M3 explaining and applying chemical kinetics
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This document discusses several factors that can affect the rate of a chemical reaction. It explains that the rate depends on the frequency and effectiveness of collisions between reactant molecules. For a collision to be effective, the molecules must gain enough kinetic energy to form bonds during the reaction. The rate also increases with higher concentrations of reactants, larger surface areas for heterogeneous reactions, higher temperatures, and when catalysts are present. Catalysts lower the activation energy needed for reactions, making more collisions effective.
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Collision theory and transition state theory
Transition state theory provides an alternate approach to calculating reaction rates. It postulates that reactions proceed via an activated complex or transition state that is in equilibrium with the reactants. The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the activated complex times the frequency at which the complex dissociates to form products. The entropy of activation gives the extent to which the transition state is more disordered compared to the starting materials, and can be used to interpret the pre-exponential factor in the Arrhenius equation.
Conventional transition state theory
1) Transition state theory (TST) explains reaction rates by assuming a special type of equilibrium between reactants and unstable transition state complexes that have partially formed bonds between reactants and products.
2) TST can be used to calculate activation parameters like enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs energy of activation based on experimentally determined rate constants.
3) According to TST, a reaction will occur if the concentration of the transition state complex is high enough and if the complex breaks apart to form products rather than reverting back to reactants.
The Collision Theory
The document discusses collision theory and factors that affect chemical reaction rates, stating that reaction rates increase with higher temperatures, larger surface areas, higher concentrations of reactants, and the presence of catalysts as these factors all lead to more frequent collisions between reactant molecules that have sufficient kinetic energy to reach the transition state.
Collision Theory
Chemical reactions occur when new substances are formed from the collision of particles with sufficient energy and alignment. The rate of chemical reactions can be affected by several factors, including surface area, concentration, temperature, and catalysts. Increasing the surface area, concentration, or temperature of reactants increases the number of collisions and reaction rate. In industry, increasing the reaction rate is often advantageous to make products more efficiently.
Rate of reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on two factors: the energy with which reactant particles collide and the frequency of collisions between particles. A reaction occurs when particles collide with equal to or greater than the minimum energy required, called the activation energy. The rate of reaction is determined by the number of successful collisions per second - more collisions per second means a faster reaction rate.
B.Sc. I Year Physical Chemistry_Unit-IV_A. Chemical Kinetics_Part 3
B.Sc. I Year Physical Chemistry_Unit-IV_A. Chemical Kinetics_Part 3Department of Biochemistry, Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal Univarsity, Jaunpur
1. The document discusses theories of chemical kinetics including collision theory and the effect of temperature on reaction rates.
2. It introduces the Arrhenius equation and the concept of activation energy, which is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
3. Collision theory states that molecules must collide with sufficient energy and proper orientation to overcome the activation energy barrier for an effective reaction.Chain reactions
This presentation discusses chain reactions in chemical engineering kinetics. Chain reactions are self-sustaining reactions where the products initiate further reactions of the same type. They proceed in three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination. Initiation forms reactive intermediates through processes like heating or light absorption. Propagation involves these intermediates reacting with reactants to form more intermediates and stable products. Termination ends the chain when reactants are consumed or inhibitors are introduced. Examples are polymerization and nuclear fission reactions.
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The document discusses how wind velocity interacting with the size and gravitational flow of mass of an object entering the atmosphere can affect its gravitational pull through vector angles. It also mentions the need to know conserved quantities and abundant particles with periodic mass. However, the derivation of kinetic theory of equilibrium can change the outlook on properties like temperature and color of mass and photons.
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Collision theory and transition state theory
Transition state theory provides an alternate approach to calculating reaction rates. It postulates that reactions proceed via an activated complex or transition state that is in equilibrium with the reactants. The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the activated complex times the frequency at which the complex dissociates to form products. The entropy of activation gives the extent to which the transition state is more disordered compared to the starting materials, and can be used to interpret the pre-exponential factor in the Arrhenius equation.
Conventional transition state theory
1) Transition state theory (TST) explains reaction rates by assuming a special type of equilibrium between reactants and unstable transition state complexes that have partially formed bonds between reactants and products.
2) TST can be used to calculate activation parameters like enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs energy of activation based on experimentally determined rate constants.
3) According to TST, a reaction will occur if the concentration of the transition state complex is high enough and if the complex breaks apart to form products rather than reverting back to reactants.
The Collision Theory
The document discusses collision theory and factors that affect chemical reaction rates, stating that reaction rates increase with higher temperatures, larger surface areas, higher concentrations of reactants, and the presence of catalysts as these factors all lead to more frequent collisions between reactant molecules that have sufficient kinetic energy to reach the transition state.
Collision Theory
Chemical reactions occur when new substances are formed from the collision of particles with sufficient energy and alignment. The rate of chemical reactions can be affected by several factors, including surface area, concentration, temperature, and catalysts. Increasing the surface area, concentration, or temperature of reactants increases the number of collisions and reaction rate. In industry, increasing the reaction rate is often advantageous to make products more efficiently.
Rate of reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on two factors: the energy with which reactant particles collide and the frequency of collisions between particles. A reaction occurs when particles collide with equal to or greater than the minimum energy required, called the activation energy. The rate of reaction is determined by the number of successful collisions per second - more collisions per second means a faster reaction rate.
B.Sc. I Year Physical Chemistry_Unit-IV_A. Chemical Kinetics_Part 3
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1. The document discusses theories of chemical kinetics including collision theory and the effect of temperature on reaction rates.
2. It introduces the Arrhenius equation and the concept of activation energy, which is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
3. Collision theory states that molecules must collide with sufficient energy and proper orientation to overcome the activation energy barrier for an effective reaction.Chain reactions
This presentation discusses chain reactions in chemical engineering kinetics. Chain reactions are self-sustaining reactions where the products initiate further reactions of the same type. They proceed in three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination. Initiation forms reactive intermediates through processes like heating or light absorption. Propagation involves these intermediates reacting with reactants to form more intermediates and stable products. Termination ends the chain when reactants are consumed or inhibitors are introduced. Examples are polymerization and nuclear fission reactions.
Lougavins effect
The document discusses how wind velocity interacting with the size and gravitational flow of mass of an object entering the atmosphere can affect its gravitational pull through vector angles. It also mentions the need to know conserved quantities and abundant particles with periodic mass. However, the derivation of kinetic theory of equilibrium can change the outlook on properties like temperature and color of mass and photons.
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This document discusses factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions according to the collision theory. It explains that for a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. The rate of reactions depends on both the frequency of collisions between reactants and the activation energy. It then analyzes how increasing the surface area, concentration, temperature, use of catalysts, and pressure can increase the collision frequency, leading to more effective collisions and higher reaction rates.
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Higher concentrations and pressures increase reaction rates by providing more reactive particles in the same volume, leading to more successful collisions. Smaller particle sizes also increase reaction rates through a greater surface area and contact between particles, again resulting in more successful collisions. Raising the temperature increases reaction rates as it causes particles to move more quickly, providing more energy and successful collisions that surpass the activation energy. Catalysts increase reaction rates by reducing the activation energy needed, allowing for more successful collisions and a faster reaction.
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2. It explains that thermodynamics describes how changes in a system's state like temperature and pressure affect equilibrium using mathematical models.
3. It lists some key thermodynamic variables like extensive and intensive properties, entropy, phases, components, and solutions.
4. The master equation shows how changes in Gibbs free energy depend on changes in chemical potential, molar volume, pressure, entropy, temperature, and mole fractions of phases in a system.
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Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the kinetic energy of the reactant particles, leading to more frequent and more energetic collisions between particles. This results in more collisions possessing sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier and form reaction products, thereby increasing the reaction rate. Similarly, factors that increase collision frequency or the proportion of collisions with sufficient energy, such as reducing particle size, addition of a catalyst, or exposure to light, will also increase the reaction rate.
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This document discusses average and instantaneous rates of reaction and how to determine them from a graph. It also discusses collision theory and how factors like temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts affect the rate of a reaction according to this theory. Collision theory states that for a reaction to occur particles must collide with enough energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. These factors influence the rate by increasing the frequency and effectiveness of collisions between reacting particles.
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Collision theory states that chemical reactions occur due to collisions between reactant particles. For a reaction to take place, the particles must collide with sufficient energy. Factors that increase collision frequency, such as higher concentration, pressure, and temperature, speed up reactions by making collisions between particles more common and energetic.
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From the principle of least action to the conservation of quantum information...
In fact, the first law of conservation (that of mass) was found in chemistry and generalized to the conservation of energy in physics by means of Einstein’s famous “E=mc2”. Energy conservation is implied by the principle of least action from a variational viewpoint as in Emmy Noether’s theorems (1918):any chemical change in a conservative (i.e. “closed”) system can be accomplished only in the way conserving its total energy. Bohr’s innovation to found Mendeleev’s periodic table by quantum mechanics implies a certain generalization referring to the quantum leaps as if accomplished in all possible trajectories (e.g. according to Feynman’s viewpoint) and therefore generalizing the principle of least action and needing a certain generalization of energy conservation as to any quantum change.
The transition from the first to the second theorem of Emmy Noether represents well the necessary generalization: its chemical meaning is the generalization of any chemical reaction to be accomplished as if any possible course of time rather than in the standard evenly running time (and equivalent to energy conservation according to the first theorem).
The problem: If any quantum change is accomplished in all possible “variations (i.e. “violations) of energy conservation” (by different probabilities), what (if any) is conserved?
An answer: quantum information is what is conserved. Indeed it can be particularly defined as the counterpart (e.g. in the sense of Emmy Noether’s theorems) to the physical quantity of action (e.g. as energy is the counterpart of time in them). It is valid in any course of time rather than in the evenly running one. (An illustration: if observers in arbitrarily accelerated reference frames exchange light signals about the course of a single chemical reaction observed by all of them, the universal viewpoint shareаble by all is that of quantum information).
That generalization implies a generalization of the periodic table including any continuous and smooth transformation between two chemical elements necessary conserving quantum information rather than energy: thus it can be called “alchemical periodic table”.
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Matter is composed of small particles called atoms and molecules. Matter particles are always in random motion and have kinetic energy that increases with temperature. Matter can change states from solid to liquid to gas through a process called interconversion, which involves absorbing or releasing latent heat. The law of conservation of matter states that the total mass of matter remains the same during physical and chemical changes.
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This document discusses factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions according to the collision theory. It explains that for a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. The rate of reactions depends on both the frequency of collisions between reactants and the activation energy. It then analyzes how increasing the surface area, concentration, temperature, use of catalysts, and pressure can increase the collision frequency, leading to more effective collisions and higher reaction rates.
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3. It lists some key thermodynamic variables like extensive and intensive properties, entropy, phases, components, and solutions.
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2. The laws of thermodynamics govern energy flow and work potential in systems. Energy is transferred but not created or destroyed, and entropy increases over time as available energy decreases.
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The document discusses several concepts related to energy and motion:
1. It defines the Law of Conservation of Energy as stating that the total energy of an isolated system cannot change over time, and that energy can change form but not be created or destroyed.
2. It explains that the First Law of Thermodynamics is a version of the Conservation of Energy law adapted for thermodynamic systems, recognizing the internal energy of a body.
3. It differentiates exothermic reactions, where heat is released, from endothermic reactions, where heat is absorbed.
Mix
Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the kinetic energy of the reactant particles, leading to more frequent and more energetic collisions between particles. This results in more collisions possessing sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier and form reaction products, thereby increasing the reaction rate. Similarly, factors that increase collision frequency or the proportion of collisions with sufficient energy, such as reducing particle size, addition of a catalyst, or exposure to light, will also increase the reaction rate.
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This document discusses average and instantaneous rates of reaction and how to determine them from a graph. It also discusses collision theory and how factors like temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts affect the rate of a reaction according to this theory. Collision theory states that for a reaction to occur particles must collide with enough energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. These factors influence the rate by increasing the frequency and effectiveness of collisions between reacting particles.
Summary sor v2
Collision theory states that chemical reactions occur due to collisions between reactant particles. For a reaction to take place, the particles must collide with sufficient energy. Factors that increase collision frequency, such as higher concentration, pressure, and temperature, speed up reactions by making collisions between particles more common and energetic.
Summary sor v3
Collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with sufficient energy. Reactions proceed faster when collisions are more frequent, either because particles are closer together due to higher concentration or pressure, or because particles have higher energy when they collide at higher temperatures. The speed of a reaction also increases with factors that increase the frequency or effectiveness of collisions between reactants.
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This document discusses key concepts in chemistry including thermal energy, the kinetic molecular theory of matter, and states of matter. It begins by defining thermal energy as the energy of a body due to the motion of its particles, which is directly proportional to temperature. It then explains kinetic and potential energy. The document goes on to discuss how the three states of matter arise from a competition between intermolecular forces and thermal energy. It also summarizes the kinetic molecular theory and how it applies to solids, liquids, and gases. Finally, it briefly defines and compares the processes of diffusion and effusion.
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Matter is generally defined as a substance that has mass and volume. It is composed of atoms, which are in turn made up of interacting subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons. These composite particles are considered matter because they have mass and take up space, even if fundamental particles like quarks do not themselves have a discrete volume. The document then discusses the key properties that distinguish solids, liquids, and gases from each other in terms of interparticle forces, density, compressibility, and other factors. It also explains how changing temperature or pressure can cause a substance to transition between these three states of matter.
From the principle of least action to the conservation of quantum information...
In fact, the first law of conservation (that of mass) was found in chemistry and generalized to the conservation of energy in physics by means of Einstein’s famous “E=mc2”. Energy conservation is implied by the principle of least action from a variational viewpoint as in Emmy Noether’s theorems (1918):any chemical change in a conservative (i.e. “closed”) system can be accomplished only in the way conserving its total energy. Bohr’s innovation to found Mendeleev’s periodic table by quantum mechanics implies a certain generalization referring to the quantum leaps as if accomplished in all possible trajectories (e.g. according to Feynman’s viewpoint) and therefore generalizing the principle of least action and needing a certain generalization of energy conservation as to any quantum change.
The transition from the first to the second theorem of Emmy Noether represents well the necessary generalization: its chemical meaning is the generalization of any chemical reaction to be accomplished as if any possible course of time rather than in the standard evenly running time (and equivalent to energy conservation according to the first theorem).
The problem: If any quantum change is accomplished in all possible “variations (i.e. “violations) of energy conservation” (by different probabilities), what (if any) is conserved?
An answer: quantum information is what is conserved. Indeed it can be particularly defined as the counterpart (e.g. in the sense of Emmy Noether’s theorems) to the physical quantity of action (e.g. as energy is the counterpart of time in them). It is valid in any course of time rather than in the evenly running one. (An illustration: if observers in arbitrarily accelerated reference frames exchange light signals about the course of a single chemical reaction observed by all of them, the universal viewpoint shareаble by all is that of quantum information).
That generalization implies a generalization of the periodic table including any continuous and smooth transformation between two chemical elements necessary conserving quantum information rather than energy: thus it can be called “alchemical periodic table”.
S.S.I PPT
Matter exists in various states and is composed of fundamental particles. It can be combined to form different elements, molecules, and compounds with unique properties. Matter can transition between solid, liquid, and gas states depending on temperature and pressure. Nuclear reactions can convert matter into energy according to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E=mc2. Antimatter is a substance that annihilates with normal matter to produce energy. Matter in all its various forms is essential for use in small-scale industries through machinery, tools, storage, transportation, and packaging.
(ENZYME KINETICS)Collisn theory
Collision theory states that chemical reactions occur when reactant particles collide with sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. For a collision to result in a reaction, the particles must collide with proper orientation. The rate of reaction increases with factors that increase the frequency and success of collisions, such as higher concentrations or temperatures of reactants, presence of a catalyst, increased surface area, agitation, and reactants with weaker bonds. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for reaction, allowing more collisions to have sufficient energy.
Fae
Lightning occurs when strong electric fields in the atmosphere cause an electric breakdown of air, resulting in charges moving through a distance and transferring energy. The electric potential energy in the atmosphere is transformed into other forms of energy like thermal energy, light, and sound. Energy is understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other systems and can take various forms including kinetic, potential, thermal, and electromagnetic energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed from one form to another. The total energy of an isolated system remains constant according to the law of conservation of energy.
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Rate of reaction =measure rate and intro and collision theory
Rate of reaction =measure rate and intro and collision theory
From the principle of least action to the conservation of quantum information...
From the principle of least action to the conservation of quantum information...
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Being sessile, plants are constantly exposed to changes in temperature and other abiotic stress factors. The temperature stress experienced by plants can be classified into three types: those occurring at (a) temperature below freezing (b) low temperature above freezing and (c) high temperature. The plants must adapt to them in other ways. The biological substances that are deeply related to these stresses, such as heat shock proteins, glycine betaine as a compatible solute, membrane lipids etc.and also detoxifiers of active oxygen species, contribute to temperature stress tolerance in plants. Rapid advances in Molecular Genetic approaches have enabled genes to be cloned, both from prokaryotes and directly from plants themselves, that are thought to provide the key to the mechanism of temperature adaptation (Iba et al., 2002).
The accumulation of heat shock proteins under the control of heat stress transcription factors is assumed to play a central role in the heat stress response and in acquired thermotolerance in plants (Kotak et al., 2007). The pattern of protein synthesis during cold acclimation is very dissimilar to the heat shock proteins in many ways. Different low temperature stress proteins, such as Anti-freeze proteins or thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs) and cold shock domain proteins etc. are accumulated in plant cell and are frequently correlated with enhanced cold tolerance ( Guy, 1999).
The heat stress-induced dehydrin proteins (DHNs) expression and their relationship with the water relations of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) leaves were studied to investigate the adaptation to heat stress in plants (Wahid and Close, 2007). In order to get an in vitro evidence of Hsc70 functioning as a molecular chaperone during cold stress, a cold-inducible spinach cytosolic Hsc70 was subcloned into a protein expression vector and the recombinant protein was expressed in bacterial cells. Results suggest that the molecular chaperone Hsc70 may have a functional role in plants during low temperature stress (Zhang and Guy, 2006). To analyze the least and most strongly interacting stress with Hsps and Hsfs, a transcriptional profiling of Arabidopsis Hsps and Hsfs has been done (Swindell et al., 2007).
As plants receive complex of stress factors together, therefore in future research, emphasis should be placed on such cases where tolerance is attempted to different stress factors simultaneously by employing sophisticated techniques.
Tropical Rainforests
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Signal transduction in plant defence responses
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Advances in biotic and abiotic stress tolerance
Insect resistance in Arabidopsis,Epistasis and growth rate,Insect resistance in the field,Approaches to drought tolerance in rice
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Response of Plant to Stress by Abu Khairul Bashar
Biological stress is not easily defined but it implies adverse effects on an organism. Like all other living organisms, the plants are subjected to various environmental stresses such as water deficit and drought, cold, heat, salinity and air pollution etc.
The concept of stress is associated with stress tolerance. Degree of tolerance differs with different plant species.
Plant response to stress
The document summarizes plant responses to different types of stress. It discusses how plants can avoid or tolerate stress through mechanisms like osmotic adjustment, accumulation of compatible solutes, and heat shock protein production. Stress can be biotic, imposed by other organisms, or abiotic arising from environmental deficits or excesses. Abiotic stresses discussed include drought, high salinity, temperature extremes, and oxidative stress from pollutants. Stress triggers changes in gene expression and metabolism that help plants withstand damaging conditions.
Plant stress responses
The document summarizes plant stress responses to both abiotic and biotic stresses. It discusses how plants detect stress signals and trigger responses across multiple levels, from gene expression changes to production of protective proteins and metabolites. Stress responses aim to acclimate the plant and prevent damage through avoidance, tolerance and adaptation mechanisms. Key responses include production of heat shock proteins under heat stress, osmolytes for drought and salt tolerance, and pathogenesis-related proteins and phytoalexins as antimicrobial defenses against pathogens.
Plant adaptations
Plants have developed various structural and behavioral adaptations to survive in different environments. Structural adaptations include thorns for protection, brightly colored fruits to attract animals for reproduction, and waxy coatings to reduce water loss in dry climates. Behavioral adaptations comprise plants leaning toward sunlight, vines climbing trees, and desert flowers blooming only after rain. Adaptations are seen in plant roots that absorb water and nutrients, leaves that photosynthesize or reduce water loss, and seeds designed for wind or animal dispersal. These adaptations allow plants to thrive in environments like deserts, grasslands, forests, and bodies of water.
Defense mechanism in plants
Plants have evolved various defense mechanisms to protect themselves from threats like herbivores and insects. These include physical defenses like thorns, spines, and prickles as well as chemical defenses like milky latex, trichomes, and volatile organic compounds. Thorns are modified branches or stems with sharp points, spines develop from modified leaves or stipules, and prickles arise from the plant's epidermis. Other defenses include shrinkage, milky latex which is a poisonous aqueous secretion, trichomes which are hair-like epidermal projections that can be poisonous glandular or irritating non-glandular types, and volatile organic compounds like quisqualic acid produced by ger
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Chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics is the study of reaction rates and how they are affected by various factors. There are five main factors that affect reaction rates: the nature of reactants, surface area, concentration, temperature, and catalysts. The document goes on to explain how each of these factors can influence the speed of chemical reactions through concepts like collision theory.
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Chemical kinetics is the study of reaction rates and mechanisms. Factors that affect reaction rates include the physical state and concentrations of reactants, temperature, presence of catalysts, and pressure. Increasing temperature provides reactants with more kinetic energy, increasing collision frequency and energy. Catalysts lower activation energy and speed up both forward and reverse reactions equally. Higher pressures compress gases, increasing collision frequency. Larger surface areas expose more reactant molecules. Understanding reaction kinetics provides insight into reaction mechanisms and improves industrial processes.
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The rate of a chemical reaction depends on factors that influence the frequency and success of collisions between reactant particles. The document discusses several factors that can affect the rate of a reaction, including temperature, concentration, surface area, phase or state of reactants, the chemical nature of reactants, and presence of a catalyst. The collision theory is described as collisions between reactant particles must be effective in order to produce products, and these factors influence the collision frequency or effectiveness.
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The rate of a chemical reaction depends on factors that influence the frequency and success of collisions between reactant particles. The document discusses several factors that can affect the rate of a reaction, including temperature, concentration, surface area, phase or state of reactants, the chemical nature of reactants, and presence of a catalyst. The rate of reaction increases with higher temperatures, concentrations, and surface areas as these lead to more frequent collisions. Reactions between gases or liquids proceed faster than those involving solids. Catalysts also increase the rate by reducing the activation energy required for effective collisions between reactants.
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The common ion effect occurs when a salt with a common ion is added to a saturated solution of another salt containing that ion. This causes the solubility equilibrium of the original salt to shift left, decreasing the solubility.
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Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
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M3 explaining and applying chemical kinetics
- 2. The frequently of collisions and The fraction of those collision that are effective
- 3. The minimum kinetic energy required to convert kinetic energy to activation energy during the formation of the activated complex
- 4. Molecules are not all moving at the same speed; some are moving quickly and some slowly, but most are in the mid-range of kinetic energy.
- 5. Particles require a minimum activation energy and correct alignment for a collision to be effective. The collision must provide sufficient energy to cause the breaking and forming of bond, producing new particles. Many reactions occurs as a sequence of elementary steps that make up the overall reaction mechanism.
- 6. Factor such as the atomic structure of the reactant and the nature of their bonds, as well as the type of reaction occurring. The rate of any depends on the nature of the chemical substance reacting, because both the strength of bond(s) to be broken and the location of the bond(s) in the particle structure effect the likelihood that any given collision is effective
- 8. An increase in initial reactant concentration or in reactant surface are increase the rate of a reaction because the total number of collision possible per unit time increase proportionately. A higher concentration of reactant means a greater number of particles per unit volume, which are more likely to collide as they move randomly within a fixed space. The rate of reaction is generally directly proportional to the concentration of a reaction.
- 10. Meanwhile, surface area only applies to heterogeneous reaction, such as gas react with solid or solid with a liquid. Surface area affects a collision frequently because reactants can collide only at the surface where the substances are in contact. The surface are of solid is fixed while the are of surface exposed for given quantity depends on how finely divided the sample of solid is.
- 11. A rise in temperature increase the rate of a reaction for two reasons: the total number of collision possible per unit time is increased slightly; and, more importantly, the fraction of collision that are sufficiently energetic to be effective is increased dramatically.
- 13. A catalyst increase the rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway, with lower activation energy, to the same product formation. A much larger fraction of collisions is effective following the changed reaction mechanism. Catalysts are involved in the reaction mechanism at some point, but are regenerated before the reaction is complete.
- 14. Heterogeneous catalyst – a catalyst in a reaction in which the reaction in which the reactants and the catalyst are in the different physical states Homogeneous catalyst - a catalyst in a reaction in which the reaction in which the reactants and the catalyst are in the same physical states
- 16. THE END