The document summarizes several major tailings dam failures and their impacts in the Philippines between 1982-2001. Specifically, it describes disasters at TVI Pacific Inc. in 2007, Lafayette Polymetallic Project in 2005, Dizon Copper Silver Mines Inc. in 2002, and Maricalum Mining Corp. in 2001. These failures released contaminated water and tailings into surrounding rivers and communities, causing silting, pollution, flooding, and health impacts. The document also summarizes additional disasters at mines owned by Philex and Manila Mining Corp. in the 1990s-2000s.
2007: April 6 and July 11 – collapse of the sulphide dam of CANATUAN GOLD MINES in SIOCON, ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTE under heavy rains....
2005: October 11 and 31 – breach of cyanide tailings pond of LAFAYETTE POLYMETALLIC PROJECT in RAPU-RAPU, ALBAY after heavy rains.... read on...
The document summarizes a study of the Groote Eylandt manganese orebody in Australia. The objectives of the study were to construct an accurate resource/reserve model using over 5,500 drill holes to satisfy reporting standards. Previous models were outdated and inaccurate. Key challenges included the orebody's variability and complex geological history. The new model incorporated stratigraphic units, addressed issues like downhole smearing in drilling data, used measured yield vs assumed values, and established a validated database, providing a robust foundation for ongoing mining.
The XAMA mineral property is located in central British Columbia near Fraser Lake and contains seven mineral tenures covering 3,579 hectares. Historical exploration in the 1960s and 1970s identified widespread molybdenum and copper mineralization through soil sampling and geophysical surveys. Recommended exploration includes drilling three 500-meter holes to test induced polarization anomalies identified by previous operators, as well as a modern helicopter-borne electromagnetic survey to further explore the property's potential as a major porphyry molybdenum-copper deposit. The property has excellent infrastructure and is available for option.
Acid sulfate soils form in coastal areas when pyrite in low-lying wetland soils is exposed to oxygen through drainage or excavation. This produces sulfuric acid and releases toxic quantities of aluminum and iron. In Sri Lanka, acid sulfate soils are found along the southwest coast and impact the environment through killing aquatic life, degrading habitats, and stunting plant growth. They also pose health risks to humans and damage infrastructure through corrosion. Current management strategies aim to neutralize acidity through lime or isolate acid sulfate soils with barriers.
Lake Lanao is an ancient lake located in Lanao del Sur, Philippines that is an important source of hydroelectric power and cultural significance. It is home to several endemic fish species and is central to the culture and livelihood of the Meranao people. However, the lake is facing threats from deforestation, agriculture, and fluctuating water levels from hydroelectric dams that are disrupting the lake's ecology. The lake provides over 60% of Mindanao's electricity but continued development risks damaging the lake and the Meranao people who depend on it.
Kielder Reservoir was constructed in Northumberland, England to provide a sustainable water supply for the northeast of England. It has physical advantages as the location has high annual rainfall over 1000mm, impermeable geology, and a sparsely populated valley. The reservoir also provides human advantages through water supply to nearby dense populations, as well as opportunities for flood control, hydroelectric power, tourism, recreation, and employment. However, it also resulted in environmental and social costs such as submerging a beautiful valley and displacing local communities.
1) The Snook Islands project reconstructed 10 acres of red mangroves, 2.8 acres of Spartina marsh, and 2.3 acres of oyster reef by transporting 1.2 million cubic yards of dredge spoil from Peanut Island over 1,560 barge loads to fill in areas of the Lake Worth Lagoon that had been dredged and bulkheaded.
2) The Lake Worth Lagoon had lost around 80% of its mangroves and shallow waters to dredging and filling over the past century. The Snook Islands project aimed to remediate this loss of habitat by reconstructing intertidal and shallow subtidal areas.
3) Spoil from
2007: April 6 and July 11 – collapse of the sulphide dam of CANATUAN GOLD MINES in SIOCON, ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTE under heavy rains....
2005: October 11 and 31 – breach of cyanide tailings pond of LAFAYETTE POLYMETALLIC PROJECT in RAPU-RAPU, ALBAY after heavy rains.... read on...
The document summarizes a study of the Groote Eylandt manganese orebody in Australia. The objectives of the study were to construct an accurate resource/reserve model using over 5,500 drill holes to satisfy reporting standards. Previous models were outdated and inaccurate. Key challenges included the orebody's variability and complex geological history. The new model incorporated stratigraphic units, addressed issues like downhole smearing in drilling data, used measured yield vs assumed values, and established a validated database, providing a robust foundation for ongoing mining.
The XAMA mineral property is located in central British Columbia near Fraser Lake and contains seven mineral tenures covering 3,579 hectares. Historical exploration in the 1960s and 1970s identified widespread molybdenum and copper mineralization through soil sampling and geophysical surveys. Recommended exploration includes drilling three 500-meter holes to test induced polarization anomalies identified by previous operators, as well as a modern helicopter-borne electromagnetic survey to further explore the property's potential as a major porphyry molybdenum-copper deposit. The property has excellent infrastructure and is available for option.
Acid sulfate soils form in coastal areas when pyrite in low-lying wetland soils is exposed to oxygen through drainage or excavation. This produces sulfuric acid and releases toxic quantities of aluminum and iron. In Sri Lanka, acid sulfate soils are found along the southwest coast and impact the environment through killing aquatic life, degrading habitats, and stunting plant growth. They also pose health risks to humans and damage infrastructure through corrosion. Current management strategies aim to neutralize acidity through lime or isolate acid sulfate soils with barriers.
Lake Lanao is an ancient lake located in Lanao del Sur, Philippines that is an important source of hydroelectric power and cultural significance. It is home to several endemic fish species and is central to the culture and livelihood of the Meranao people. However, the lake is facing threats from deforestation, agriculture, and fluctuating water levels from hydroelectric dams that are disrupting the lake's ecology. The lake provides over 60% of Mindanao's electricity but continued development risks damaging the lake and the Meranao people who depend on it.
Kielder Reservoir was constructed in Northumberland, England to provide a sustainable water supply for the northeast of England. It has physical advantages as the location has high annual rainfall over 1000mm, impermeable geology, and a sparsely populated valley. The reservoir also provides human advantages through water supply to nearby dense populations, as well as opportunities for flood control, hydroelectric power, tourism, recreation, and employment. However, it also resulted in environmental and social costs such as submerging a beautiful valley and displacing local communities.
1) The Snook Islands project reconstructed 10 acres of red mangroves, 2.8 acres of Spartina marsh, and 2.3 acres of oyster reef by transporting 1.2 million cubic yards of dredge spoil from Peanut Island over 1,560 barge loads to fill in areas of the Lake Worth Lagoon that had been dredged and bulkheaded.
2) The Lake Worth Lagoon had lost around 80% of its mangroves and shallow waters to dredging and filling over the past century. The Snook Islands project aimed to remediate this loss of habitat by reconstructing intertidal and shallow subtidal areas.
3) Spoil from
The Spius Property is located in southwestern British Columbia and hosts a significant copper anomaly within an area of porphyry copper deposits. Historic soil and drilling data uncovered a large zone of anomalous copper values over 1 km in diameter that remains open. The property has good access and infrastructure. An initial program of geological mapping and soil sampling is recommended to further define the copper anomaly and evaluate the property's potential to host a significant porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit. The property is available for option, joint venture or purchase.
The Global Symposium on Soil Pollution #GSOP18 | 2 - 4 May 2018 | FAO Hq
Mr. Raúl S. Lavado, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Mountain View Resources provides engineering, geological, and drilling services to oil companies worldwide. They have investigated the oil and gas potential in Fiji's waters utilizing geological studies. Fiji has potential source rocks and reservoirs, and over 20 identified reefal structures could each contain 270 million barrels of oil. Fiji's geology makes it prospective for oil and gas production.
This document discusses problems in forest soils and their management. It identifies physical problems such as slow permeability, excessive permeability, subsurface hardening, surface crusting, shallow soils, and waterlogging. It also identifies chemical problems including salt-affected soils, alkaline soils, saline soils, and acid soils. Management strategies are provided for each problem, such as drainage, adding organic matter or sand to change texture, liming, and selecting suitable tree species. The challenges of managing problematic forest soils are utilizing degraded lands for plantation, providing adequate nutrients, and balancing inputs with plant needs. Soil conservation is important as soil is fundamental to terrestrial ecology.
Hadlari and rainbird 2011 baker lake basin tectonic synthesisrad8
The document summarizes a study on the Paleoproterozoic Baker Lake Basin in Nunavut, Canada. It discusses the basin's two-stage development between 1.84-1.78 billion years ago, with an initial stage of rifting and a second post-rift stage. It proposes that the first stage was caused by continental retro-arc extension during formation of the Kisseynew back-arc basin around 1.85-1.84 billion years ago. Upon closure of that basin, the second stage recorded lateral tectonic escape between collision zones in the region. The basin provides insights into the regional extension and crustal thinning of the western Churchill Province during this time period.
This is an abstract from the 5th Annual Minerals South Conference & Tradeshow of October 2009 in Cranbrook, British Columbia.
The subject is the Wicheeda rare earth carbonatite being explored by Spectrum Mining Corp.
This document discusses potassium (K) in soils. It covers the following key points:
- K exists in soils in various forms including solution, exchangeable, fixed, and structural/mineral forms. Exchangeable K is the most plant-available.
- K is essential for plant growth and plays important roles in processes like photosynthesis and enzyme activation. Deficiency causes burn symptoms on older leaves and reduced yields.
- Common fertilizers containing K include potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, and potassium magnesium sulfate. Fertilizer K can increase various forms of K in soils.
- Factors like clay content, soil pH, wetting/drying, and freezing/thawing can influence K
World-class unconformity-related uranium deposits in the Athabasca Basin of Canada formed due to the combined effects of uranium extraction from source rocks, efficient transport by oxidized, saline brines, and exceptional trapping conditions. Uranium was extracted from basement rocks like granites, metasediments, and monazite, as well as from the sandstone cover via alteration of minerals like monazite and zircon. Oxidized, sodium-calcium-rich brines transported uranium at concentrations up to 30 ppm, aided by the redox and pH conditions. Uranium was deposited where a strong redox gradient existed between oxidized sediments and organic-rich basement rocks
This document discusses the potassium cycle and potassium management in agriculture. It contains the following key points:
1. Potassium cycles through soil, plants, and organic matter. Plants take up potassium which is then returned to soil through crop residues, manures, and fertilizers to replenish soil potassium levels.
2. Soil testing measures exchangeable potassium, the form readily available to plants. Factors like wetting/drying, freeze/thaw, and iron oxidation states can impact exchangeable potassium levels.
3. Potassium fertilizer sources include muriate of potash, sulfate of potash, manures, and composts. Proper potassium management through soil testing and balanced
This document summarizes research on different forms of potassium in soils and their availability to crops. It includes 10 tables that show results from studies measuring various fractions of potassium (e.g. water soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable) in different soil types and under various fertilizer and amendment treatments. The tables demonstrate how forms of potassium vary with soil properties, fertilizer additions, and crop uptake. Continuous mineral fertilizer use can increase available potassium fractions and crop yields but may also lead to potassium fixation in non-exchangeable forms over time. Organic amendments generally contribute to maintaining more available forms of potassium.
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE ...Premier Publishers
Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite. The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1 clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz, clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70 – 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of tropical sediment.
The document discusses controls on carbonate deposition through geologic time periods. It addresses topics such as carbonate facies relationships to geotectonics and climate, reef complexes, temporal fluctuations in marine carbonate deposition, the dolomite problem, and factors controlling the mineralogy of marine carbonate precipitates. Specifically, it examines how the abundance of oolites, skeletal grains, reefs, dolomites, and mineralogies like calcite and aragonite have varied in relation to factors like sea level change, PCO2, and Mg/Ca ratios over the Phanerozoic Eon.
I designed a restoration and conservation plan to improve the island habitat and native special at the Cedar Creek/Lake Muhlenberg region of Allentown, PA. My research proposal was part of an interdisciplinary Sustainability Studies course where each student selected a real environmental issue facing the City of Allentown in which the Parks and Recreation Department desired to improve. My proposal was actually picked up, funded by, and put into action by various partners who contributed their expertise to the project, such as the Edge of the Woods Nursery in Allentown, a nonprofit organization Friends of the Allentown Parks, and the Lehigh Valley Chapter of the National Audubon Society
The document outlines plans to restore the Johnson Creek Watershed through stream bank stabilization projects, abandoned mine drainage remediation, and community education. The project area focuses on a two mile section of Johnson Creek and its tributaries. Goals are to improve water quality and aquatic habitat to increase diversity of fish and macroinvertebrates, improve recreational opportunities, and encourage long-term stewardship of the watershed through community involvement. Specific restoration sites are described along with their existing conditions and recommended stabilization techniques.
The Skokomish Estuary Restoration project aims to restore the historic and natural estuarine form and function of the Skokomish River estuary in Washington State. The project is sponsored by the Skokomish Tribe and partners to address issues like sedimentation, flooding, and degradation of fish and wildlife habitat. Phase I of the project was implemented in 2007 and restored 108 acres by removing over a mile of dike and notching tidal channels. Phase II was implemented in 2010 and further restored the estuary by removing over 2 miles of dike, filling ditches, and installing additional tidal notches. The multi-phase project aims to improve water quality and restore tidal and riverine processes and habitats.
The Bay Area is experiencing rapid growth and development. As the region expands, planners must balance new construction with environmental protections to preserve access to open spaces and limit urban sprawl. Strategic development that supports public transit can help accommodate more residents while maintaining the Bay Area's quality of life.
Major Tailings Dam Disasters in the Philippines - Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM) - ...No to mining in Palawan
Major tailings dam disasters have occurred in the Philippines, often resulting from heavy rains weakening dam infrastructure and releasing toxic mine waste. Some consequences include contaminated waterways, widespread siltation, fish kills, evacuation of communities, and long term health impacts. Notable disasters include the 2007 TVI Pacific Inc. dam collapse in Zambonga del Norte, the 2005 Lafayette Mining dam failure in Albay, and the devastating 1996 Marcopper Mining tailings dam leak in Marinduque that flooded rivers and caused extensive environmental and economic damage.
Assessment of the effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Mogpog River Ecosystem, Ma...No to mining in Palawan
This document discusses a study assessing the effects of acid mine drainage from past mining operations on the Mogpog River ecosystem and local communities in Marinduque, Philippines. Key points:
1) Soil samples and biological indicators were analyzed from 5 stations along Mogpog River and 3 stations along the reference Dawis River.
2) Soil pH decreased significantly from the river mouth to upstream areas in Mogpog River, indicating increasing acidity due to mine drainage. However, soil pH remained consistently alkaline along Dawis River.
3) Heavy metal analysis found elevated levels of arsenic, lead, and cadmium in soils near Mogpog River compared to Dawis River
The Spius Property is located in southwestern British Columbia and hosts a significant copper anomaly within an area of porphyry copper deposits. Historic soil and drilling data uncovered a large zone of anomalous copper values over 1 km in diameter that remains open. The property has good access and infrastructure. An initial program of geological mapping and soil sampling is recommended to further define the copper anomaly and evaluate the property's potential to host a significant porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit. The property is available for option, joint venture or purchase.
The Global Symposium on Soil Pollution #GSOP18 | 2 - 4 May 2018 | FAO Hq
Mr. Raúl S. Lavado, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Mountain View Resources provides engineering, geological, and drilling services to oil companies worldwide. They have investigated the oil and gas potential in Fiji's waters utilizing geological studies. Fiji has potential source rocks and reservoirs, and over 20 identified reefal structures could each contain 270 million barrels of oil. Fiji's geology makes it prospective for oil and gas production.
This document discusses problems in forest soils and their management. It identifies physical problems such as slow permeability, excessive permeability, subsurface hardening, surface crusting, shallow soils, and waterlogging. It also identifies chemical problems including salt-affected soils, alkaline soils, saline soils, and acid soils. Management strategies are provided for each problem, such as drainage, adding organic matter or sand to change texture, liming, and selecting suitable tree species. The challenges of managing problematic forest soils are utilizing degraded lands for plantation, providing adequate nutrients, and balancing inputs with plant needs. Soil conservation is important as soil is fundamental to terrestrial ecology.
Hadlari and rainbird 2011 baker lake basin tectonic synthesisrad8
The document summarizes a study on the Paleoproterozoic Baker Lake Basin in Nunavut, Canada. It discusses the basin's two-stage development between 1.84-1.78 billion years ago, with an initial stage of rifting and a second post-rift stage. It proposes that the first stage was caused by continental retro-arc extension during formation of the Kisseynew back-arc basin around 1.85-1.84 billion years ago. Upon closure of that basin, the second stage recorded lateral tectonic escape between collision zones in the region. The basin provides insights into the regional extension and crustal thinning of the western Churchill Province during this time period.
This is an abstract from the 5th Annual Minerals South Conference & Tradeshow of October 2009 in Cranbrook, British Columbia.
The subject is the Wicheeda rare earth carbonatite being explored by Spectrum Mining Corp.
This document discusses potassium (K) in soils. It covers the following key points:
- K exists in soils in various forms including solution, exchangeable, fixed, and structural/mineral forms. Exchangeable K is the most plant-available.
- K is essential for plant growth and plays important roles in processes like photosynthesis and enzyme activation. Deficiency causes burn symptoms on older leaves and reduced yields.
- Common fertilizers containing K include potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, and potassium magnesium sulfate. Fertilizer K can increase various forms of K in soils.
- Factors like clay content, soil pH, wetting/drying, and freezing/thawing can influence K
World-class unconformity-related uranium deposits in the Athabasca Basin of Canada formed due to the combined effects of uranium extraction from source rocks, efficient transport by oxidized, saline brines, and exceptional trapping conditions. Uranium was extracted from basement rocks like granites, metasediments, and monazite, as well as from the sandstone cover via alteration of minerals like monazite and zircon. Oxidized, sodium-calcium-rich brines transported uranium at concentrations up to 30 ppm, aided by the redox and pH conditions. Uranium was deposited where a strong redox gradient existed between oxidized sediments and organic-rich basement rocks
This document discusses the potassium cycle and potassium management in agriculture. It contains the following key points:
1. Potassium cycles through soil, plants, and organic matter. Plants take up potassium which is then returned to soil through crop residues, manures, and fertilizers to replenish soil potassium levels.
2. Soil testing measures exchangeable potassium, the form readily available to plants. Factors like wetting/drying, freeze/thaw, and iron oxidation states can impact exchangeable potassium levels.
3. Potassium fertilizer sources include muriate of potash, sulfate of potash, manures, and composts. Proper potassium management through soil testing and balanced
This document summarizes research on different forms of potassium in soils and their availability to crops. It includes 10 tables that show results from studies measuring various fractions of potassium (e.g. water soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable) in different soil types and under various fertilizer and amendment treatments. The tables demonstrate how forms of potassium vary with soil properties, fertilizer additions, and crop uptake. Continuous mineral fertilizer use can increase available potassium fractions and crop yields but may also lead to potassium fixation in non-exchangeable forms over time. Organic amendments generally contribute to maintaining more available forms of potassium.
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE ...Premier Publishers
Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite. The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1 clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz, clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70 – 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of tropical sediment.
The document discusses controls on carbonate deposition through geologic time periods. It addresses topics such as carbonate facies relationships to geotectonics and climate, reef complexes, temporal fluctuations in marine carbonate deposition, the dolomite problem, and factors controlling the mineralogy of marine carbonate precipitates. Specifically, it examines how the abundance of oolites, skeletal grains, reefs, dolomites, and mineralogies like calcite and aragonite have varied in relation to factors like sea level change, PCO2, and Mg/Ca ratios over the Phanerozoic Eon.
I designed a restoration and conservation plan to improve the island habitat and native special at the Cedar Creek/Lake Muhlenberg region of Allentown, PA. My research proposal was part of an interdisciplinary Sustainability Studies course where each student selected a real environmental issue facing the City of Allentown in which the Parks and Recreation Department desired to improve. My proposal was actually picked up, funded by, and put into action by various partners who contributed their expertise to the project, such as the Edge of the Woods Nursery in Allentown, a nonprofit organization Friends of the Allentown Parks, and the Lehigh Valley Chapter of the National Audubon Society
The document outlines plans to restore the Johnson Creek Watershed through stream bank stabilization projects, abandoned mine drainage remediation, and community education. The project area focuses on a two mile section of Johnson Creek and its tributaries. Goals are to improve water quality and aquatic habitat to increase diversity of fish and macroinvertebrates, improve recreational opportunities, and encourage long-term stewardship of the watershed through community involvement. Specific restoration sites are described along with their existing conditions and recommended stabilization techniques.
The Skokomish Estuary Restoration project aims to restore the historic and natural estuarine form and function of the Skokomish River estuary in Washington State. The project is sponsored by the Skokomish Tribe and partners to address issues like sedimentation, flooding, and degradation of fish and wildlife habitat. Phase I of the project was implemented in 2007 and restored 108 acres by removing over a mile of dike and notching tidal channels. Phase II was implemented in 2010 and further restored the estuary by removing over 2 miles of dike, filling ditches, and installing additional tidal notches. The multi-phase project aims to improve water quality and restore tidal and riverine processes and habitats.
The Bay Area is experiencing rapid growth and development. As the region expands, planners must balance new construction with environmental protections to preserve access to open spaces and limit urban sprawl. Strategic development that supports public transit can help accommodate more residents while maintaining the Bay Area's quality of life.
Major Tailings Dam Disasters in the Philippines - Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM) - ...No to mining in Palawan
Major tailings dam disasters have occurred in the Philippines, often resulting from heavy rains weakening dam infrastructure and releasing toxic mine waste. Some consequences include contaminated waterways, widespread siltation, fish kills, evacuation of communities, and long term health impacts. Notable disasters include the 2007 TVI Pacific Inc. dam collapse in Zambonga del Norte, the 2005 Lafayette Mining dam failure in Albay, and the devastating 1996 Marcopper Mining tailings dam leak in Marinduque that flooded rivers and caused extensive environmental and economic damage.
Assessment of the effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Mogpog River Ecosystem, Ma...No to mining in Palawan
This document discusses a study assessing the effects of acid mine drainage from past mining operations on the Mogpog River ecosystem and local communities in Marinduque, Philippines. Key points:
1) Soil samples and biological indicators were analyzed from 5 stations along Mogpog River and 3 stations along the reference Dawis River.
2) Soil pH decreased significantly from the river mouth to upstream areas in Mogpog River, indicating increasing acidity due to mine drainage. However, soil pH remained consistently alkaline along Dawis River.
3) Heavy metal analysis found elevated levels of arsenic, lead, and cadmium in soils near Mogpog River compared to Dawis River
Community Perspective on Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC): Philippine Experience
Edwin A. Gariguez.
Executive Secretary
National Secretariat for Social Action –Justice and Peace (NASSA-JP)
of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines (CBCP)
Carmen Copper Corporation is majority owned by Atlas Consolidated Mining & Development Corp and operates the Carmen Copper Mine in the Philippines. The mine has a JORC compliant resource of over 3.5 million tonnes of copper and has been steadily increasing production. Carmen Copper Corporation expects to produce over 60,000 tonnes of copper concentrate and generate over $400 million in gross sales by 2013 as production continues to ramp up at the Carmen Copper Mine.
This document discusses mining in the Philippines, including its history and current state. It notes that mining dates back to the 16th century and provides a significant economic contribution today. However, it also causes environmental degradation and issues with safety, processing, and community health/conditions. There are also policy issues around overlapping mining claims, revenue sharing, and outdated small-scale mining laws. The document focuses on small-scale mining by the Monte de Oro Small Scale Miners' Association, outlining their vision, mission, goals and objectives which center around responsible mining and improving livelihoods.
Environmental and Socio-economic Effects Of Artisanal Mining in Oke Ogun regi...micobin
Environmental and Socio-economic Effects Of Artisanal Mining in Oke Ogun region, Oyo State Nigeria.CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CELL RISK, concept of environmental sustainability, map of oke-ogun
Wake Forest - Bioinspiration & Biomimetics - Open 2011the nciia
This document describes a biomimetics and bioinspiration course at a university. The course teaches students to draw inspiration from nature to develop novel technologies. Students form interdisciplinary teams to generate and evaluate ideas. They learn about biomimetics principles and local biological resources. One student team developed an idea inspired by maple tree blades that could improve windmill rotor design. The course aims to provide hands-on lab experiences and connect students with the regional entrepreneurship ecosystem through workshops and partnerships.
Impacts of Lafayette Mining In The Island of Rapu-Rapu Albay Resulting From C...No to mining in Palawan
Mining must not be conducted in Rapu-Rapu for the following reasons:
a) Rapu-rapu is an island ecosystem with
steep slope;
b) It is characterized by a Type II climate - no dry season with very pronounced wet period from November to January (PAGASA Corona classification);
c) It is located along typhoon path; and
d) Its massive iron sulfide rocks are capable of generating sulfuric acid.
These geophysico-chemical conditions are the reasons why, within only four months of operation, Lafayette mining caused two cyanide spills and fish-kills in October 11 and 31, 2005.
Apparently, it also brought about fish-kills in the adjacent province of Sorsogon.
This document provides an overview of minerals found in Earth's crust. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite crystalline structure. Minerals are either elements or compounds. They form crystals through a repeating pattern of atoms. There are two major groups of minerals: silicate minerals, which contain silicon, oxygen, and metals; and nonsilicate minerals, which do not contain silicon and oxygen. Nonsilicate minerals are divided into six main classes - native elements, carbonates, halides, oxides, sulfates, and sulfides.
Earth Science 1.3 : Formation, Mining, and use of Minerals.Chris Foltz
Minerals form in a variety of environments in the Earth's crust including evaporating salt water, metamorphic rocks, limestones, hot-water solutions, pegmatites, and plutons. Minerals are extracted through surface mining methods like open pits and quarries or subsurface mining methods when deposits are too deep. Responsible mining aims to reduce environmental impacts through reclamation and recycling to lessen our need for minerals. Metallic minerals have many uses in technology due to conducting properties while nonmetallics are useful as insulators in applications like glass and computer chips. Gemstones are valued for their beauty over function.
Environmental impact assessment of mining projects 17.03.09Mohit Singh
1) The document discusses environmental impact assessment procedures for mining projects in India, which require environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
2) It outlines key environmental policies and legislation in India related to mining and the environment, and notes that mining technology choices must consider environmental and social impacts, not just economic factors.
3) The document describes the scoping process for identifying potential environmental impacts of mining projects and lists some typical impacts such as changes to land use and landscape, and socioeconomic effects.
False Promises: Water Quality Predictions Gone Wrong Large Mines and Water Po...No to mining in Palawan
The document discusses 10 examples of mines where government agencies and mining companies predicted little or no impact to water quality from the mines, but significant impacts occurred. In many cases, the mines generated acid mine drainage and heavy metal pollution in nearby streams at levels that harm aquatic life. Several mines filed for bankruptcy after closing, leaving state governments with high costs for long-term water treatment to address the ongoing pollution problems caused by the mines.
The Marcopper Mining Corporation conducted open-pit copper mining operations on Mt. Tapian in Marinduque, Philippines from 1972-1991. Tailings from the mining operations were disposed directly into coastal waters, contaminating the environment. A major spill of mine waste in 1996 polluted waterways with heavy metals like lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc, poisoning residents, killing aquatic life, and devastating the local economy. In 2022, a court found Marcopper liable and awarded damages to plaintiffs for health issues and economic losses caused by the company's mining activities.
The document summarizes a case study on the Marcopper Mining disaster in the Philippines. It describes how Marcopper Mining Corporation dumped over 200 million tons of mine tailings in Calancan Bay from 1975-1991, polluting the water and devastating the livelihoods of local fishermen. In 1996, a tunnel leak released 2-3 million tons of mining waste into the Boac River, contaminating water supplies and farmland with dangerous heavy metals like cadmium, lead, copper, and zinc. The spill displaced 20 villages and killed aquatic life. Recent court decisions awarded damages to 30 affected plaintiffs, granting 200,000 pesos each for temporary and moral damages plus 1 million pesos in exempl
Unit 4 ch 16 s3 mining regulations & mine reclamationwja10255
This document discusses the environmental impacts of mining, including noise and air pollution, water contamination, displacement of wildlife, soil degradation, subsidence, and underground mine fires. It also outlines regulations from the Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and other laws regarding reclamation standards for returning mined land to its original condition. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act sets standards for mine cleanup and reclamation of disturbed lands.
Kenya; Water from Rock Outcrops: A handbook for Engineers and TechniciansV9X
Rock catchments provide a reliable source of water in arid and semi-arid regions by harvesting rainwater running off rock surfaces. They are constructed by building rock garlands and dams to gravity feed the runoff into reservoirs. Maintaining rock catchments is simple, involving cleaning before rains, and they can provide water for many households with minimal rainfall. They have largely positive social and health impacts while being cost-effective alternatives to other water sources.
Environmental problems caused by improper mine tailings disposal in the Baguio district include pollution of the Lower Agno River system and its watershed and siltation of irrigation canals in the Pangasinan plains. Direct economic losses are from reduced agricultural production due to siltation of irrigation works and farmlands. To check the adverse ecological effects of improper mine tailings disposal, government regulations have been imposed on mining firms.
Several disposal schemes have been proposed, including the use of the reservoir of a multipurpose project to be sited in the watershed where the mines are located. Because of siltation problems, however, trapping the tailings in the reservoir will diminish the economic benefits that can be derived from the project.
Lake Lanao is an ancient lake located in Lanao del Sur, Philippines that is an important source of hydroelectric power and cultural significance. It is home to several endemic fish species and is central to the culture and livelihood of the Meranao people. However, the lake is facing threats from deforestation, agriculture, and fluctuating water levels from hydroelectric dams that are disrupting the lake's ecology. The lake provides over 60% of Mindanao's electricity but continued development risks damaging the lake and the Meranao people who depend on it.
This document provides information about the history and environmental impact of the shrinking of the Aral Sea located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It discusses how the Soviet Union diverted water from the rivers feeding the sea in the 1960s to irrigate cotton fields, causing the sea to lose over 75% of its water and splitting into two bodies of water. This has led to ecological and health issues as dust and chemicals from the dried seabed are spread by winds. The document also shares photos and descriptions of explorations of the dried former seabed and surrounding areas, and details the cultural and economic changes to communities that relied on the sea.
Mining can have significant negative impacts on water resources through water pollution and depletion. For every tonne of copper extracted, 99 tonnes of waste rock and tailings must be removed, generating massive amounts of waste. This waste is a major source of water pollution through acid mine drainage and heavy metal leaching. Mining also increases erosion and sedimentation risks. Past mining has left lasting legacies of contaminated water that are expensive to remediate and have damaged fisheries and ecosystems. Improved regulations and practices are needed to better prevent water pollution and protect water resources for future generations.
MARINDUQUE MINING: ELUSIVE JUSTICE, ELUSIVE DEVELOPMENT
MYKE R. MAGALANG
Executive Secretary
Marinduque Council for Environmental Concerns
LGU-Bishops’ Conference on Mining
April 29, 2009
Natural hazards, road construction, increased vulnerability in the Nepal Himalayas: what future for a developing country? Presented by Monique Fort at the "Perth II: Global Change and the World's Mountains" conference in Perth, Scotland in September 2010.
The Three Gorges Dam on China's Yangtze River, the largest hydroelectric power station in the world, has caused significant environmental impacts. It has disrupted the ecosystem by blocking fish migration, decreased water quality by preventing pollutants from washing downstream, and increased the risk of landslides by requiring deforestation. Resettling over 1 million people displaced by the dam's reservoir has also faced challenges.
This document summarizes key reservoir features of tight sandstones in the Williams Fork formation in the Southern Piceance Basin in Colorado. Gas production comes from 900 feet of continuously gas-saturated, lenticular sandstone reservoirs. Natural fractures control fluid distribution and were formed by overpressuring and basement uplift. Integrated techniques including aerial surveys, basin modeling and 3D seismic can detect fracture zones associated with basement structures to locate development areas.
The document discusses flooding issues in Oriental Mindoro province in the Philippines. It notes that the province faces frequent typhoons and flooding due to pollution, deforestation, and a lack of environmental protection over time. Specific typhoons and floods that have caused damage are detailed. The key cause of flooding is identified as overflow from the Mag-asawang Tubig River and its changing course over time. A proposed solution of the Mag-asawang Tubig Multi-Purpose Project is outlined, which would provide flood control, irrigation, power generation, and water resources through constructing a 49km river management system.
The document provides an overview of the Vembanad Lake located along the southwest coast of India. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The Vembanad Lake is a 100 km long brackish water body located between Munambam and Alappuzha. It supports a high level of biodiversity and provides livelihoods from fishing, agriculture and tourism. However, increasing pollution, land reclamation, and construction of barriers like the Thanneermukkom bund have degraded the ecosystem and impacted livelihoods dependent on the lake.
2015 Broken Hill Resources Investment Symposium - Geological Survey of New S...Symposium
"Recent Developments and mineral potential in the Murray Basin: Heavy Mineral sands and more. "
David Forster, Senior Geoscientist, Geological Survey of New South Wales.
Technical presentation at 2015 Broken Hill Resources Investment symposium.
This document discusses insights into dam sustainability from economic, environmental, and social perspectives. It notes that over 85,000 dams in the US have an average age of 51 years and many are deficient or at high risk of failure. Dams provide economic benefits like power generation, water supply, and flood prevention but also have environmental impacts such as altering downstream flows and sediment transport. Socially, dams can displace local communities and impact health while also providing new infrastructure and jobs. The document recommends investing in maintenance of existing dams in developed nations and ensuring all stakeholders are involved and impacts are well-defined for new dams in developing areas.
Testing and Implementation of AMD Mitigation, Alum Gulch-Flux Canyon, Cox Gul...Daniel Eyde
The document summarizes a plan to mitigate acid mine drainage (AMD) and heavy metals in several tributaries in southeastern Arizona that flow into Sonoita Creek and Patagonia Lake. The plan involves installing gabion retaining wall structures and stream bed footers containing zeolite materials downstream of mine discharge points to raise pH and reduce metals like zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper. Water quality and biological monitoring will occur before and after installation to evaluate effectiveness. Zeolites are effective at absorbing metals and raising pH, as shown in previous studies. The structures are intended to last 5-10 years before material replacement depending on runoff conditions.
The document is a position paper from Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM), a coalition of organizations against large-scale mining in the Philippines, critiquing Executive Order 79 which establishes new mining policies.
The paper expresses that EO 79 does not go far enough in reforming mining policies and fails to address key issues. While some positive steps are recognized, ATM remains cautious and believes the order is misleading by watering down social and environmental safeguards.
ATM disagrees with provisions that allow existing mining projects to continue without thorough review, and calls for communities and civil society to have clear roles in such reviews. They also argue all key biodiversity areas should be no-go
This document discusses establishing a No-Go Zone policy for mineral extraction in the Philippines by considering four key areas: fragile ecosystems, food security, disaster risk, and intensified conflict. It provides background on the country's population and poverty levels, finite natural resources, effects of mining and climate change, and ongoing resource-based conflicts. The document argues that in developing mining for economic growth, the government must consider mining's potential irreversible impacts and effects on exacerbating hunger, disasters, and conflicts.
New mining eo revitalizing the palawan campaign against mining august 2012 fi...Farah Sevilla
The new mining EO provides some gains for Palawan but concerns remain. It establishes areas closed to mining like protected areas and identifies Palawan as a fragile island ecosystem. While it stops processing new mining applications in Palawan, existing operations can continue. Indigenous groups and advocates want a complete mining ban as mining threatens Palawan's environment and people. Further policy shifts are still needed to prioritize protection over exploitation of resources. The campaign against mining in Palawan continues.
NGOs, coalition buiding and campaign for a minerals management policy in the ...Farah Sevilla
This document discusses how two advocacy coalitions in the Philippines - Kalikasan People's Network for the Environment and Defend Patrimony! Alliance, and the Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM) - have campaigned for over a decade to repeal the country's Mining Act of 1995 and influence mining policy. These coalitions have pushed for an alternative bill, starting with the Alternative Mining Bill in 2009 and later the Minerals Management Bill in 2010. While the original act has not been repealed, the coalitions have helped consolidate advocacy efforts and provide alternative policy proposals. They have also influenced some local governments to resist mining. However, it remains uncertain if the Senate will pass the new management bill
Mindoro campaign: protecting island ecology defending people’s rightsFarah Sevilla
The document discusses the history and development of artificial intelligence over the past several decades. Early research focused on symbolic approaches using logic and rules to represent knowledge. More recently, machine learning techniques like deep learning have emerged that use neural networks to learn from large amounts of data without being explicitly programmed. These new approaches have achieved significant success in areas like computer vision and natural language processing.
Mining in Tampakan: Intensifying conflict, danger in perpetuity Farah Sevilla
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
ATM Policy Paper on Mining in the PhilippinesFarah Sevilla
The document discusses the performance of the Philippine mining industry and issues with the government's policy of promoting large-scale mining. It finds that mining has contributed little to the economy and employment compared to other industries like agriculture and tourism. There are also many social and environmental problems associated with large-scale mining projects, including threats to indigenous peoples and biodiversity. The document recommends that the government drop policies to revitalize the mining industry and instead implement a more rational mineral policy that protects local communities and the environment.
Atm lies of the mining industry December 2010Farah Sevilla
The document summarizes the failures of the mining industry in the Philippines to meet economic and development targets and address social and environmental issues, as outlined by the government. It also lists over 80 member organizations of the Alyansa Tigil Mina alliance that oppose large-scale mining operations due to these unresolved issues.
2. TVI
PACIFIC
INC
April
6
and
July
11,
2007
Siocon,
Zambonga
del
Norte
Heavy
rains
washed
out
the
clay
soil
and
destructed
the
concrete
wall
of
the
sulphide
dam
used
for
the
extrac7on
of
copper
and
zinc.
IMPACTS:
Contaminated
water,
where
cyanide
and
mercury
is
detectable,
flows
to
the
Canatuan
River
down
to
Siocon
River
and
towards
the
sea.
Two
days
aFer
the
collapse,
it
has
been
reported
that
silta7on
has
reached
up
to
3meters
thick.
3.
4. LAFAYETTE
POLYMETALLIC
PROJECT
(LAFAYETTE
MINING
LTD)
October
11
and
31,
2005
Rapu-‐rapu
Island,
Albay
It
rained
heavily.
Water
eleva7on
at
the
lower
tailings
storage
facility
was
almost
full
due
to
con7nuous
rainfall.
IMPACTS:
In
the
morning
of
November
1,
2005,
fishes
and
other
marine
organisms
were
found
dead
at
Ungay
and
Hollowstone
Creeks
As
per
DENR
inves7ga7on
report:
1.
The
effluent
LafayeVe
to
meet
DENR
Effluent
Standards
per
DENR
Administra7ve
Order
90-‐35
for
parameter
cyanide;
and
2.
Samplings
conducted
on
4
and
5
Nov.
at
Hollowstone
Creek,
Ungay
Creek
and
Binosawan
River
failed
to
conform
to
conform
to
DENR
Administra7ve
Order
90-‐35
for
parameter
cyanide.
5. DIZON
COPPER
SILVER
MINES
INC.
(DCSMI)
Heavily-‐rusted
mine
facili7es
at
the
August
27
and
September
11,
Benguet
Corpora7on-‐Dizon
Copper/Gold
Mines
(BCD)
in
San
2002
Marcelino,
Zambales.
San
Marcelino,
Zambales
[Photo
courtesy
of
Tetra
Tech
EM
Inc.]
The
Spillway
of
Bayarong
tailings
dam
collapsed
during
heavy
rain;
IMPACTS:
Low
lying
villages
were
flooded
with
mine
waste;
250
families
evacuated;
Some
tailings
spilled
into
Mapanuepe
Lake
and
eventually
into
the
Sto.
Tomas
River;
dams
heavily
damaged
(especially
Camalca)
Communi7es
residing
In
Dizon
mine
road.
6. SIPALAY,
NEGROS
OCCIDENTAL
DISASTERS
In
November
8,
1982
under
MARICALUM
MINING
CORP,
a
tailings
pond
causing
the
Widespread
inunda7on
of
agricultural
land
up
to
1.5m
High
and
the
silta7on
of
the
Tao-‐angan
River
Again
in
December
8,
1995
Under
PHILEX
MINING
CORP,
Destruc7on
of
tailings
pond
Caused
the
silta7on
of
Sipalay
River.
MARICALUM
MINING
CORP.
December
2001
Since
the
‘temporary’
stoppage
of
opera7ons
no
fresh
tailings
have
been
discharged,
causing
tailings
pond
3
to
dry
up
and
become
prone
to
wind
ac7ons
IMPACTS:
Excessive
levels
of
dust
affect
area
of
5
km;
air
quality
affected;
nearby
residents
report
increases
in
respiratory
illnesses
7. ATLAS
CONSOLIDATED
MINING
AND
DEVELOPMENT
CORP.
(ACMDC)
August
9,
1999
Toledo
City,
Cebu
Outlet
in
drainage
tunnel
of
released approximately 5.7 million m3 of acidic
the
open
pit
(from
closed
water into Sapangdaku and into the open sea
copper
mine)
was
clogged
resul7ng
in
loosening
of
accumulated
silt,
causing
discharge
into
the
Sapangdaku
River
towards
the
sea
IMPACTS:
Silta7on
of
Sapangdaku
River;
Increase
in
acidity
of
affected
water
bodies
causing
fish
kill
8. PLACER,
SURIGAO
DEL
NORTE
DISASTERS
All
under
MANILA
MINING
CORP.
(MMC)
•
July
9,
1987:
Dam
failure
causing
fish
kills
•
September
2,
1995:
Dam
founda7on
failure
at
tailings
pond
5
of
the
Placer
copper-‐gold
project
killing
5
people
and
coastal
pollu7on
•
April
26,
1999:
Tailings
spill
from
damaged
concrete
pipe
in
tailings
pond
caused
40
homes
to
be
buried
and
40
hectares
of
land
affected
including
20
hectares
of
agricultural
land
9. DISASTERS
IN
SIBUTAD,
ZAMBOANGA
DEL
NORTE
UNDER
PHILEX
GOLD
PHILIPPINES
INC.
(PHILEX
MINING
CORP.)
Two
incidents
of
heavy
rain
resulted
in
mudflow
and
rockslide
into
silt
dam
at
Lalab
(November
6,
1997)
causing
flashfloods
damaged
nearby
houses
and
rice
fields
and
the
overflowing
of
silt
dam
at
the
Sibutad
gold
project
(in
June
27,
1998)
causing
fish
kill
and
blindness.
10. According
to
the
Save
The
Abra
River
Movement,
the
silta7on
and
toxic
pollu7on
of
the
rivers
deprives
communi7es
in
Cervantes
of
about
7.33
million
kg
of
rice
worth
US$2.27
million
per
annum.
BENGUET
DISASTERS
October
17,
1986,
Mankayan,
Benguet
(Lepanto
Consolidated
Mining
Corpora7on):
Collapse
of
tailings
pond
3
due
to
weakened
dam
embankment
caused
by
addi7onal
loading
caused
the
silta7on
of
the
Abra
River
which
affected
9
municipali7es
11. January
1992,
Padcal,
Tuba,
Benguet
(Philex
Mining
Corp.):
Collapse
of
dam
wall
at
tailings
pond
2
due
to
weakened
founda7on
caused
by
the
1990
Northern
Luzon
earthquake
effected
the
heavy
silta7on
affected
downstream
government
irriga7on
system
BENGUET
DISASTERS
12. BENGUET
DISASTERS
June
26,
1993,
Mankayan,
Benguet
(Itogon-‐Suyoc
Mines
Inc):
Overtopping
at
the
dam
of
the
Itogon-‐Suyoc
gold
and
silver
mines
occurred
during
a
typhoon
when
the
dam’s
penstock
and
diversion
tunnel
were
blocked
caused
the
silta7on
of
adjoining
river
15. December
6,
1993,
Marinduque
Island
MARCOPPER
MINING
CORP
The
Maguila-‐Guila
silta7on
dam
collapsed
due
to
pressure
from
heavy
silta7on
at
the
dam
wall
and
caused
the
Mogpog
River
to
be
flooded;
2
children
killed;
livestock
killed;
agricultural
land
contaminated;
downstream
communi7es
and
Mogpog
Town
flooded.
16. March
24,
1996,
Marinduque
Island
MARCOPPER
MINING
CORP
According
to
the
company
the
rock
around
a
cement
plug
inserted
into
the
former
Tapian
open
Pit
drainage
tunnel
to
convert
it
into
a
tailings
containment
was
fractured
and
the
plug
failed.
However,
the
tunnel
started
leaking
in
August
1995.
In
September
1995
Marcopper/
Placer
Dome
started
drilling
down
160
meters
to
the
tunnel.
On
24
March
1996
the
drill
hit
the
tunnel,
released
an
air
pocket
holding
back
tailings
and
started
the
spill.
20. WHAT
MINERS
Acid mine drainage or acid rock drainage, is the
acidic water that drains out of above-ground or
CANNOT
SOLVE:
under-ground coal and metal mines. It may form
inside the mine or several kilometers downstream.
Acid
Mine
Drainage
It can occur during mining operations and even
when operations has finished and the site is
abandoned.
It affects stream and river ecosystems by increasing
acidity, depleting oxygen, and releasing heavy
metals, such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and
zinc.
23. Photos
and
data
were
taken
from
the
following
sources:
• ATM
File
Photos
• Ofam
Ombudsman
Report
on
Marinduque
• Legal
Rights
and
Natural
Resources
Center
(LRC)
• Philippine
Indigenous
Peoples
Links
(Piplinks)
• Marinduque
Council
for
Environmental
Concerns
(MACEC)
• Alex
Felipe
Photos
• www.saverapurapu.blogspot.com
• www.panoramio.com
• www.mustardseedblog.com