to better inform definitions.
1Assignment Annotated Bibliography xxxxxx xxxxxxx
1
Assignment: Annotated Bibliography
xxxxxx xxxxxxxx
University of Maryland University College
WRTG391: Advanced Research Writing
xxxxxx xxxx
January 26, 2021
Assignment: Annotated Bibliography
Bolhuis, J. J., Tattersall, I., Chomsky, N., & Berwick, R. C. (2014). How Could Language Have Evolved? PLoS Biology, 12(8), 1–6. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001934
The authors, Bolhuis et al. take an exclusivist approach and claim that language has a hierarchical structure that is missing from animal communication systems. The authors view the way our minds create language as being by “merging” elements which they call “atoms” (i.e. words, verbs, etc.). Merged elements can both continue indefinitely and apply to themselves, therefore being nested and in a sense, hierarchical. They further state that there’s no evidence that animals have conceptual “atoms.” They conclude that given the universality of language amongst humans, and the assumption that it has not evolved from animals, that it is this “merge” trait that effectively singlehandedly is responsible for the evolution of language in humans. They mention sign language as a counter argument that studying animal vocal communication is essential to understanding the evolution of language. Also interesting is the point that the unique nature of human language renders a comparison by shared evolutionary descent impossible. I found this article very useful for illustrating this particular school of thought and as a contrast to Fitch, 2019.
Donald, M. (2017). Key cognitive preconditions for the evolution of language. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(1), 204–208. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.3758/s13423-016-1102-x
The author, Donald claims that development of the use of tools to a degree complex enough that their use was culturally embedded and cross-generational was what drove the coevolution of language. Donald further claims that the opposite possibility, that language came first, is unlikely because the acquisition and use of language requires the ability to hone an intrinsically complex hierarchical skillset, as in complex toolmaking. The author does not seem to support this with any specific evidence, but reiterates his claims as a conclusion. I don’t think this is well argued but I agree with the premise that human cognitive capacities have been pushed to greater complexity out of the necessity to manipulate tools (I would say our environment) as much as interact socially. I would find this article useful as a jumping off point for this perspective but most likely not as a primary source.
Ten Cate, C. (2017). Assessing the uniqueness of language: Animal grammatical abilities take center stage. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(1), 91-96. https://dx.doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13423-016-1091-9
The author presents the “Strong Minimalist Thesis” that the essence of language is that we combine, or ‘merge’ elements. An element can be a noun, a verb, an art ...
The Five Canons of Rhetoric
The document discusses the five canons of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Invention involves considering what an audience needs to know. Arrangement is about organizing a communication strategically. Style impacts audiences through word choice and linguistic devices. Memory refers to thoroughly knowing a topic. Delivery is about effectively presenting information through elements like eye contact, body language, and dress. The document provides examples and explanations for each canon.
Widdowson
This document discusses language use through analyzing a sample text - a public notice that says "KEEP OFF THE GRASS". It explains that to understand a text, one must consider both the language itself and how it relates to its context and purpose. Even simple texts like notices rely on shared cultural understandings. The document also introduces the concept of "discourse", which refers to both the intended meaning of a text's producer and how it is interpreted by receivers. Fully understanding a text involves relating its language to its context and inferring its purpose and discourse.
Widdowson
This document discusses language use through analyzing a sample text - a public notice that says "KEEP OFF THE GRASS". It explains that to understand a text, one must consider both the language itself and how it relates to its context and purpose. Even simple texts like notices rely on shared cultural understandings. The document also introduces the concept of "discourse", which refers to both the intended meaning of a text's producer and how it is interpreted by receivers. Making connections between texts, contexts and discourses is key to effective communication.
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Mega
- 2. Why Study Semantics and Pragmatics? Meaning seems at once the most obvious feature of language and the most obscure aspect to study. It is obvious because it is what we use language for—to communicate with each other, to convey 'what we mean' effectively. But the steps in understanding something said to us in a language in which we are fluent are so rapid, so transparent, that we have little conscious feel for the principles and knowledge which underlie this communicative ability. Questions of 'semantics' are an important part of the study of linguistic structure. They encompass several different investigations: how each language provides words and idioms for fundamental concepts and ideas (lexical semantics), how the parts of a sentence are integrated into the basis for understanding its meaning (compositional semantics), and how our assessment of what someone means on a particular occasion depends not only on what is actually said but also on aspects of the context of its saying and an assessment of the information and beliefs we share with the speaker.
- 3. Research in these areas reveals principles and systems which have many applications. The study of lexical (word) semantics and the conceptual distinctions implicit in the vocabulary of a language improves dictionaries which enable speakers of a language to extend their knowledge of its stock of words. It also improves materials which help those acquiring a second language through instruction. Studying the rules governing the composition of word meanings into sentence meanings and larger discourses allows us to build computer systems which can interact with their users in more naturalistic language. Investigating how our understanding of what is said is influenced by our individual and cultural assumptions and experience, which are much less visible than what is explicitly said, can help make us more aware and effective communicators. The result of all of these (sometimes very abstract) investigations is a deeper understanding and appreciation of the complexity and expressive elegance of particular languages and the uniquely human system of linguistic communication.
- 4. The Importance of Context We can appreciate how someone can mean more than they `strictly speaking' say by considering the same thing said in two different contexts. Consider two people, Pat and Chris, who are getting to know each other on a first date. If Chris says to Pat at the end of the evening, "I like you a lot.", Pat will likely feel good about the situation. But imagine that Pat and Chris have been dating for some weeks, and Pat asks, "Do you love me?" Now if Chris says, "I like you a lot," the reaction will likely be quite different, as Chris' statement is taken as a negative answer! The difference does not come from the content of what is said but from the operation of a general pragmatic principle: When evaluating something on a scale of values, putting it at a certain point on the scale implies that all the higher values on the scale are inappropriate. It is our background assessment that positive feeling is ranked on a scale with 'love' higher than "like" which makes Chris' reply in the second context convey "No, don't love you." We apply this scalar principle so automatically that it is easy to overlook the fundamental pragmatic difference between what is actually said and what is implied by the saying of it.
- 5. A close examination of most words reveals that they have many different senses and the rules which combine them into sentence meanings will frequently yield several possibilities for interpretation. Usually we resolve potential ambiguity unconsciously— unless someone carefully constructs a joke which turns on an ambiguity. Consider for example this joke, taken from Douglas Adams' The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy. Ford and Arthur, are stowaways on a space ship. Ford: You should prepare yourself for the jump into hyperspace; it's unpleasantly like being drunk. Arthur: What's so unpleasant about being drunk? Ford: Just ask a glass of water.