The world is fast becoming a global village where national boundaries which had hitherto limited human interactions are fast disappearing. There is now integration among the countries and trade is moving from transactions in goods and commodities to include the commercialization of education, especially post-secondary school or higher education.
Foreign Aid and Higher Education in Africa: With a Special Focus on the Role ...elegantbrain
Foreign aid and the development of higher education in Africa, with a special focus on the role of the World Bank. Subheadings: The Association of African Universities; World Bank; The "Basic Needs" Approach; The Bank and the Economic Place of Africa in the Global Arena; The Bank, the State, and Structural Adjustment; Higher Education from the Perspective of Educational Planning; Human Capital Theory; The Pseudo-economics of Economics of Education.
An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they ...ijtsrd
Lesotho is an under developed economy and faces challenges of the HIV AIDS pandemic, political instability, high poverty levels, high unemployment rate, high public expenditure, declining revenues and inequalities. The country has got three universities. This study sought to analyse the programmes offered by the universities and how they contribute to the development of the national fiscal and establish gaps that need to be filled. The study is explorative and investigative and uses qualitative analysis of the data. Tawanda Mukurunge | Takura Bhila "An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they Align with the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Agenda 2063 and Strategic Development Goals (SDGs)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20243.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/20243/an-exploration-of-programmes-offered-by-universities-in-lesotho-and-how-they-align-with-the-national-strategic-development-plan-nsdp-agenda-2063-and-strategic-development-goals-sdgs/tawanda-mukurunge
Beyond the boundaries the future of borderless higher educationDon Olcott
This document provides an overview of borderless higher education and the forces driving its growth. It discusses trends in cross-border programs between 2007-2011, including the proliferation of international branch campuses, growing competition for internationally mobile students, and increased oversight of quality assurance. The document also outlines the internal and external dimensions of internationalization for universities, such as internationalizing curriculum, establishing international branch campuses, and recruiting international students.
Tunisia - Access to Online Information and KnowledgeKhaled Koubaa
Global Information Society Watch
Report Year: Tunisia 2009 - Access to Online Information and Knowledge
Authors: Mondher Laabidi
Organization: Arab World Internet Institute
Website: http://www.aw2i.org/
The discovery of computer information technology has created an avenue for educational transformation in today's changing society. Computer technology has widened access to information and improved communication. It has created opportunities for greater production and broken down language barriers. Using computer technology and the internet in education has improved standards of living by enhancing the exchange of ideas and information. It has led to more effective instruction and decreased dropout rates while improving academic performance.
International Inter-institutional Partnerships in Higher Tourism Education: ...World-Academic Journal
Though internationalization of higher education is now well documented in the developed nations, there is a dearth of literature in this area in Africa. In Kenya, the few studies available focus on inter-institutional partnerships between higher institutions of learning offering tourism education and so little is known about these partnerships. And yet Kenya being a leading tourist destination in Africa, it has increased engagements with other parts of the world including academic partnerships motivated by its position in tourism. Consequently, Kenyan universities have introduced academic programs in tourism and hospitality which are now attracting more inter-institutional partnerships. Using the case of Moi University, this study seeks to establish the extent to which staff and student exchanges resulting from these partnerships serve the interest of the collaborating departments in Kenyan universities.
Foreign Aid and Higher Education in Africa: With a Special Focus on the Role ...elegantbrain
Foreign aid and the development of higher education in Africa, with a special focus on the role of the World Bank. Subheadings: The Association of African Universities; World Bank; The "Basic Needs" Approach; The Bank and the Economic Place of Africa in the Global Arena; The Bank, the State, and Structural Adjustment; Higher Education from the Perspective of Educational Planning; Human Capital Theory; The Pseudo-economics of Economics of Education.
An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they ...ijtsrd
Lesotho is an under developed economy and faces challenges of the HIV AIDS pandemic, political instability, high poverty levels, high unemployment rate, high public expenditure, declining revenues and inequalities. The country has got three universities. This study sought to analyse the programmes offered by the universities and how they contribute to the development of the national fiscal and establish gaps that need to be filled. The study is explorative and investigative and uses qualitative analysis of the data. Tawanda Mukurunge | Takura Bhila "An Exploration of Programmes Offered by Universities in Lesotho and how they Align with the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Agenda 2063 and Strategic Development Goals (SDGs)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-1 , December 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd20243.pdf
http://www.ijtsrd.com/management/other/20243/an-exploration-of-programmes-offered-by-universities-in-lesotho-and-how-they-align-with-the-national-strategic-development-plan-nsdp-agenda-2063-and-strategic-development-goals-sdgs/tawanda-mukurunge
Beyond the boundaries the future of borderless higher educationDon Olcott
This document provides an overview of borderless higher education and the forces driving its growth. It discusses trends in cross-border programs between 2007-2011, including the proliferation of international branch campuses, growing competition for internationally mobile students, and increased oversight of quality assurance. The document also outlines the internal and external dimensions of internationalization for universities, such as internationalizing curriculum, establishing international branch campuses, and recruiting international students.
Tunisia - Access to Online Information and KnowledgeKhaled Koubaa
Global Information Society Watch
Report Year: Tunisia 2009 - Access to Online Information and Knowledge
Authors: Mondher Laabidi
Organization: Arab World Internet Institute
Website: http://www.aw2i.org/
The discovery of computer information technology has created an avenue for educational transformation in today's changing society. Computer technology has widened access to information and improved communication. It has created opportunities for greater production and broken down language barriers. Using computer technology and the internet in education has improved standards of living by enhancing the exchange of ideas and information. It has led to more effective instruction and decreased dropout rates while improving academic performance.
International Inter-institutional Partnerships in Higher Tourism Education: ...World-Academic Journal
Though internationalization of higher education is now well documented in the developed nations, there is a dearth of literature in this area in Africa. In Kenya, the few studies available focus on inter-institutional partnerships between higher institutions of learning offering tourism education and so little is known about these partnerships. And yet Kenya being a leading tourist destination in Africa, it has increased engagements with other parts of the world including academic partnerships motivated by its position in tourism. Consequently, Kenyan universities have introduced academic programs in tourism and hospitality which are now attracting more inter-institutional partnerships. Using the case of Moi University, this study seeks to establish the extent to which staff and student exchanges resulting from these partnerships serve the interest of the collaborating departments in Kenyan universities.
Higher education comprises post-secondary education, training, and research provided by universities and other institutions. It plays several important roles in society, including developing human resources, creating and spreading new knowledge, and fostering social cohesion. While demand for higher education is rising globally, developing countries face challenges like limited financial resources and gaps in access between groups. Higher education must adapt to changes like the rise of the knowledge economy and increasing social expectations to contribute to economic and social development.
We welcomed Dr Jeanette Botha (University of South Africa) to the Centre to conduct a presentation and a discussion on issues around the ‘digital divide’ within South Africa (something likely to be an issue in other countries around the world). The main thrust of the talk was: “Who are we teaching?” Dr Botha alluded to the issue of technology driving education vs education driving technology and highlighted numerous concerns of developing world ODL practitioners and students, contextualizing ODEL in South Africa in the current socio-economic framework, with reference to Unisa. The argument was made for the pragmatic consideration of the acquisition and use of appropriate technologies in line with these “real world” considerations.
This study examines whether education acts as a "cane" or "backbone" for national development in developing countries. The researchers analyze trends in educational achievement, exports, and remittances in Bangladesh, India, Britain, and the US from 1998-2018. While educational achievement increased substantially in Bangladesh and India, their exports remained dependent on labor-intensive goods and remittances. In contrast, Britain and the US maintained dominance in technology-intensive exports despite stagnant education gains. This suggests education functions as a "cane" or tool, not a backbone, for developing countries to achieve independent development, as their education systems have not prepared them for the fourth industrial revolution.
The document provides an overview of the 6th UNESCO Youth Forum held in 2009. It discusses the history and evolution of the UNESCO Youth Forum since 1999 in promoting youth participation. The 2009 Forum saw youth delegates produce recommendations relating to UNESCO's mandate. UNESCO is committed to following up on these recommendations. The publication looks at preparations for the Forum, its proceedings, and efforts to strengthen follow-up and leverage outcomes through partnerships. It emphasizes the importance of meaningful youth participation and recognizing youth as partners in development.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Internationalisation and student voices: a disruption of business-as-usual?Richard Hall
A presentation for DMU staff. Notes are available at: http://www.richard-hall.org/2011/12/07/internationalisation-student-voices-and-the-shock-doctrine-disrupting-business-as-usual/
The document discusses issues facing youth populations globally, including that nearly half of the world's population is under 25 and 40% of those aged 12-24 live on less than $2 per day. It also notes that youth employment is in crisis, with 75 million unemployed as of 2012, accounting for 41% of global unemployment. The document advocates for greater attention on policies and strategies to address the problems faced by young people, including lack of access to information and communications technologies (ICT).
Ideas to Actions: A Springeneration for EU-MENA Cooperation in Educationthinkingeurope2011
This document analyzes education systems in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and outlines recommendations for improved cooperation between the EU and MENA countries in the field of education. It finds that while MENA education systems have achieved progress, they still face challenges in equipping graduates with skills demanded by labor markets. The document examines reform efforts in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia and identifies a need to strengthen quality and network-based governance of education. It analyzes the EU's role through programs like Erasmus and Tempus, and recommends the EU focus on advocating quality education, partnering with MENA countries, and directly supporting reform through initiatives that complement past efforts. The goal is better education outcomes and cooperation
The Knowledge Based Society Programmes of the Central-Eastern European Region...Varga Csaba
1. The document discusses the state of knowledge-based societies in Central and Eastern European regions. It finds that these regions have only made a partial transition and are not yet able to drive the Lisbon Program's goals.
2. Several scenarios are presented for how these regions may progress by 2010, ranging from falling further behind to partially catching up or even surpassing EU averages in specialized fields like e-governance.
3. Baltic states like Estonia and Slovenia are highlighted as having already made surprises, while Hungary is identified as having potential to significantly close its development gap.
Technology is changing the way the world communicates and students must learn to use new technologies like smartphones and social media to compete in the future job market. Economic problems worldwide have led to funding cuts for schools, meaning students don't always have access to the latest technologies. Politics can profoundly impact education through funding cuts during times of unrest or when students join the military. Popular culture is becoming globalized through television and social media, but some argue this threatens local traditions, while others see benefits from increased diversity and shared values worldwide. More students now study abroad to experience other cultures as universities and companies seek globally-exposed individuals.
The document discusses America's declining scientific leadership and competitiveness in science and technology. It notes that the US is training and retaining fewer scientists compared to countries like China. Several statistics are presented showing declining performance in areas like math, science and engineering education in the US compared to other nations. Reasons proposed for this decline include underfunding of education, difficulties obtaining student visas, and a perception that more opportunities now exist abroad. The document argues that strengthening STEM education is key to maintaining US innovation and security in the future.
The United Nations University (UNU) announces the launch of the UNU Migration Network, an online portal that showcases cutting-edge migration research. The network, coordinated by UNU's Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility, integrates migration research across the UNU system and provides one-stop access to over 200 publications and information on 37 research projects. The portal aims to contribute to evidence-based policymaking on migration, a major global trend affecting hundreds of millions of people.
This document discusses the potential for mobile technologies to enhance education in Africa. It notes that while access to education in Africa has increased, quality remains low, with many students unable to attain basic literacy and numeracy skills. It argues that mobile phones can help address this issue, as evidenced by initiatives like Project ABC in Niger and Tostan's MPLD module in Senegal, which found that incorporating mobile phone use into literacy instruction improved learning outcomes. The document advocates for African governments to leverage the growing ubiquity of mobile technologies on the continent to transform their educational systems through mobile learning initiatives.
The CReW project is a series of events coordinated by the University of Siena and financed by the EU Erasmus+ Programme. It focuses on international cultural relations between the EU and other regions. The first event took place in Rabat, Morocco in 2018 and focused on culture as an engine for sustainable development. Participants included cultural diplomats, operators, and academics who discussed EU-MENA cultural relations and case studies of cultural programs. Key recommendations included engaging local stakeholders such as civil society and governments, and establishing better coordination of cultural initiatives and strategies between the EU and MENA regions.
Globalization is increasing the integration of economies worldwide through greater trade, investment, and technology sharing. It describes how political, economic, and cultural forces interact across borders. Globalization impacts education through greater economic interdependence, more cross-border political activities, and widespread transmission of ideas. Education systems must reform to develop skills like critical thinking, communication, and cultural understanding to prepare students for a globalized world with issues like inequality, technological change, and environmental problems. Schools will balance local and global influences as youth experience linked social, economic, and technological changes.
This document discusses major trends and developments that will impact society. It covers topics like demographics, the environment, technology, the economy, and education. Some key points include:
- Global population is expected to reach 9.5 billion by 2050, placing stress on resources.
- The nature of work is changing with the rise of the gig economy and new types of organizations.
- Higher education is being transformed by online learning, MOOCs, micro-credentials and competency-based models.
- The document raises five questions for educational institutions around adapting to change, evolving skills needs, serving diverse learners, strategic partnerships, and institutional identity.
B.how to face_technological_tsunami_clustering_.pmigunseli
This document discusses the rapid growth of technology and distance education globally. It proposes that Turkey could take on a leadership role in the region by organizing distance education institutions from countries in Southeast Europe, the Balkans, the Baltics, Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. Turkey is well positioned due to its strategic location and historical and cultural ties to these regions. The document outlines Turkey's strong distance education program led by Anadolu University as an example and argues that regional collaboration could help address barriers to distance education in underdeveloped areas and lead to higher quality programs through knowledge sharing.
Massification of higher education revisitedAngel Calderon
The purpose of this paper is to revisit time series data of students enrolled in higher education from a global perspective and
provide a historical lens by which to better understand the unprecedented expansion it has taken place over the past forty or
so years.
The landscape of higher education globally continues to shift remarkably. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, in 1970 there were 32.6 million students enrolled in higher education institutions compared to 99.9 million in 2000.
Although there are signs that enrolments in higher education around the globe are slowing down (in part influenced by a declining youth population and lower fertility rates), it is estimated that by 2030 there would be 377.4 million, 471.4 million by 2035 and 594.1 million students by 2040.
This document provides an assessment of perceptions of Zimbabwean students on the South African higher education system, specifically referencing the University of Venda. It examines the motives driving Zimbabwean student mobility into South Africa for study purposes. Interviews with Zimbabwean students at the University of Venda revealed certain motives and challenges, including the role of student mobility on South Africa's education system and challenges of integration. The research recommends expanding international student integration, assessing the impact of student mobility on institutions, and considering the role of institutions in promoting "brain circulation" over "brain drain".
African Leadership in ICT and Knowledge Societies: Issues, Tensions and Oppor...Wesley Schwalje
Our work on knowledge-based economies and skill formation is cited in this report by GESCI, established by the United Nations ICT Task, and funded by Irish Aid, Sida, SDC, and Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. Speaking of our institutionalist approach, the report states “There is a demand for profound rethinking of the role of education and training systems and constituent actors inclusive of leadership actors to adapt and respond to skill demands of employers, technological progress and macro trends for knowledge-based socio-economic development (Schwalje, 2011).”
Higher education comprises post-secondary education, training, and research provided by universities and other institutions. It plays several important roles in society, including developing human resources, creating and spreading new knowledge, and fostering social cohesion. While demand for higher education is rising globally, developing countries face challenges like limited financial resources and gaps in access between groups. Higher education must adapt to changes like the rise of the knowledge economy and increasing social expectations to contribute to economic and social development.
We welcomed Dr Jeanette Botha (University of South Africa) to the Centre to conduct a presentation and a discussion on issues around the ‘digital divide’ within South Africa (something likely to be an issue in other countries around the world). The main thrust of the talk was: “Who are we teaching?” Dr Botha alluded to the issue of technology driving education vs education driving technology and highlighted numerous concerns of developing world ODL practitioners and students, contextualizing ODEL in South Africa in the current socio-economic framework, with reference to Unisa. The argument was made for the pragmatic consideration of the acquisition and use of appropriate technologies in line with these “real world” considerations.
This study examines whether education acts as a "cane" or "backbone" for national development in developing countries. The researchers analyze trends in educational achievement, exports, and remittances in Bangladesh, India, Britain, and the US from 1998-2018. While educational achievement increased substantially in Bangladesh and India, their exports remained dependent on labor-intensive goods and remittances. In contrast, Britain and the US maintained dominance in technology-intensive exports despite stagnant education gains. This suggests education functions as a "cane" or tool, not a backbone, for developing countries to achieve independent development, as their education systems have not prepared them for the fourth industrial revolution.
The document provides an overview of the 6th UNESCO Youth Forum held in 2009. It discusses the history and evolution of the UNESCO Youth Forum since 1999 in promoting youth participation. The 2009 Forum saw youth delegates produce recommendations relating to UNESCO's mandate. UNESCO is committed to following up on these recommendations. The publication looks at preparations for the Forum, its proceedings, and efforts to strengthen follow-up and leverage outcomes through partnerships. It emphasizes the importance of meaningful youth participation and recognizing youth as partners in development.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Internationalisation and student voices: a disruption of business-as-usual?Richard Hall
A presentation for DMU staff. Notes are available at: http://www.richard-hall.org/2011/12/07/internationalisation-student-voices-and-the-shock-doctrine-disrupting-business-as-usual/
The document discusses issues facing youth populations globally, including that nearly half of the world's population is under 25 and 40% of those aged 12-24 live on less than $2 per day. It also notes that youth employment is in crisis, with 75 million unemployed as of 2012, accounting for 41% of global unemployment. The document advocates for greater attention on policies and strategies to address the problems faced by young people, including lack of access to information and communications technologies (ICT).
Ideas to Actions: A Springeneration for EU-MENA Cooperation in Educationthinkingeurope2011
This document analyzes education systems in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and outlines recommendations for improved cooperation between the EU and MENA countries in the field of education. It finds that while MENA education systems have achieved progress, they still face challenges in equipping graduates with skills demanded by labor markets. The document examines reform efforts in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia and identifies a need to strengthen quality and network-based governance of education. It analyzes the EU's role through programs like Erasmus and Tempus, and recommends the EU focus on advocating quality education, partnering with MENA countries, and directly supporting reform through initiatives that complement past efforts. The goal is better education outcomes and cooperation
The Knowledge Based Society Programmes of the Central-Eastern European Region...Varga Csaba
1. The document discusses the state of knowledge-based societies in Central and Eastern European regions. It finds that these regions have only made a partial transition and are not yet able to drive the Lisbon Program's goals.
2. Several scenarios are presented for how these regions may progress by 2010, ranging from falling further behind to partially catching up or even surpassing EU averages in specialized fields like e-governance.
3. Baltic states like Estonia and Slovenia are highlighted as having already made surprises, while Hungary is identified as having potential to significantly close its development gap.
Technology is changing the way the world communicates and students must learn to use new technologies like smartphones and social media to compete in the future job market. Economic problems worldwide have led to funding cuts for schools, meaning students don't always have access to the latest technologies. Politics can profoundly impact education through funding cuts during times of unrest or when students join the military. Popular culture is becoming globalized through television and social media, but some argue this threatens local traditions, while others see benefits from increased diversity and shared values worldwide. More students now study abroad to experience other cultures as universities and companies seek globally-exposed individuals.
The document discusses America's declining scientific leadership and competitiveness in science and technology. It notes that the US is training and retaining fewer scientists compared to countries like China. Several statistics are presented showing declining performance in areas like math, science and engineering education in the US compared to other nations. Reasons proposed for this decline include underfunding of education, difficulties obtaining student visas, and a perception that more opportunities now exist abroad. The document argues that strengthening STEM education is key to maintaining US innovation and security in the future.
The United Nations University (UNU) announces the launch of the UNU Migration Network, an online portal that showcases cutting-edge migration research. The network, coordinated by UNU's Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility, integrates migration research across the UNU system and provides one-stop access to over 200 publications and information on 37 research projects. The portal aims to contribute to evidence-based policymaking on migration, a major global trend affecting hundreds of millions of people.
This document discusses the potential for mobile technologies to enhance education in Africa. It notes that while access to education in Africa has increased, quality remains low, with many students unable to attain basic literacy and numeracy skills. It argues that mobile phones can help address this issue, as evidenced by initiatives like Project ABC in Niger and Tostan's MPLD module in Senegal, which found that incorporating mobile phone use into literacy instruction improved learning outcomes. The document advocates for African governments to leverage the growing ubiquity of mobile technologies on the continent to transform their educational systems through mobile learning initiatives.
The CReW project is a series of events coordinated by the University of Siena and financed by the EU Erasmus+ Programme. It focuses on international cultural relations between the EU and other regions. The first event took place in Rabat, Morocco in 2018 and focused on culture as an engine for sustainable development. Participants included cultural diplomats, operators, and academics who discussed EU-MENA cultural relations and case studies of cultural programs. Key recommendations included engaging local stakeholders such as civil society and governments, and establishing better coordination of cultural initiatives and strategies between the EU and MENA regions.
Globalization is increasing the integration of economies worldwide through greater trade, investment, and technology sharing. It describes how political, economic, and cultural forces interact across borders. Globalization impacts education through greater economic interdependence, more cross-border political activities, and widespread transmission of ideas. Education systems must reform to develop skills like critical thinking, communication, and cultural understanding to prepare students for a globalized world with issues like inequality, technological change, and environmental problems. Schools will balance local and global influences as youth experience linked social, economic, and technological changes.
This document discusses major trends and developments that will impact society. It covers topics like demographics, the environment, technology, the economy, and education. Some key points include:
- Global population is expected to reach 9.5 billion by 2050, placing stress on resources.
- The nature of work is changing with the rise of the gig economy and new types of organizations.
- Higher education is being transformed by online learning, MOOCs, micro-credentials and competency-based models.
- The document raises five questions for educational institutions around adapting to change, evolving skills needs, serving diverse learners, strategic partnerships, and institutional identity.
B.how to face_technological_tsunami_clustering_.pmigunseli
This document discusses the rapid growth of technology and distance education globally. It proposes that Turkey could take on a leadership role in the region by organizing distance education institutions from countries in Southeast Europe, the Balkans, the Baltics, Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. Turkey is well positioned due to its strategic location and historical and cultural ties to these regions. The document outlines Turkey's strong distance education program led by Anadolu University as an example and argues that regional collaboration could help address barriers to distance education in underdeveloped areas and lead to higher quality programs through knowledge sharing.
Massification of higher education revisitedAngel Calderon
The purpose of this paper is to revisit time series data of students enrolled in higher education from a global perspective and
provide a historical lens by which to better understand the unprecedented expansion it has taken place over the past forty or
so years.
The landscape of higher education globally continues to shift remarkably. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, in 1970 there were 32.6 million students enrolled in higher education institutions compared to 99.9 million in 2000.
Although there are signs that enrolments in higher education around the globe are slowing down (in part influenced by a declining youth population and lower fertility rates), it is estimated that by 2030 there would be 377.4 million, 471.4 million by 2035 and 594.1 million students by 2040.
This document provides an assessment of perceptions of Zimbabwean students on the South African higher education system, specifically referencing the University of Venda. It examines the motives driving Zimbabwean student mobility into South Africa for study purposes. Interviews with Zimbabwean students at the University of Venda revealed certain motives and challenges, including the role of student mobility on South Africa's education system and challenges of integration. The research recommends expanding international student integration, assessing the impact of student mobility on institutions, and considering the role of institutions in promoting "brain circulation" over "brain drain".
African Leadership in ICT and Knowledge Societies: Issues, Tensions and Oppor...Wesley Schwalje
Our work on knowledge-based economies and skill formation is cited in this report by GESCI, established by the United Nations ICT Task, and funded by Irish Aid, Sida, SDC, and Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. Speaking of our institutionalist approach, the report states “There is a demand for profound rethinking of the role of education and training systems and constituent actors inclusive of leadership actors to adapt and respond to skill demands of employers, technological progress and macro trends for knowledge-based socio-economic development (Schwalje, 2011).”
The document discusses the role of the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) in supporting flexible education globally. It notes that ICDE was established in 1938 and cooperates with various international organizations to promote open and distance education. ICDE aims to build capacity and support professional development in its member institutions through global conferences and knowledge sharing.
The document summarizes the welcome speech given by Goolam Mohamedbhai, President of the International Association of Universities (IAU), at an experts seminar on higher education and education for all.
The speech provides background on IAU, its role in promoting higher education, and its work linking higher education to achieving Education for All goals. It also highlights three major obstacles to achieving Education for All goals: lack of information and communication technologies in developing countries, the ongoing HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa, and inadequate funding for education.
Guadal bd discussion paper by professor kris olds, university of wisconsin ma...IAU_Past_Conferences
This document is a discussion paper by Professor Kris Olds that maps out the evolving global higher education landscape. It argues that higher education is becoming denationalized as national systems refocus their visions and strategies beyond national borders. This has led to the emergence of new global stakeholders and created a more complex terrain. The paper aims to further discussion on how associations can strategically respond and collaborate given this changing landscape.
This document provides an introduction to a discussion paper about the emerging global higher education landscape. It notes the increasing number of stakeholders in global higher education over the last decade, including new universities operating across borders, private companies, and regional and international consortia. It argues that higher education is becoming denationalized as institutions look beyond national scales and priorities to cultivate global linkages and brand themselves internationally. The document maps out this evolving landscape and proposes that all actors, including associations, networks and alliances, contribute to and help construct the denationalization process through their strategies and activities. It aims to further discussion on the roles these organizations can play in global higher education development.
This document provides an introduction to a discussion paper about the emerging global higher education landscape. It notes the increasing number of stakeholders in global higher education over the last decade, including new universities operating across borders, private companies, and regional and international consortia. It argues that higher education is becoming denationalized as institutions look beyond national borders. The document outlines how various actors and their networks are helping to construct this changing landscape through their initiatives and strategies. It proposes to map this evolving terrain through examining the logics behind new initiatives and providing two case studies on regional ambitions and technology-enabled dispersed teaching and research.
This report summarizes findings from 5 regional studies commissioned by UNESCO on using ICTs to provide access to information and knowledge for persons with disabilities. Key findings include:
1) The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities has increased visibility of disability rights and led many governments to mainstream disability needs, though progress is uneven.
2) Significant challenges remain regarding societal attitudes, educator training, employment opportunities, and lack of infrastructure and accessible content.
3) Innovative local solutions are emerging where government progress is slow, showing public-private partnerships can promote inclusive education through ICTs.
4) The report details innovative ICT adaptations identified in regional studies and concludes
Carl Holmberg, International Trends and Perspectivesicdeslides
This document summarizes international trends in open and distance education based on a report by Dr. Carl Holmberg of the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE). It finds that open and distance education is growing rapidly due to increasing demand for access to education. While open universities have expanded opportunities, quality assurance and accountability are increasingly important. Information and communication technologies are also changing education but digital divides remain. The document outlines trends like massification, diversification of providers, and changing learner demographics. It discusses challenges and calls to action to better integrate technologies, widen access, and strengthen teacher education through open and distance learning.
The white paper discusses virtual mobility in higher education. It proposes that the concept of virtual mobility needs to be redefined and expanded beyond just e-learning or distance education. Virtual mobility can help internationalize curricula, support institutional cooperation, and provide inclusive access to intercultural study experiences. The white paper argues that virtual mobility, if properly supported through policies and investments, can help higher education institutions address challenges around globalization, massification, and equity while pursuing quality. It aims to stimulate debate around realizing the full potential of virtual mobility.
The document summarizes a presentation given by Dr. Erick Tambo on brain circulation schemes and including diaspora in higher education. It discusses the United Nations University's (UNU) mandate to support sustainable development and their various programs and campus locations worldwide. It then focuses on UNU's Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) in Bonn and their efforts in eLearning and engaging diaspora, including potential models for brain circulation schemes in teaching and research.
This document summarizes a presentation about an edited book titled "Democratizing Higher Education: International Comparative Perspectives". The book examines trends in higher education systems around the world, focusing on political, social, economic, and technological forces. It explores how higher education can provide access, affordability, participation and lifelong learning for all. Key findings discussed are increasing globalization and internationalization of higher education, rising demand for higher education across societies, and growing diversity in student populations and institution types. Core questions addressed are how to make higher education available to all, provide lifelong learning opportunities, and prepare students for a globalized world.
- The speaker discusses the transformation of education driven by digital technology and the rise of a new culture of lifelong learning. She notes that knowledge has become the basic currency in today's global economy and that demand for higher education is fueling changes in attitudes and practices.
- Technology is empowering unprecedented global access to quality learning environments. It allows learners of all kinds to access education flexibly across time and space through online programs and platforms. However, digital divides remain, and cultural and linguistic differences also impact the effectiveness of e-learning.
Slide-stack: https://www.slideshare.net/icdeslides/digital-learning-in-a-borderless-world
This is the presentation text for the slide-stack.
Keynote 4 May 2017 at the International Congress on Education for the 21st Century (ICE2017), hosted by the Ministry of Education, Thailand and the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO).
Through this brief presentation, I will provide a helicopter view on the World and South East Asia, SEA, when digitalisation is penetrating education. And raise the question: Could ambitious benchmarks be established for the 11 SEA countries and the cooperation among them?
This document discusses information support and the importance of developing information literate citizens to fully realize the potential of information and communication technologies. It focuses on partnerships between Whare Takiura/Waiariki Institute of Technology and the community to promote information literacy. The institute serves a population that is over 35% Māori and aims to honor Treaty of Waitangi obligations through bicultural practices and governance that incorporates the local Māori Education Authority.
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and convergence of activities across diverse cultures worldwide through greater economic integration, technology transfer, and unprecedented interconnection between individuals and institutions. Globalization extends students' awareness of the world and places emphasis on issues like human rights, diversity, and technology. It has made the world smaller and opened more job opportunities internationally. While globalization can widen access to education, it also presents challenges around managing cultural differences, requiring reforms in educational content, financing, and systems to develop skills for a globalized world.
Embarking on a journey into the global knowledge economy Mohamed Bouanane
Current trends, whilst important to observe, by no means define a universal destiny for all countries. It is evident from the benchmark study that the information society is on the tipping-point – knowledge is becoming as ubiquitous as data and information has become today. It is unsafe to follow an existing policy, even good policy, because there is no universal destiny for all countries; rather build a unified and convergent strategy that takes into account the country’s own strengthens and weaknesses and seeks to exploit the synergistic combinatorial effects of many sectors working together in harmony to achieve growth and well-being for all citizens. Though far from a universal destination for all countries; the zenith of current holistic thinking is best portrayed by South Korea, it represents the ultimate target to emulate (not to copy) and exceed.
Most countries are seeking to position themselves in the predicted future global knowledge economy. Are they going about it the (same) right way? Are they all trying to win the same race? If so surely the majority of countries will be disappointed since only few countries will be in the top of ranking.
This document provides an overview of open educational resources (OER) and discusses who is using and producing them. It notes that OER includes open courseware and smaller learning objects that are freely available online. While comprehensive statistics are lacking, the number of OER projects and resources is growing rapidly. English-speaking countries currently dominate production, but translation is increasing global use. Reasons for individuals and institutions to share resources include technological, economic, social and legal drivers, while barriers include lack of infrastructure, resources and skills. Governments support OER for expanding access to education and promoting lifelong learning.
Similar to Effect of Globalization on Higher Education: WTO/GATS and Cross-Border Provision of Higher Education in Nigeria (20)
This document provides a technical review of secure banking using RSA and AES encryption methodologies. It discusses how RSA and AES are commonly used encryption standards for secure data transmission between ATMs and bank servers. The document first provides background on ATM security measures and risks of attacks. It then reviews related work analyzing encryption techniques. The document proposes using a one-time password in addition to a PIN for ATM authentication. It concludes that implementing encryption standards like RSA and AES can make transactions more secure and build trust in online banking.
This document analyzes the performance of various modulation schemes for achieving energy efficient communication over fading channels in wireless sensor networks. It finds that for long transmission distances, low-order modulations like BPSK are optimal due to their lower SNR requirements. However, as transmission distance decreases, higher-order modulations like 16-QAM and 64-QAM become more optimal since they can transmit more bits per symbol, outweighing their higher SNR needs. Simulations show lifetime extensions up to 550% are possible in short-range networks by using higher-order modulations instead of just BPSK. The optimal modulation depends on transmission distance and balancing the energy used by electronic components versus power amplifiers.
This document provides a review of mobility management techniques in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). It discusses three modes of communication in VANETs: vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), and hybrid vehicle (HV) communication. For each communication mode, different mobility management schemes are required due to their unique characteristics. The document also discusses mobility management challenges in VANETs and outlines some open research issues in improving mobility management for seamless communication in these dynamic networks.
This document provides a review of different techniques for segmenting brain MRI images to detect tumors. It compares the K-means and Fuzzy C-means clustering algorithms. K-means is an exclusive clustering algorithm that groups data points into distinct clusters, while Fuzzy C-means is an overlapping clustering algorithm that allows data points to belong to multiple clusters. The document finds that Fuzzy C-means requires more time for brain tumor detection compared to other methods like hierarchical clustering or K-means. It also reviews related work applying these clustering algorithms to segment brain MRI images.
1) The document simulates and compares the performance of AODV and DSDV routing protocols in a mobile ad hoc network under three conditions: when users are fixed, when users move towards the base station, and when users move away from the base station.
2) The results show that both protocols have higher packet delivery and lower packet loss when users are either fixed or moving towards the base station, since signal strength is better in those scenarios. Performance degrades when users move away from the base station due to weaker signals.
3) AODV generally has better performance than DSDV, with higher throughput and packet delivery rates observed across the different user mobility conditions.
This document describes the design and implementation of 4-bit QPSK and 256-bit QAM modulation techniques using MATLAB. It compares the two techniques based on SNR, BER, and efficiency. The key steps of implementing each technique in MATLAB are outlined, including generating random bits, modulation, adding noise, and measuring BER. Simulation results show scatter plots and eye diagrams of the modulated signals. A table compares the results, showing that 256-bit QAM provides better performance than 4-bit QPSK. The document concludes that QAM modulation is more effective for digital transmission systems.
The document proposes a hybrid technique using Anisotropic Scale Invariant Feature Transform (A-SIFT) and Robust Ensemble Support Vector Machine (RESVM) to accurately identify faces in images. A-SIFT improves upon traditional SIFT by applying anisotropic scaling to extract richer directional keypoints. Keypoints are processed with RESVM and hypothesis testing to increase accuracy above 95% by repeatedly reprocessing images until the threshold is met. The technique was tested on similar and different facial images and achieved better results than SIFT in retrieval time and reduced keypoints.
This document studies the effects of dielectric superstrate thickness on microstrip patch antenna parameters. Three types of probes-fed patch antennas (rectangular, circular, and square) were designed to operate at 2.4 GHz using Arlondiclad 880 substrate. The antennas were tested with and without an Arlondiclad 880 superstrate of varying thicknesses. It was found that adding a superstrate slightly degraded performance by lowering the resonant frequency and increasing return loss and VSWR, while decreasing bandwidth and gain. Specifically, increasing the superstrate thickness or dielectric constant resulted in greater changes to the antenna parameters.
This document describes a wireless environment monitoring system that utilizes soil energy as a sustainable power source for wireless sensors. The system uses a microbial fuel cell to generate electricity from the microbial activity in soil. Two microbial fuel cells were created using different soil types and various additives to produce different current and voltage outputs. An electronic circuit was designed on a printed circuit board with components like a microcontroller and ZigBee transceiver. Sensors for temperature and humidity were connected to the circuit to monitor the environment wirelessly. The system provides a low-cost way to power remote sensors without needing battery replacement and avoids the high costs of wiring a power source.
1) The document proposes a model for a frequency tunable inverted-F antenna that uses ferrite material.
2) The resonant frequency of the antenna can be significantly shifted from 2.41GHz to 3.15GHz, a 31% shift, by increasing the static magnetic field placed on the ferrite material.
3) Altering the permeability of the ferrite allows tuning of the antenna's resonant frequency without changing the physical dimensions, providing flexibility to operate over a wide frequency range.
This document summarizes a research paper that presents a speech enhancement method using stationary wavelet transform. The method first classifies speech into voiced, unvoiced, and silence regions based on short-time energy. It then applies different thresholding techniques to the wavelet coefficients of each region - modified hard thresholding for voiced speech, semi-soft thresholding for unvoiced speech, and setting coefficients to zero for silence. Experimental results using speech from the TIMIT database corrupted with white Gaussian noise at various SNR levels show improved performance over other popular denoising methods.
This document reviews the design of an energy-optimized wireless sensor node that encrypts data for transmission. It discusses how sensing schemes that group nodes into clusters and transmit aggregated data can reduce energy consumption compared to individual node transmissions. The proposed node design calculates the minimum transmission power needed based on received signal strength and uses a periodic sleep/wake cycle to optimize energy when not sensing or transmitting. It aims to encrypt data at both the node and network level to further optimize energy usage for wireless communication.
This document discusses group consumption modes. It analyzes factors that impact group consumption, including external environmental factors like technological developments enabling new forms of online and offline interactions, as well as internal motivational factors at both the group and individual level. The document then proposes that group consumption modes can be divided into four types based on two dimensions: vertical (group relationship intensity) and horizontal (consumption action period). These four types are instrument-oriented, information-oriented, enjoyment-oriented, and relationship-oriented consumption modes. Finally, the document notes that consumption modes are dynamic and can evolve over time.
The document summarizes a study of different microstrip patch antenna configurations with slotted ground planes. Three antenna designs were proposed and their performance evaluated through simulation: a conventional square patch, an elliptical patch, and a star-shaped patch. All antennas were mounted on an FR4 substrate. The effects of adding different slot patterns to the ground plane on resonance frequency, bandwidth, gain and efficiency were analyzed parametrically. Key findings were that reshaping the patch and adding slots increased bandwidth and shifted resonance frequency. The elliptical and star patches in particular performed better than the conventional design. Three antenna configurations were selected for fabrication and measurement based on the simulations: a conventional patch with a slot under the patch, an elliptical patch with slots
1) The document describes a study conducted to improve call drop rates in a GSM network through RF optimization.
2) Drive testing was performed before and after optimization using TEMS software to record network parameters like RxLevel, RxQuality, and events.
3) Analysis found call drops were occurring due to issues like handover failures between sectors, interference from adjacent channels, and overshooting due to antenna tilt.
4) Corrective actions taken included defining neighbors between sectors, adjusting frequencies to reduce interference, and lowering the mechanical tilt of an antenna.
5) Post-optimization drive testing showed improvements in RxLevel, RxQuality, and a reduction in dropped calls.
This document describes the design of an intelligent autonomous wheeled robot that uses RF transmission for communication. The robot has two modes - automatic mode where it can make its own decisions, and user control mode where a user can control it remotely. It is designed using a microcontroller and can perform tasks like object recognition using computer vision and color detection in MATLAB, as well as wall painting using pneumatic systems. The robot's movement is controlled by DC motors and it uses sensors like ultrasonic sensors and gas sensors to navigate autonomously. RF transmission allows communication between the robot and a remote control unit. The overall aim is to develop a low-cost robotic system for industrial applications like material handling.
This document reviews cryptography techniques to secure the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol in mobile ad-hoc networks. It discusses various types of attacks on AODV like impersonation, denial of service, eavesdropping, black hole attacks, wormhole attacks, and Sybil attacks. It then proposes using the RC6 cryptography algorithm to secure AODV by encrypting data packets and detecting and removing malicious nodes launching black hole attacks. Simulation results show that after applying RC6, the packet delivery ratio and throughput of AODV increase while delay decreases, improving the security and performance of the network under attack.
The document describes a proposed modification to the conventional Booth multiplier that aims to increase its speed by applying concepts from Vedic mathematics. Specifically, it utilizes the Urdhva Tiryakbhyam formula to generate all partial products concurrently rather than sequentially. The proposed 8x8 bit multiplier was coded in VHDL, simulated, and found to have a path delay 44.35% lower than a conventional Booth multiplier, demonstrating its potential for higher speed.
This document discusses image deblurring techniques. It begins by introducing image restoration and focusing on image deblurring. It then discusses challenges with image deblurring being an ill-posed problem. It reviews existing approaches to screen image deconvolution including estimating point spread functions and iteratively estimating blur kernels and sharp images. The document also discusses handling spatially variant blur and summarizes the relationship between the proposed method and previous work for different blur types. It proposes using color filters in the aperture to exploit parallax cues for segmentation and blur estimation. Finally, it proposes moving the image sensor circularly during exposure to prevent high frequency attenuation from motion blur.
This document describes modeling an adaptive controller for an aircraft roll control system using PID, fuzzy-PID, and genetic algorithm. It begins by introducing the aircraft roll control system and motivation for developing an adaptive controller to minimize errors from noisy analog sensor signals. It then provides the mathematical model of aircraft roll dynamics and describes modeling the real-time flight control system in MATLAB/Simulink. The document evaluates PID, fuzzy-PID, and PID-GA (genetic algorithm) controllers for aircraft roll control and finds that the PID-GA controller delivers the best performance.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
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The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
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field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
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concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
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mitigated, at least in part.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
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Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Basics of crystallography, crystal systems, classes and different forms
Effect of Globalization on Higher Education: WTO/GATS and Cross-Border Provision of Higher Education in Nigeria
1. IOSR Journal of Mathematics (IOSR-JM)
e-ISSN: 2278-5728,p-ISSN: 2319-765X, Volume 7, Issue 2 (Jul. - Aug. 2013), PP 91-100
www.iosrjournals.org
www.iosrjournals.org 91 | Page
Effect of Globalization on Higher Education: WTO/GATS and
Cross-Border Provision of Higher Education in Nigeria
Adegboyega Oyebajo Okunuga1
, Athanasius I. Opara2
,
Joy Chimebere Iyiegbuniwe3
1
Distance Learning Institute University of Lagos Lagos, Nigeria
2
Distance Learning Institute University of Lagos, Nigeria
3
Distance Learning Institute University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
Abstract: The world is fast becoming a global village where national boundaries which had hitherto limited
human interactions are fast disappearing. There is now integration among the countries and trade is moving
from transactions in goods and commodities to include the commercialization of education, especially post-
secondary school or higher education.
Key Words: Globalization, Cross-border, WTO, GATS, Open and Distance Education
I. Introduction
The old world order is fast changing, proving the old adage that “nothing is more permanent than
change”, as old things are passing away very rapidly, giving room for new ones. This phenomenon is brought
about by a form of global integration, known as globalization, which is accelerated by the rapid (ICT)
development in the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT).
In the last two decades, especially the last decade of the 20th
century, old political and economic
alliances are breaking down giving place to new ones (Ojo, 2004). For example, the Berlin Wall, which had
since the end of World War II, separated the two previous German zones has been demolished (in 1991) giving
way to a unified Germany. The USSR which had been the arrow-head of the former Eastern Block favouring
communism, had been decimated to Russia, and numerous previously unheard-of nations such as Kazakstan,
Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, etc. Alongside this, the former Eastern political block has
become a shadow of its old self. Rather than segregating and barricading itself behind the old and small
political divisions, the world has now opted for larger, wider and bigger entities. For example, Europe is now
unifying into the European Union (EU), with a common currency and other cooperative bondings. The in-thing
the world over is integration between formerly separate entities (Ojo, 2004).
II. African Integration
The European Union (EU) has made tremendous achievements through the existence of trans-border
development agencies such as European Outline Convention, Euragio, Regiobasilensi, the formation of
common immigration policy for the “Shengen States” and the liberation of trade among member states, sealed
with a unifying currency, the Euro (). The EU has also developed transnational educational institutions and
programmes such as:
(a) ERASMUS (European Community Action Schemes for the Mobility of University Students). This
involves a student and faculty exchange programme with the participation of some 1,500 institutions
and over 100,000 students annually.
(b) COMETT (Community programme for Educating and Training in Technology Field). This was
created to support cooperation between universities and universities through training partnership.
(c) TEMPUS (Trans-European Mobility Schemes for University Studies), was formed in 1990 to promote
cooperation between universities in Central and Eastern Europe.
(d) The International Scheldt Faculty (ISF), founded in 1990. The ISF offers what is called “Euro-
Masters” degrees through courses in networked universities and polytechnics in Holland, Germany and
South-Eastern UK (Zeleza, 2003).
(e) The Cross Border University (CBU) is jointly funded by Finland and Russia.
Africa has also awakened, though belatedly, to this aspect of regional cooperation through the
formation of regional bodies. A few countries in some of the regional economic groupings are showing interest
in transnational, inter-regional and cross-border cooperation in the area of higher education. However, this
development is still in its infancy (Ojo, 2004).
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Within the African continent, there are five known sub-regional groupings:
(i) AMU (Arab Maghrebian Union) with five (5) countries.
(ii) COMESA (Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa) comprises of twenty (20) countries.
(iii) ECCAS (Economic Community of Central African States) has eleven member-countries.
(iv) SADC (Southern African Development Community) is made up of fourteen countries.
(v) ECOWAS (the Economic Community of West African States) has fifteen countries in its fold.
Although these African countries have engaged in trade and economic relationships within their
regional groupings, education, which ought to be seen as the engine-room of economic buoyancy and
development, has not really been given the priority status it deserves (Ojo, 2004). African nations must redress
this anomaly in view of the pivotal role that higher education plays in development.
Most countries have now realized the importance of post-secondary (higher) education sector in
contributing to the country‟s human resources, and investment in the sector has played a decisive role in
economic growth (Fagbamiye, 2004). The post-secondary school sector has also been seen as being responsible
for the establishment and expansion of research infrastructure and serves as a forum for generating, discussing
and disseminating new ideas (EI, 2002).
III. Globalization and the Development of ICT
The Information and Communication Technology has grown very fast in the last few decades. ICT has
reduced the whole world into a global village, bringing peoples, races and nations closer that the artificial
boundaries separating them have been effaced. Within a village one hollers at one end and can be heard at the
other end. With ICT, transmission of information does not encounter any national or regional boundaries; a
“holler” on the ICT in one country could be “heard” in any part of the world within a few seconds via the
internet and e-mail.
The ICT has made learning a life-long endeavour, and electronic learning (e-learning) has the
advantage of bringing into the bedrooms of individuals skill-based education and training programmes at
reduced costs, and at one‟s convenience.
Networking has helped in reshaping world outlook and has allowed knowledge to become a
monumental, pan-human property (Ojo, 2004). Networking within the academics is enhancing a lot of
cooperation, harmonization of views, exchanges, linkages, cross-fertilization of knowledge and realignment of
approaches and methodologies between scholars belonging to institutions and research centres within the same
country or outside their countries. Integration also occurs between identical or different linguistic entities and
even between divergent races with differing cultures, national histories, economic systems, and administrative
organizations (Ojo, 2004).
The in-thing now in the world is integration between formerly separate entities. Where the 1960‟s saw
active competition in the space race between the world‟s super powers, now there are joint explorations into the
outer space.
Information and Communication Technologies, especially the internet, virtual library, e-learning and
Distance Education (DE) have made the transmission of information/knowledge very fast, crossing borders
faster than the speed of light. ICT has enhanced anew world cooperation and harmonizing strategies of
integration, interdependence, synergy, networking and globalization.
The effect of ICT-induced globalization is more realistic in the Western world and South-East Asia
than in Africa. While the developed countries in these regions are enjoying the full benefits of the ICT, Africa
is still mostly in slumber, or at best, sleep-walking into the ICT world. The use of ICT in Africa is very low.
Africa‟s use of the ICT is very rudimentary. Although many African universities have their own web sites, the
internet and e-mail are rarely used for teaching, learning, curriculum development and research except in the
better endowed universities in South Africa and Egypt (Zelezan, 2003).
The main reasons for Africa‟s ICT backwardness are political (state-centric, domestic and policy-
oriented), economic and technological. However, in the developed countries of the West and South-East Asia
where the political system is much stable and better mature than in Africa, and also where the economy is stable,
better developed and more advanced new technologies are receiving substantial servicing, there is full
enjoyment of trans-border cooperation strategies.
Hence those developed countries, found mostly in Western Europe, North America and South East
Asia are opening their doors and borders to one another and are becoming better developed and more advanced
because information needed for research are swift in coming and better research products are churned out daily.
These cooperating, synergistic and interacting countries are reaping the heavy rewards of transcontinental,
transnational and inter-regional cooperation and the pooling of policy-resources, talents and potentials. Africa is
still in slumber and is yet to tap the benefits of the enormous resources and advantages that are laced into
transnational, inter-regional and trans-regional cooperation.
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IV. Transnational Cooperation in the Area of Higher Education
The advanced countries have cooperated in the areas of politics, economics, industry, social and
technological spheres and education, all to the benefit and greater advantage of their citizens whose lives have
been positively and advantageously touched. For exampled, a common currency, the Euro, is now the tenable
currency in all member states of the European Union (EU), except Britain and Switzerland.
Another beneficial positive move is the abolition of strident immigration and custom rules which has
made movements of citizens easy within European countries. There are also defence pacts signed between these
interacting countries which bring better security to their citizens and this enhances developments when peace
reigns.
This trans-national cooperation is very much also active in the area of higher education. In the EU, the
“Europe without frontiers”, initiated by France, Germany, Italy and Great Britain, and actively supported by
fifteen (15) other participating countries has enhanced the internationalization of higher education in Europe.
This has brought about compatibility in curriculum offerings in the countries, which has in turn bought about the
harmonization of courses and degrees among these countries. This harmonized curriculum has made it possible
for students to “hop” easily from one country to another, within the EU, and continue with their education
without any loss of credit or any negative effect on the duration of their degree courses; this can happen
regardless of differences in the mediums of instruction and national cultures between the countries the students
transverse.
V. Growth of Higher Education In Africa
Education is seen as the cornerstone of national development. It plays a vital role in economic and
technological development while removing illiteracy and poverty. Education helps in the development of a
culturally and socially tolerant people who are able to exercise ethnical and moral considerations in national and
local affairs, imbibed with community spirit (Jegede, 2000).
It is generally believed that the post-secondary education sector contributes substantially to the
development of a country‟s human resources, and investment in the sector has played a decisive role in
economic growth (Fagbamiye, 2004). The post-secondary school sector has also been responsible for
establishing the expanding research infrastructure and has served as a forum for generating, discussing and
disseminating new ideas (EI, 2002). It is also believed that the sector has also frequently helped to forge
national identity by facilitating training and further training of public service employees through seminars,
symposia, workshops, etc (Fagbamiye, 2004).
The Second World War (WW II) opened the eyes of many Africans, who were drafted into the war by
their colonial masters, to the importance of education and heightened the clamour for independence. The thirst
for knowledge through education grew very fiercely among the Africans, many of who travelled beyond their
shores in search of the Golden Fleece.
After the gaining of independence by many African countries, a growing passion fuelled the aspirations
of the people to seek education which was relevant to the demands of the new African nations. This was
because the colonial masters gave Africans the education that limited them to being clerks, domestics, cooks and
drivers. Courses in the sciences were missing from the curriculum and what prevailed were the classics such as
Latin which was essentially a dead language and of minimal use outside the study of law.
Many Nigerians in the 1950‟s and 1960‟s studied at home in Nigeria through tutorial institutions such
as the Rapid Results College, Exams Success, etc to prepare themselves as external candidates for the General
Certificate of Education(GCE) Advance Level (A/L) and the Intermediate Bachelors of Arts (Inter B.A) before
leaving the shores of Nigeria in search of the golden fleece in Europe, mainly Great Britain, United States of
America (USA) and Canada. Many Nigerians also sailed the boat, MV Auriel, to study the humanities at the
Fourah Bay University in Free-Town, Sierra Leone.
Immediately upon gaining independence, Nigeria instituted the Ashby Commission to chart the way for
the establishment of higher institutions of learning in the country. Prior to this, in 1948, the premier university
in the country the University College, Ibadan (UCI), later University of Ibadan (UI), had been established as an
extension of the University of London. Indeed the first university colleges that were established in Africa,
namely, Ibadan, Makarere, Khartoun, Dakar, etc, were branch campuses of universities in Western nations.
Apart from being tans-national they also served as regional institutions in that they attracted students from
different territories under the colonial masters. However, the rapid proliferation of national and sub-national
universities in the 1970‟s changed the international/inter-regional character of the higher institutions in Africa.
Besides the drastic reduction in the number of foreign students, almost all the expatriate lecturers in
these universities were replaced by indigenous ones in the process of indigenization (Akinyele, 2004).
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Internationalization/Commodification of Higher Education
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a vastly growing area the potentials of which has
not been totally realized. The rapid development in ICT has drastically altered the way in which knowledge is
transmitted. There are changing tides in the way education exists today because of ICT. Contemporary changes
are occurring in the methods of delivery of instructions and this is significantly affecting and is being affected
with regards to the transmission, distribution, accessing and processing of information and knowledge (Jegede,
2000).
The ICT has generated an exponentially increasing growth in knowledge which the world is finding
difficult to keep pace with. Marshall (1996) noted that the half-life (T½ ) of any knowledge is limited to five (5)
years. This means that in five years‟ time the knowledge we hold sacrosanct now would have become obsolete,
necessitating us to have to go back to school to learn new knowledge. Knowledge, which had been restricted to
a cluster of people has now become so vast and is majorly accessible to anyone and everyone though a variety
of ways, especially through the information and communication technology system (Jegede, 2000).
WTO/GATS and Higher Education
A new prospect of internationalization of higher education under globalization has been opened under
the World Trade Organization/General Agreement on Trade and Services (WTO/GATS). Under the WTO,
countries have traded in commodities such as sugar, crude oil, cocoa, rubber, etc. Knowledge which is fastly
spinning in magnitude has now been recognized as a marketable commodity. As knowledge is the bedrock of
education, education itself has been adjudged a commodity that can be traded in.
Because of its potential as a lucrative money spinner, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has turned
its attention to supply of education across international borders, and since 1994, the General Agreement on
Trade in Services (GATS), under WTO, has included education, especially higher education, on the list of
services to be privatized/commodified. The WTO/GATS negotiations among member states would enhance the
flow of students and educational resources, and colleges and campuses can be established in foreign countries.
Definition of Terms
(i) Higher Education: refers to knowledge, training, learning and teaching that are dispensed or received
in a tertiary institution (such as universities, Colleges of Technology (monotechnics and polytechnics),
Colleges of Education, etc) otherwise known as post-secondary institutions.
(ii) Cross-Border Education: This is education provided by individuals, agents, institutions and
organizations based outside the borders of a country; the providers are involved in the provision,
supply and management of courses, degrees, diplomas and other accompanying learning, evaluation,
administration or academic related activities made available to interested persons in the host country,
who are expected to pay for such programmes or course of study registered for. The place where the
programme or course of study is handled can either be in the host country or in the country of origin of
the cross-border provider.
(iii) Cross-Border Education Providers: Anyone organization or institution that provides education in a
country other than the country of origin of source.
(iv) GATS: The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is one of several agreements adopted in
1994 as part of the newly established by the World Trade Organization. Nations have traded amongst
and betwixt each other under international agreements. Under such WTO agreements nations had
traded in commodities such as cocoa, timber, cotton, crude oil, etc, but not in services. GATS which
was negotiated in Uruguay, and was midwifed by the WTO, being made up of 146 countries, is the first
set of multilateral agreements that created international trade in services (Akinyele, 2004).
GATS was re-launched in 2000 with the goals of further liberalization of trade in services (EI, 2002).
The coverage of GATS is very wide and only government procurement is explicitly excluded from GATS
(Fagbamiye, 2004).
GATS and Higher Education
Cross-border education is not altogether a foreign concept or an entirely new one. In a simple way,
cross-border can be described as a form of long distance education that involves crossing the border (Akinyele,
2004). It refers to the movement of education – whether it be people, programmes, programme providers or
projects – across a jurisdictional or national boundary (Knight, 2003a, b).
Educators use the term “cross-border education” to capture a wide range of educational activities that
are a part of international academic linkages and agreements, international developments/aids projects and
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international trade initiatives (Knight, 2003). Yet, trade in education is but a subset of cross-border education
(Akinyele, 2004).
GATS has defined four modes of supply as defining the trade in services with regards to education
(Akinyele, 2004; and Fagbamiye, 2004).
Mode 1: Programme Mobility/Cross-border supply
This involves the movement of the services, and not the consumer across national boundary. This
covers such educational services transmitted through international mail, phone, fax, teleconference and the
Internet. Distance education offered through the use of telephone, Internet and e-learning are included in this
category, e.g. the University of South Africa (UNISA) and Indirah Gandhi Open University (IGNOU) offer
degree courses in Nigeria through the internet.
Mode 2: Student Mobility/Consumption Abroad
This is currently the most popular model and involves the consumer (student) moving to the supplier‟s
country, i.e. the student takes all or a part of his country in another (foreign) country. Studying abroad is
considered an export of educational services, and advocates of privatization are clamouring for the removal of
curbs (such as visa and non-recognition of certificates/diplomas) on the movements of students (Fagbamiye,
2004).
Mode 3: Institutional Mobility/Commercial Presence
This involves the commercial presence of the service provider in the country of consumption. This
could exist as a branch or international campus, franchising or trans-international institutions, e.g. Cambridge
University has a branch at Abule-Oja, Lagos for GCE A/Level courses (Fagbamiye, 2004) and Babcock
University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State has a worldwide network through which a student can transfer within any
of its 144 branches worldwide.
Mode 4: Expert Mobility/Presence of Natural persons
This involves the physical temporary movement of experts to other countries (the consumer country) to
provide the service required. This could be in the form of lecturers going on sabbatical leave or teacher-
exchange programmes, the technical Aids Corps (e.g. the former American peace Corps programme of the
1960‟s or Nigeria‟s African Technical Aids programme), seminars, key note address, etc.
VI. Factors That Favour Gats/Cross-Border Education
1. Insufficient Number of Higher Institutions
The insufficiency the existing universities for the teeming populace in Africa is a sure lee way for the
thirst for cross-border education in Africa. Admittedly, the number of universities in different African countries
has increased considerably since the 1960‟s, but so has the population and the hunger for knowledge and
education at the tertiary level. For instance, Nigeria stated (in 1948) with only one university college (originally
affiliated to the University of London), but now has 54 universities, 64 colleges of education and several
polytechnics. Similarly, the East African countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania initially jointly shared the
Makarere College, and later the East African University that split into three in 1970, now have 14, 15 and 9
universities respectively, in addition to polytechnics (Jegede, 2000).
Nigeria is grossly under-provided with universities when compared in relative population size to other
countries. Nigeria with a human population of about 120 million has 54 universities. France with 59 million
people, half the population of Nigeria, has 81 universities. America, with about 266 million people, which is
double the population of Nigeria has about 3000 universities (Ojo, 2004). The inadequacy in the number of
universities in Nigeria for her vast population is thus very glaring.
2. Unreasonably Low Number of Academics
African countries most especially Nigeria, have been experiencing the phenomenon known as “brain
drain”. Professionals in various fields have left their countries to seek employment in foreign countries which
they presume to be greener pastures. This brain drain has also affected the academics due to the poor
remunerations given to lecturers. Also as a result of poor pay many young intellectuals have refused coming
into the universities to teach. This has made the student: lecturer ratio very high such that lecture theatres are
full to capacity and students spill out into the corridors.
3. Unstable Socio-economic and Political Atmosphere
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Because of economic hardship demands of the academics for better working conditions are turned
down by the various governments even after successful negotiations. This results in incessant strikes by both
academic and non-academic staff of universities. The resultant effect is the frequent closure of universities and
other higher institutions of learning. This amounts to inadequate teaching periods being used for academic
tutoring and half-backed graduates who are usually rejected for postgraduate studies overseas. Nigerian
employers also find it difficult to employ most of these graduates who know next to nothing about the course
they claim to have graduated in from the universities.
The shortened academic periods of learning result in inadequate exposure of students to learning and,
especially where practicals are involved. Incessant labour disputes which bring about strikes make the duration
of any course unpredictable. Some normal four year programmes can extend to six years or more due to
frequent closures.
4. Underfunding
In spite of the established fact of the importance of post-secondary education, it has been established
that in many African countries, Nigeria included, expenditure has been increasing rather slowly and in some
cases it has fallen, while enrolment has been increasing at a fast rate (OECD, 2000). UNESCO (2000) figures
showed that there were over 90 million students in higher education worldwide. It also revealed that ordinary
public expenditure was over US$ 270 million (two hundred and seventy million US dollars). Students in
developed countries who accounted for only 37% of the worldwide student population had 83% of the total
expenditure spent on them. On the other hand students from developing countries who made up 63% of the
worldwide student population had only 17% of the public expenditure spent on them.
This shows a lower amount of public funding for higher education in developing countries. However,
in all countries, post-secondary education is primarily funded by the state (Fagbamiye, 2004).
Thus, the main cause of the malaise befalling rewarding learning and teaching in higher institutions in
Nigeria is underfunding by the Federal and state governments who own most of them. This results in stressful
and inadequacy in the payment of salaries, other remunerations and stipends to university staff which leads to
industrial haggling that end up in strikes.
Underfunding also affects the provision of appropriate, adequate and up-dated/modern facilities,
infrastructural spaces (classrooms and laboratories) and equipment for teaching, learning, research and
domiciliation of students and staff. Another resultant effect of underfunding dilemma is that most of our
universities libraries and those of individual academics are stored with out-dated books and journals making the
dissemination, generation and up-dating of knowledge through research very difficult, unrewarding and
unattractive (Ojo, 2004).
In developed countries where here are well-equipped research laboratories and libraries, academics
teach from their own research findings and experiences. But in developing countries like Nigeria, academics
make little or no fresh research of their own and can only regurgitate old research findings from their out-dated
books and journals. There is thus staleness in the knowledge being transmitted in our higher institutions (Ojo,
2004).
Even, lack of funding to actualize the positive results of the few researches done make research
unattractive to African academics. Thus, underfunding amongst other socio-economic problems strangulate
free-thinking of academics and make learning experiences very inadequate, deficient, most often stressful,
unrewarding and unproductive for most Nigerian students. The conducive atmosphere that is indispensable for
a rewarding, fulfilling teaching and learning experience is acutely lacking, such that the products of higher
institutions in Nigeria are regarded as “half-baked” or “unleavened” by employers of labour. This is why some
students will prefer cross-border education to Nigeria‟s trifling form of education.
5. Inadequacy of Admission Spaces
Enrolment in higher education has been increasing at a fast pace so much that in developing countries
like Nigeria, a very abysmally low percentage of qualified applicants secure admission yearly; the greater
majority is left to seek alternate ways to get higher education at all costs. Hence, a lot of these disadvantaged
people are forced to look towards cross-border learning paying anything to travel out of the country. For
example, a recent release by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) showed that out of about
1.5 million Nigerians who seek admission to the nation‟s universities yearly, only about 160,000 of them get
admitted (Akinyele, 2004). This is about the limit at which the present higher institutions in Nigeria can admit,
keeping in mind the insufficiency of structural materials and teaching staff.
Other problems include deficiency in the admission process which has been subjected to racketeering
ad manipulations by unscrupulous agents resulting in the admission of unqualified and unteachable students.
This fact came out glaringly with the recent post-JME interactive sessions undertaken by most Nigerian
universities; here it was revealed that candidates who scored glowingly high in the Joint Matriculation
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Examination (JME) were unable to do well in the post-JME tests, thus revealing the fact that their high scores at
the JME were not products of their own efforts.
6. Insecurity of Lives and Properties
Africa is a pot shed of political instability which ultimately leads to intercine wars. Elections are
usually not free nor fair and those who have thus secured the seat of power feel no obligation to the electorates.
Thus they enrich themselves to the detriment of the citizens. Corruption and nepotism share the field of play
and crimes escalate. There is hardly any peaceful transition through the ballot boxes. The only way those not
holding the reins of government can get in is through a putsch. This usually has ethnic coloration and
eventually leads to civil wars which disrupt meaningful academic life. Amidst insecurity of life and properties,
most youngsters prefer to escape abroad in search of the Golden Fleece but chose not to return to their country
of origin even after achieving their goals. This “brain drain” depletes the intellectual capacity of African nations
and adds to their backwardness.
7. Other Reasons
Two other factors make cross-border higher education attractive to Nigerians. Firstly is the pervading
craze for paper qualifications, especially at the university level. Secondly, is the “tokunbo mentality” which
makes foreign products more appealing and better appreciated and most zealously sought after than those locally
available (Ojo, 2004). For these reasons, Nigerians are ready to sell all and travel out, by any means possible, in
search of the proverbial “golden fleece”. And because of this most foreigners over-exploit, to their own
monetary advantage, this craze and gullibility of Nigerians for foreign products, including higher education.
Targeted Nigerian Recipients of Cross-border Higher Education
With the above stated reasons for the attractiveness of cross-border higher education various categories
exist among those who are the targets of cross-border providers of higher education in Nigeria.
1. those with “tokunbo” spirit who thirst for things provided by foreigners, especially those whose skins are
not as dark as those of Nigerians. To this category of people anything from abroad is much better than
“made in Nigeria” no matter the price disparity, usually in favour of the foreign goods.
2. those not admitted through JAMB into Nigerian universities for reasons ranging from reduced number of
admission quota each year, limited available admission space, inadequacies of relevant facilities and
resources.
3. Those who are deficient in the admission requirements but chose the more liberal systems of education of
some foreign countries.
4. Those who are dissatisfied with the type of university education in Nigeria.
5. Those who are attracted to globalization, as it relates to the acquisition of knowledge seen as a pan-human
patrimony.
6. Those who will feel more fulfilled and better provided with employable professional skills in courses other
than those available within the country.
7. Those interested in specialized courses particularly new ones, most especially those in ICT, Sciences,
Engineering and Management Sciences that are not available at all in Nigeria, or are not being competently,
satisfactorily or professionally handled in Nigeria.
8. Those who are affluent enough and can afford the cost of tuition to pursue the courses provided by cross-
border providers and are able to satisfy all the admission requirements (Ojo, 2004).
VII. Cross-Border Higher Education In Nigeria – Past And Present
The Past
Cross-border education at the higher institutional level is not a new thing in Nigeria. The first set of
Nigerians who benefited from higher education across the Nigerian borders is that of Nigerians who went to
universities in West Africa (particularly Sierra Leon‟s Fourah Bay College), Great Britain and North America
(USA and Canada most especially) in the early years of the last century. Some of these Nigerians did part of
their studies through correspondence tutoring and completed them in the foreign countries.
To woo citizens from emerging and newly freed African nations the defunct Soviet Union (USSR) and
its communist allies offered numerous academic scholarships which were taken up by many Nigerians.
Similarly, the Commonwealth (a conglomeration of freed British colonists), Ford Foundation, Rockyfeller
Foundation, British Council and other such bodies from the Western axis also offered scholarships. In the
1960‟s Cuba, the only communist country in the Western hemisphere offered scholarships and technical aids to
many African countries.
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The courses for which the earliest recipients of cross-border higher education gunned for were the
Humanities particularly the Classics, English and History, Divinity (or Religious Studies). Those who went to
Great Britain pursued courses mostly in Law and Economics. Political Science and Education were more
favoured by those who went to the United States of America (USA).
Science subjects were not too popular in the pre-independence days and were barely taught in the few
secondary schools that existed. The few Nigerians who studied science in the secondary school were attracted
to Great Britain and the USA.
The first category of recipients of higher education provided from across our borders got information
about institutions in those foreign countries through their friends who had crossed over. Others obtained
information via the acknowledge reputation of the institutions on the advice or motivation of their alumni, or
through their sponsors (Ojo, 2004).
The Present
In recent times, particularly with new advances in Science and Technology, Nigerians now opt for
courses in such areas as Information and Communication Technology, Health, Town Planning, petroleum and
other Engineering courses (inclusive of Aeronautic Engineering). Other courses are in Business Administration,
Stock Exchange, Accounting and Finance, and Actuarial Sciences which are patronized to service the growing
business and industrial concerns in the country. It must be noted that most Nigerians attracted to such courses
go in at the postgraduate levels.
The second category of Nigerians is won over as a result of copious advertisements through
newspapers, the MSN Messenger, the Internet and through agents of cross-border providers that have their
offices in Nigeria. At times, some of these institutions send their senior staff over to Nigeria to give seminars
and interview would-be students on specific dates at different major cities in Nigeria.
Adverts by most British universities claim that the British Council in Nigeria is fully aware of their
interests and proposals. They hold Consultations and Education Fairs and Expositions for prospective
candidates through their Nigerian offices. Admission fees are charged for such organised fairs.
Some British Universities employ the services of Marketing Companies based in Nigeria to recruit
students for them. One of such companies is Preparation for Life/Lawne Green Education (LGE) which has
offices in various parts of Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt. LGE represents the interest of the Universities of
Buckingham, Westminster, West Anglia, Hertfordshire and Glamorgan, among many others.
The advertisements of these universities include attractions such as scholarships, work-study
programmes, reputation in marketable courses as well as the employability of their graduates. The courses
available include Advance Levels, Foundation courses, degree and postgraduate programmes in more than 150
areas of study (Ojo, 2004).
Networking and Collaboration
An eager proponent of networking/collaborative effort in the provision of cross-border higher
education is John Daniel (Daniel, et al, 1986, 2005). He and his colleagues preach the gospel of collaboration
rather than competition in rendering cross-border distance education especially in developing countries (Daniel
et al, 2006).
Cooperative networking or twining is a very initiative option that can benefit developing countries.
Such networking has recently been initiated between the University of Sussex, England and Adesoye College,
Offa in Kwara State, Nigeria. Sussex has given a mandate to Adesoye College to run a one year Foundation
Programme for its courses in Engineering, Mathematics, Physics and Information Technology. It is to be
expected that this sort of collaborative arrangement would soon be copied by many British and American
universities with Nigerian secondary schools that can demonstrate track records of moral integrity, pedagogical
competence, academic seriousness, appropriate infrastructures and a conducive learning environment (Ojo,
2004).
Networking has helped in reshaping world outlook and has allowed knowledge to become a
monumental pan-human property. Networking within the academics is enhancing a lot of cooperation,
harmonization of views, exchanges, linkages, cross-fertilization between scholars belonging to different
institutions and research centres within the same country or outside heir countries. Integration also occurs
between identical or different linguistic entities, and even between divergent races with distinct and differing
cultures, national histories, economic systems and administrative organizations (Ojo, 2004).
From Cotonou, in the neighboring Benin Republic, the Houndegbe North American University is
trying to make an in-road into Nigeria. The University claims to be recognized by the government of Benin
Republic and to be approved by the Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria. It offers a two-year (part-time)
executive postgraduate Masters programmes in 12 courses such as Marketing, Finance, Business Administration,
etc (12 months/1 year), Postgraduate Diploma programmes, five year undergraduate (degree) programmes as
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well as 2-year Diploma courses. These programmes are in various courses in Business Administration,
Education Management, law, etc.
Another cooperation/networking in Nigeria is from the Paris Graduate School Management
Consultants (PGSM) which is represented in Nigeria by its agent, FNL-Global Educational Management
Consultants, located at 30 Ikorodu Road, Lagos. In its advertisement PGSM presented 10 MBA Management
courses to be offered through the Distance Learning (DL) mode.
Also from the neighbouring Benin Republic, two specialized government institutions, Village du Benin
(in Lome) and the Centre Beninors des Langues Etrangeres (in Cotonou) have been offering cross-border
services to their next door neighbours. Although the two institutions do not offer degree programmes or
postgraduate degree courses, they have, since their inception in 1968 and 1979 respectively, been involved in
providing courses for the French Abroad Immersion (FIP) programmes which 300 level Nigerian undergraduate
language students used to go for in France. These two institutions have been actively involved in the teaching
of French to Nigerian undergraduates and other categories of Nigerians as well as other Africans, particularly
from other Anglophone countries, like Ghana.
Although the FIP is now handled by the Nigerian French village set up in 1991 in Badagry by the
Federal Government, the Lome and Cotonou institutions still cooperates with the Nigerian French Village in the
areas of teaching, research, publication and short-term intensive programmes in the area of French Studies.
There are also five other French language Centres established in various Francophone countries – Senegal –
Dakar, Coted‟Ivoire – Abidjan, Burundi – Bujumbura, Djibouti, and Morocco – Rabat. They all receive active
support from France, Canada, USA as well as some international agencies including the Commonwealth
Foundation (Ojo, 2004).
Just as the Francophone countries have established French language Centres, there is need for Nigeria,
which is surrounded by French-speaking countries, to in like manner set up English Language Centres for the
intention of her neighbours. Nigerian universities that are contiguous to our Francophone neighbours should be
empowered financially and administratively for this purpose. Towards this end, the University of Lagos could
be set up to service Francophone countries on the Southwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean. The University of
Maiduguri would service Francophone countries on the northern axis of Nigeria, while the University of Calabar
or Port Harcourt will serve Cameroon, which even though it has both English (minority) and majority French-
speaking regions, does not cater for the English-speaking residents. A handful of English-speaking
Cameroonians were registered for courses with the Distance Learning Institute of the University of Lagos, but
the unpredictable time-table, due to unstable political atmosphere, drove them away.
Nigeria can make a major impact on the academic landscape of the West African sub-region through
the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) which is the region‟s number one and foremost Distance
Learning University that is best financially empowered by any government in the sub-region). NOUN can
dispense undergraduate teaching and learning across Nigeria‟s border through Distance Learning method.
NOUN could spread its tentacles through the whole of West Africa. The government of each of the other
participating countries of the sub-region would be expected to contribute their own inputs by providing suitable
study centres as well as competent local teaching, administrative and supervisory staff. NOUN‟s origin
curriculum could also be revisited to reflect the local needs and specificities and other environmental factors of
each participating or recipient country (Ojo, 2004).
There exists international cooperation between some Nigerian universities and foreign institutions.
This involves mostly the recently established religious and privately owned universities. These include
Covenant, Babcock, Bowen, Benson Idahosa and Madonna Universities which are all Christian religious
universities enjoying cooperative linkages with American-based universities. Islamic universities are yet to rise
up to the new wave of university creation.
Among the privately owned ones are the Igbinedon University, Okada, Edo State, and ABTI-American
University of Nigeria (ABTI-AUN) in Yola. ABTI-AUN is the first private university in the whole of Northern,
Nigeria. ABTI-AUN has a special relationship with the University of Washington in the USA. This trend
reveals a preponderance of Christian universities learning more towards the South.
The general area of support the American universities tend to offer in the area of provision of
Americans as foundation staff, the training of young Nigerian academic staff, curriculum and infrastructural
development, academic planning, the setting up of laboratories and libraries.
On the whole, the existence of cross-border providers of higher education should be viewed as a
blessing to Nigeria which has hither-to not been able o adequately satisfy its teeming population who thirst for
higher education. The cross-border providers should be seen as worthy partners in the raining of the much-
needed high-level manpower for the development and modernization of Nigeria. However, to be appropriately
most beneficial, policy guidelines must be established to ensure adequate quality control of providers coming
into the country or leaving Nigeria‟s shores for other countries (Jegede, 2000; Ojo, 2004). Since man is seen as
a human capital everything whose objectives are to make life better for human beings should be encouraged.
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VIII. Conclusion
The world has been turned into a global village where borders are diffusing into oblivion. New
alliances are being made among formerly adversely opposed nations; the in-thing now is integration and
cooperation rather than isolation.
The rapid developments experienced in Information and Communication Technologies has helped in
obliterating national and regional boundaries. ICT has grown very rapidly in the last few decades and has
drastically increased the volume of information generated and has also changed the means of transferring these
information. ICT-induced globalization has made learning a life-long endeavour, and electronic learning (e-
learning) has the advantage of bringing into the bedrooms of individuals skill-based education and training
programmes at reduced costs and at one‟s convenience.
Knowledge, which is the bedrock of education, has now been seen as a commodity which can be
commercialized. This is what WTO/GATS has tried to bring about. But, while ICT-induced globalization and
commodification of education is on the high wave in Western countries, the level of connectivity and use of ICT,
though it varies from one African country to another, is still very rudimentary in Africa. Rather than integrating,
interconnecting, and collaborating in Africa, state-centrism and other myopic factors are bringing Africa
backwards, especially with regards to higher education. No African university was named among the best 100
in the world.
Cross-border collaboration would raise Africa‟s level and standards of higher education. Africa should
wake up to the ideals of transcontinental, inter-regional and transnational cooperation and integration so as not
to be left askance in the ever-encircling globalization.
References
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