The document discusses the three main states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It describes some key physical properties for each state, including how gases behave according to the kinetic molecular theory and gas laws, how liquids have properties like viscosity and surface tension, and how solids exist in defined crystalline or amorphous structures. The interactions between particles in each state, such as van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and metallic bonding, help determine characteristic properties like boiling points.
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
Properties of gases as learned in introductory physical chemistry (including general chemistry material). Topics include: kinetic molecular theory, ideal gas law, ideal gas equation, compressibility factor, van der Waals equation, gas pressure, kinetic energy of gases, collision frequency, mean-free-path, gas diffusion vs. effusion, Dalton's law, mole fractions, and partial pressures
Kinetic Gas Theory including Ideal Gas Equation. Temperature, Volume, Applications
Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law. Ideal Gas Theory, Dalton's Partial Pressure
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
Properties of gases as learned in introductory physical chemistry (including general chemistry material). Topics include: kinetic molecular theory, ideal gas law, ideal gas equation, compressibility factor, van der Waals equation, gas pressure, kinetic energy of gases, collision frequency, mean-free-path, gas diffusion vs. effusion, Dalton's law, mole fractions, and partial pressures
Kinetic Gas Theory including Ideal Gas Equation. Temperature, Volume, Applications
Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law. Ideal Gas Theory, Dalton's Partial Pressure
Gas is one of the three forms of matter. Every known substance is either a solid, liquid or a gas. These forms differ in the way they fill space and change shape. A gas, such as air has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume and has weight.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2. Changes in State
• Changes in state are considered to be
physical changes
• During a change of physical state many
other physical properties may also change
• This chapter focuses on the important
differences in physical properties among
– Gases
– Liquids
– Solids
4. 5.1 The Gaseous State
Ideal Gas Concept
• Ideal gas - a model of the way that particles
of a gas behave at the microscopic level
• We can measure the following of a gas:
– temperature
– volume
– pressure
– mass
We can systematically change
one of the properties and see
the effect on the others
5. 5.1TheGaseousState Measurement of Gases
• Gas laws involve the relationship between:
– number of moles (n) of gas
– volume (V)
– temperature (T)
– pressure (P)
• Pressure - force per unit area
• Gas pressure is a result of force exerted by the
collision of particles with the walls of the
container
6. 5.1TheGaseousState Barometer
• Measures atmospheric
pressure
– Invented by Evangelista Torricelli
• Common units of pressure
– atmosphere (atm)
– torr (in Torricelli’s honor)
– pascal (Pa) (in honor of Blaise
Pascal)
• 1 atm is equal to:
– 760 mmHg
– 760 torr
– 76 cmHg
7. 5.1TheGaseousState Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
1. Gases are made up of small atoms or
molecules that are in constant, random
motion
2. The distance of separation is very large
compared to the size of the individual
atoms or molecules
– Gas is mostly empty space
1. All gas particles behave independently
– No attractive or repulsive forces exist
between them
8. 5.1TheGaseousState
4. Gas particles collide with each other and
with the walls of the container without
losing energy
– The energy is transferred from one atom or
molecule to another
4. The average kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules increases or decreases in
proportion to absolute temperature
– As temperature goes up, particle speed goes up
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
9. 5.1TheGaseousState
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Explains the following statements:
• Gases are easily compressible – gas is mostly
empty space, room for particles to be pushed
together
• Gases will expand to fill any available volume
– move freely with sufficient energy to overcome
attractive forces
• Gases have low density – being mostly empty
space; gases have low mass per unit volume
10. 5.1TheGaseousState
• Gases readily diffuse through each other – they are
in continuous motion with paths readily available due to
large space between adjacent particles
• Gases exert pressure on their containers – pressure
results from collisions of gas particles with the container
walls
• Gases behave most ideally at low pressure and
high temperature
– Low pressure, average distance of separation is
greatest, minimizing interactive forces
– High temperature, rapid motion overcomes interactive
forces more easily
11. 5.1TheGaseousState
Ideal Gases vs. Real Gases
• In reality there is no such thing as an ideal
gas
– It is a useful model to explain gas behavior
• Nonpolar gases behave more ideally than
polar gases because attractive forces are
present in polar gases
13. • Boyle’s law - volume of a gas varies
inversely with the pressure exerted by the
gas if the temperature and number of moles
are held constant
• The product of pressure (P) and volume (V)
is a constant
• Used to calculate
– Volume resulting from pressure change
– Pressure resulting from volume change
PV = k1
5.1TheGaseousState Boyle’s Law
PiVi = PfVf
14. 5.1TheGaseousState Application of Boyle’s Law
• Gas occupies 10.0 L at 1.00 atm pressure
• Product, PV = (10.0 L) (1.00 atm) = k1
• Double the pressure to 2.0 atm, decreases the
volume to 5.0 L
– (2.0 atm)(Vx) = (10.0 L)(1.00 atm)
– Vx = 5.0 L
15. 5.1TheGaseousState Boyle’s Law Practice
1. A 5.0 L sample of a gas at 25o
C and 3.0
atm is compressed at constant temperature
to a volume of 1.0 L. What is the new
pressure?
2. A 3.5 L sample of a gas at 1.0 atm is
expanded at constant temperature until the
pressure is 0.10 atm. What is the volume
of the gas?
16. • It is possible to relate gas volume and
temperature
• Charles’s law - volume of a gas varies
directly with the absolute temperature (K) if
pressure and number of moles of gas are
constant
• Ratio of volume (V) and temperature (T) is
a constant
2k
T
V
=
f
f
i
i
T
V
T
V
=
5.1TheGaseousState Charles’s Law
17. 5.1TheGaseousState Application of Charles’s Law
• If a gas occupies 10.0 L at 273 K with
V/T = k2
• Doubling temperature to 546 K, increases
volume to 20.0 L
10.0 L / 273 K = Vf / 546 K
18. 5.1TheGaseousState Practice with Charles’s Law
1. A 2.5 L sample of gas at 25o
C is heated to
50o
C at constant pressure. Will the volume
double?
2. What would be the volume?
3. What temperature would be required to
double the volume?
19. • If a sample of gas undergoes change
involving volume, pressure, and
temperature simultaneously, use the
combined gas law
• Derived from a combination of Boyle’s law
and Charles’s law
f
ff
i
ii
T
VP
T
VP
=
5.1TheGaseousState Combined Gas Law
20. • Calculate the volume of N2 resulting when
0.100 L of the gas is heated from 300. K to
350. K at 1.00 atm
• What do we know?
– Pi = 1.00 atm Pf = 1.00 atm
– Vi = 0.100 L Vf = ? L
– Ti = 300. K Tf = 350. K
• Vf= ViTf / Ti this is valid as Pi = Pf
• Vf= (0.100 L)(350. K) / 300. K = 0.117 L
• Note the decimal point in the temperature to indicate
significance
f
ff
i
ii
T
VP
T
VP
=
5.1TheGaseousState Using the Combined Gas Law
21. 5.1TheGaseousState Practice With the Combined
Gas Law
Calculate the temperature when a 0.50 L
sample of gas at 1.0 atm and 25o
C is
compressed to 0.05 L of gas at 5.0 atm.
22. • Avogadro’s law - equal volumes of any
ideal gas contain the same number of moles
if measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure
• Changes in conditions can be calculated by
rewriting the equation
3k
n
V
=
f
f
i
i
n
V
n
V
=
5.1TheGaseousState Avogadro’s Law
23. 5.1TheGaseousState Using Avogadro’s Law
• If 5.50 mol of CO occupy 20.6 L, how
many liters will 16.5 mol of CO occupy at
the same temperature and pressure?
• What do we know?
– Vi = 20.6 L Vf = ? L
– ni = 5.50 mol nf = 16.5 mol
– Vf= Vinf / ni = (20.6 L)(16.5 mol)
(5.50 mol)
= 61.8 L CO
24. 5.1TheGaseousState
• Molar volume - the volume occupied by 1
mol of any gas
• STP – Standard Temperature and Pressure
– T = 273 K (or 0o
C)
– P = 1 atm
• At STP the molar volume of any gas is
22.4 L
Molar Volume of a Gas
25. 5.1TheGaseousState
Gas Densities
• Density = mass / volume
• Calculate the density of 4.00 g He
– What is the mass of 1 mol of H2? 4.00 g
DensityHe = 4.00g / 22.4L
= 0.178 g/L at STP
26. • Combining:
– Boyle’s law (relating volume and pressure)
– Charles’s law (relating volume and temperature)
– Avogadro’s law (relating volume to the number of moles)
gives the Ideal Gas Law
• R is a constant, ideal gas constant
• R = 0.0821 L.
Atm/mol.
K
If units are P in atm, V in L, n in number of moles, T in K
PV=nRT
5.1TheGaseousState The Ideal Gas Law
28. 5.1TheGaseousState
Practice Using the Ideal Gas Law
1. What is the volume of gas occupied by
5.0 g CH4 at 25o
C and 1 atm?
2. What is the mass of N2 required to
occupy 3.0 L at 100o
C and 700 mmHg?
29. • Dalton’s law – a mixture of gases exerts a
pressure that is the sum of the pressures that
each gas would exert if it were present
alone under the same conditions
• Total pressure of our atmosphere is equal to
the sum of the pressures of N2 and O2
– (principal components of air)
Pt=p1+p2+p3+...
22 ONair ppP +=
5.1TheGaseousState Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
30. 5.2 The Liquid State
• Liquids are practically incompressible
– Enables brake fluid to work in your car
• Viscosity - a measure of a liquid’s
resistance to flow
– A function of both attractive forces between
molecules and molecular geometry
– Flow occurs because the molecules can easily
slide past each other
• Glycerol - example of a very viscous liquid
– Viscosity decreases with increased temperature
31. 5.2TheLiquidState Surface Tension
• Surface tension - a measure of the attractive forces
exerted among molecules at the surface of a liquid
– Surface molecules are surrounded and attracted
by fewer liquid molecules than those below
– Net attractive forces on surface molecules pull
them downward
• Results in “beading”
• Surfactant - substance added which decreases the
surface tension, for example – soap
32. 5.2TheLiquidState Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
• Place water in a sealed container
– Both liquid water and water vapor will exist in
the container
• How does this happen below the boiling
point?
– Temperature is too low for boiling conversion
• Kinetic theory - liquid molecules are in continuous
motion, with their average kinetic energy directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature
33. energy + H2O(l) → H2O(g)
5.2TheLiquidState Temperature Dependence of
Liquid Vapor Pressure
• Average molecular kinetic
energy increases as does
temperature
• Some high energy
molecules have sufficient
energy to escape from the
liquid phase
• Even at cold temperatures,
some molecules can be
converted
34. H2O(g) → H2O(l) + energy
5.2TheLiquidState Movement From Gas Back to
Liquid
• Molecules in the vapor phase can lose
energy and be converted back to the
liquid phase
• Evaporation - the process of conversion
of liquid to gas at a temperature too low
to boil
• Condensation - conversion of gas to the
liquid state
35. 5.2TheLiquidState Liquid Water in Equilibrium
With Water Vapor
• When the rate of evaporation equals the rate of
condensation, the system is at equilibrium
• Vapor pressure of a liquid - the pressure exerted
by the vapor at equilibrium
36. 5.2TheLiquidState Boiling Point
• Boiling point - the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure
• Normal boiling point - temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to 1 atm
• What happens when you go to a mountain where
the atmospheric pressure is lower than 1 atm?
– The boiling point lowers
• Boiling point is dependant on the intermolecular
forces
– Polar molecules have higher b.p. than nonpolar
molecules
37. 5.2TheLiquidState Van der Waals Forces
• Physical properties of liquids are explained in
terms of their intermolecular forces
• Van der Waals forces are intermolecular forces
having 2 subtypes
– Dipole-dipole interactions
– Attractive forces between polar molecules
– London forces
– As electrons are in continuous motion, a nonpolar
molecule could have an instantaneous dipole
38. 5.2TheLiquidState London Forces
• Exist between all molecules
• The only attractive force between nonpolar
atoms or molecules
• Electrons are in constant motion
• Electrons can be, in an instant, arranged in
such a way that they have a dipole
(Instantaneous dipole)
• The temporary dipole interacts with other
temporary dipoles to cause attraction
39. 5.2TheLiquidState Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonding:
– not considered a Van der Waals force
– is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction
– is a very strong intermolecular attraction
causing higher than expected b.p. and m.p.
• Requirement for hydrogen bonding:
– molecules have hydrogen directly bonded to O,
N, or F
40. 5.2TheLiquidState
Examples of Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonding has an extremely important
influence on the behavior of many biological
systems
• H2O
• NH3
• HF
41. 5.3 The Solid State
• Particles highly organized, in a defined
fashion
• Fixed shape and volume
• Properties of solids:
– incompressible
– m.p. depends on strength of attractive force
between particles
– crystalline solid - regular repeating structure
– amorphous solid - no organized structure
42. 5.3TheSolidState
Types of Crystalline Solids
1. Ionic solids
• held together by electrostatic forces
• high m.p. and b.p.
• hard and brittle
• if dissolves in water, electrolytes
• NaCl
2. Covalent solids
• held together entirely by covalent bonds
• high m.p. and b.p.
• extremely hard
• diamond
43. 5.3TheSolidState
3.Molecular solids
• molecules are held together with intermolecular forces
• often soft
• low m.p.
• often volatile
• ice
4.Metallic solids
• metal atoms held together with metal bonds
• metal bonds
– overlap of orbitals of metal atoms
– overlap causes regions of high electron density
where electrons are extremely mobile - conducts
electricity