Lithium: Present and Future

Daulat Ram Tiwari (16)
Hrishabh Grover (22)
M.M.S. VIth Sem.
G.P.C. Shahdol

AIM
This is an Introductory
Report, that briefly
discusses the Present and
the Future of Lithium
Mining Operations and
Electric Mobility in India &
the world. It also discusses
the role of India’s newly
discovered Lithium
Resources in the present

Things to be
Considered
1. The Data and Figures are to the
best of our knowledge, and are
probable to differ from the original,
owing to the time of study and the
source of study.
2. There may be some facts, that can
hurt the political sentiments, but
we must not forget the scientific
nature of the report, and try to be
neutral.
3. This Report is an Introductory or
Brief literature, and hence a large

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we express our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Shri P.K. Tilatia Sir, for allowing us
to carry on the present topic “Introduction to Lithium Mining” and later on for his inspiring guidance and
valuable suggestions throughout this project work. We are very much thankful to him for his able guidance in
improving our understanding of this project.
An assemblage of this nature could never have been attempted without reference to and inspiration from the
works of others whose details are mentioned in reference section. We acknowledge our indebtedness to all of
them.
At the last, our sincere thanks to all our friends who have patiently extended all sorts of helps for
accomplishing this assignment.
Date:
Daulat Ram Tiwari
Hrishabh Grover
Department of Mining Engineering
Government Polytechnic College
Shahdol-484001

Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Current Scenario
Environment
India
Conclusion

Abstract
The entire world is currently participating in what is
being called as the “Lithium Race” due to a paradigm
shift of the global focus towards sustainability and
green energy. All the major global players, like China,
Germany, US, and our country India, are making
giant leaps, towards environmental goals. The
production of Lithium-Ion batteries (LIBs) has
increased in capacity by almost eight-fold in the past
ten years, due to growing demand for consumer
electronics and Electric Driven Vehicles (EDVs).
Many countries are in
hurry of exploiting their Lithium Resources, fastly , to
gain the most out of the scenario. India very recently
discovered a 5.9-million-ton stash of lithium, in the
state of Jammu & Kashmir. This founding is being
seen as a gateway of India’s economic boost, and an
important contributor for the fulfillment of India’s

However, along with the market and mining
activities of Lithium, the resistance to it are also
“growing”. There are constant obstacles
concerned with environment, land degradation,
indigenous population habitat, and geo-politics.
The governments of resourceful countries are
constantly finding solutions to these, and the
Indian government is being expected to do the
same, in order to get benefit from the
resources.
Being part of the Mining
Discipline, we have chosen this topic, to present
a brief knowledge about the global trends,
methodology of extractions, and the present and
future of Lithium Mining in India and the World,
so that the reader can get a introductory
understanding of the topic and be aware of the
Abstract

Background
Global Trends
chemistry
Types of Lithium Batteries

Background
The entire world at present, is dedicating its entire focus,
towards becoming green. Almost all of the major countries of
the world are suffering from the harmful blisters, caused by
the Climate Change. The major factors behind it are:
Overreliance of Fossil Fuels for
Energy Supply
Overuse of Energy in General
Limited ability of Earth’s Natural
system to absorb excess CO2

Background
Transportation Activities, mostly associated
with passenger cars, have been responsible
for about a quarter of greenhouse gas
emissions in the US. Almost 90% of auto fuels
are from fossil fuels (i.e. gasolines and
diesels). Renewable energy is the most
promising & ultimate alternative to the issues
of Fossil Fuels.
Electric Driven Vehicles
are seen as the future of Passenger Mobility
in the world. However, the renewable energy
has its own struggles, such as the problems of
storage, as it is intermittent in nature.

Background
The Lithium-Ion batteries have been a
dominant Battery solution for the storage of
renewable energy. Increased demand for
EDVs is driving the need for high-density
energy storage, particularly through the use
of Lithium-Ion Batteries. These have also
been an important part in the electronic
equipment like laptops and cell phones.
According to International Energy
Agency (IEA), an approximate of 10000 GWh
of energy storage will be required worldwide
by 2040, to meet the Climate Goals, which is
around 50 times the present capacities.

Background
Due to its properties, Lithium as a
mineral is also particularly useful for
the manufacture of glass, high
temperature lubricants, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals etc.
However, because of its high
reactivity, pure elemental lithium is
not found in nature but it is instead
present as a constituent of salts or
other compounds.

Global Trends
During the past ten years, the global market
has seen an enormous shift, majorly caused
due to advent of Electric Vehicles. The major
global trends during these years were:

Global Trends
In 2020, the global electric car
stock hit the 10 million mark, a 43%
increase over 2019. China, with 4.5
million electric cars, has the largest
fleet.
It is projected to grow to between
nine and 20 million by 2020, and
between 25 and 30 million by 2025
(IEA 2017).

Global Trends
This trend is partly responsible
for the fact that the demand
for the storage capacity of
lithium batteries has increased
by 790% and the market, as
measured in US dollars, has
expanded by 330% in the past
ten years.

Global Trends
The lithium consumed in battery production has
increased from 5160 metric tons in 2007 to 19780
metric tons in 2017 and to 69,000 tonnes in 2021.
In 2015, the largest sector of global LIBs demand
was ‘consumer electronics’ (69%); the second is
‘automotive’ (28%). In 2020 however, the largest
share in Lithium-Ion Battery market, is of the
Automotive sector.
The compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
forecasted for LIBs’ automotive market share
ranges from 22% to 41% through 2020 (National
Renewable Energy Laboratory 2015).

Global Trends
Governments across the world spent USD
14 billion on direct purchase incentives
and tax deductions for electric cars in
2020, and tax deductions for electric cars
in 2020.
Worldwide about 370 electric car models
were available in 2020, a 40% increase
from 2019. Electric Bus and Heavy-duty
truck registration increased in 2020 in
China, Europe and North America.

Global Trends
As a result of these trends, the
demands of LIBs will increase lithium
mining activities in the regions where
these are found in abundance. They
are also expected to experience some
of the negative externalities of the
growing market. This includes the
increased demand for electricity and
certain raw materials.

chemistry
Lithium is a lightweight, silvery-white alkali
metal, that is used in the cathodes of lithium-
ion batteries, which power electric vehicles.
It is often dubbed as “white gold”. It is highly
reactive and flammable & offers excellent
heat and electrical conductivity.

The symbol of this metal is Li and its
atomic number is 3. It has a single
valence electron, in its outer shell. It
is soft enough to be cut with a knife.
In air, it oxidizes to Lithium Oxide.
Melting Point: 180.5⁰ C
Boiling Point: 1342 ⁰ C
Density: 0.534g/cm3
Moh’s Hardness: 0.6
chemistry

Types of LIBs
There are different types of
Lithium Ion Batteries, each of
which are different in their
performance characteristics:

A
• Reserves & Resources
B
C
• Extraction Methods

Reserves & Resources
Reserve: Reserves are that subgroup of a
resource that have been discovered, have
known size, and can be extracted at a
For example, of the world's estimated oil
resource of three trillion barrels, the
world's reserves are estimated at about a
of that amount.
Resource: A resource is that amount of a
geologic commodity that exists in both
discovered and undiscovered deposits—
by definition, then, a “best guess.”

definition, then, a “best guess.”
The following list shows the amount of
Lithium Resources, spread across the
various countries of the world:
# Data according to US Geological Survey of
2022

definition, then, a “best guess.”
In addition, there are a number of minor
resources spread across the various
countries, as shown in the figure:
2022
by definition, then, a “best guess.”

The following list shows the amount of
Lithium Resources, spread across the
various countries of the world:
2022
* Under Exploration

The data can be better understood with
the help of the following figure:
2022
* Under Exploration

With 9.2 million tons, Chile has the
world’s largest known lithium
reserves. This puts the country
ahead of Australia (6.2 million
tons), Argentina (2 million tons)
and China (1 million tons). Within
Europe, Portugal has smaller
quantities of the valuable raw
material. A massive 5.9 million ton
reserve has been found very
recently in India, but it is still in the
stage of Exploration and has not
been proved completely. The total
global reserves are estimated at 21

The “Lithium Triangle” is a region of the
Andes rich in lithium reserves around
the borders of Argentina, Bolivia and
Chile. This area is thought to hold
around 54% of the World’s Lithium
Reserves. The lithium in the triangle is
concentrated in various salt pans that
exist along the Atacama Desert and
neighbouring arid areas, the largest
ones including “Salar de Uyuni” in
Bolivia, “Salar de Atacama” in Chile and
“Sala del Hombre Muetro” in Argentina.

US is the home to world’s second largest
deposits, after those in the “Lithium Triangle”
region in South America. The states of Nevada,
North Carolina and California together account
an estimated 4% of world’s Lithium Reserves.
The reserves in the US comes from clays,
pegmatites and continental, geothermal and
oilfield brines. The clay deposits are primarily
located in Nevada, where three mines are
currently undergoing the permitting process.
Thacker Pass (Kings Valley) inn Nevada is the
case example of a typical hectorite lithium clay
deposit. It is owned by Canadian Lithium
Americas (LAC). The project is located within an
extinct super-volcano- the McDermott Caldera-
that is associated with the Yellowstone hotspot.

Production
Lithium is often incorrectly labelled as
“scarce”. Indeed, the metal is abundant
geologically across the planet, but its
production is concentrated in just a few
countries. According to US Geological
Survey, about a fourth of the Earth’s
known Lithium deposits (around 88
million tonnes) would be economical to
be mined. Battery production continues
to be dominated by China, which
accounts for over 70% of global battery
cell production capacity.

Production
At present, Australia is the largest producer of
lithium. Unlike other countries, where Lithium
is extracted from Brines, Australian Lithium
comes from hard-rock mines for the mineral
spodumene, primarily from pegmatite rock.
The largest
resource base is available in Bolivia at
21,000,000 tonnes, but the production here, is
limited. In the 1990s, the U.S. was the largest
producer of Lithium, accounting for around
1/3rd of the global production, but at present,
it is down to around 1%. Between 1995 to
2010, Chile was the largest producer, majorly
caused due to the production boom in “Salar-
de Atacama”, one of the world’s richest
lithium brine deposits.
receiving permits.

China, being the Third Largest producer, also
has a strong hold on the Supply Chain. In
addition to developing domestic mines, it also
has acquired around $5.6 billion worth of
lithium assets in countries like Chile, Canada
and Australia. It also holds around 60% of
world’s lithium refining capabilities for
batteries.
As of this writing,
US has only one operational lithium mine in
Clayton Valley near Silver Peak, Nevada, which
uses a pumped- brine/evaporative pond type
of extraction. However, other lithium
extraction methods are being proposed, and
one mine in northern Nevada, the proposed
Thacker Pass mine, is in the process of
Production

Extraction methods
By definition, Lithium Extraction is a set of
chemical processes, where lithium is isolated
form a sample and converted to a saleable
form, generally a stable yet readily convertible
compound such as lithium carbonate. Lithium
is found as a silicate (containing silicon) or
aluminosilicate (containing aluminium and
silicon) in the continental crust.
Extracting and
concentrating lithium requires crushing,
separation, and concentration of the metal as a
solid phase, and use of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to
leach the lithium into aqueous solution. The
remains after extraction is called tailings,
which must be neutralized prior to disposal so
that no acidic environmental contamination is
created by mine processes.

Extraction methods
Commercial Lithium Extraction technology/methods currently rely on two main
sources of the metal:
Mineral Ores Salt Flat Brines

Mineral Ores
Mineral Ores, such as spodumene: a hard silicate mineral
found in pegmatites (13% of worldwide reserves in 2009).
Hard rock mining is a considerably more complex and energy-
intensive process than conventional brine extraction. It
accounts for a relatively small share of the world’s lithium
production. Although there are over 145 minerals that
contain lithium, only five are used for commercial lithium
extraction: spodumene, lepidolite, petalite, amblygonite,
and eucryptite. Of these, spodumene is the most abundant,
abundant, yielding the vast majority of mineral-derived
lithium.
Mineral ore deposits are often
richer in lithium content than the salar brines, however they
are costly to access since they must be mined from hard rock
formations. Australia accounts for much of the world’s
spodumene production, with some smaller operations in
Brazil, and other mineral-based lithium operations in
Portugal, southern Africa and China. By 2025, additional

Mineral Ores
Process: After the ore is mined, it is crushed and
roasted at 2012°F (1100°C). It is then cooled to 140°F
(65°C), milled and roasted again, this time with
sulfuric acid, at 482°F (250°C), a process known as acid
leaching. During this last step, the hydrogen in the
sulfuric acid is replaced with lithium ions, to produce
lithium sulphate and an insoluble residue. As in brine-
based lithium extraction, lime is added for the
removal of magnesium (a constituent element in
spodumene), and soda ash is used to precipitate
lithium carbonate from the final purified, filtered
solution. Lime slurry may also be used as a pH
adjuster to neutralize excess acid from the acid
leaching process.
Due to the added energy
consumption, chemicals and materials involved in
extracting lithium from mineral ore, the process can
run twice the cost of brine recovery, a factor that has
contributed to its smaller market share.

Greenbushes (Western Australia) is the case
example of a world-class lithium (-tantalum-tin)
pegmatite. Greenbushes is a complex of tin,
tantalum, lithium and kaolin bearing pegmatites,
with extensive weathered and alluvial material at
surface.
The
weathered and alluvial material has been mined
for tine and then tantalum since 1888, with the
presence of the alluvial material critical in its
discovery and exploitation. Hard Rock mining
commenced in the 1980s and was focused on
Lithium, Tin and Tantalum.
Mineral Ores

Currently, it is mainly lithium that is mined (by a
Tianqi, China and Albemarle, USA joint venture
through Talison Lithium), with the other mineral
rights held separately (By Global Advanced Metals)-
tantalum is still mined but tin is no longer mined
(though it remains economically feasible).
The Greenbushes
mine, is located 250km. From Perth. The
Greenbushes pegmatite is about 3km. long and
several hundred metres thick. The extensive
alluvial and weathered material suggests the
original pegmatite was much larger.
Mineral Ores

Salt Flat Brines
Lithium Chloride found in brine lake deposits (87%
of reserves) are major source of Lithium. These are
salt lakes formed from groundwater that are
enriched in lithium, from which the brine can be
extracted to produce lithium (and some other
commodities). These salt lakes form in closed
basins (i.e. water flows in, but not out) in arid
regions which are dominated by evaporation.
Salars are typically large in
surface area (though they vary in size greatly) and
very low grade. However the ability to extract
them as a brine and naturally evaporate them
means they can be produced economically at these
grades.

Salt Flat Brines
Most of the largest lithium
salars are in the Andean
Highlands (Argentina, Bolivia,
Chile). The requirement for arid
conditions mean lithium salars
form primarily along the tropics
in the ‘arid zone’. These are
also formed at high altitude,
which is a result of the orogenic
volcanism.

Salt Flat Brines
The “Salar de Atacama” is a large
lithium brine bearing salar in Chile,
that is one of the world’s largest
producers of lithium. Both state
company “Sociedad Quimica y Minera
de Chile” and US private company
“Albemarle” extract brine from the
salar and then process the brine into
lithium carbonate (LI2CO3) and other
chemicals in Antofagasta.

Salt Flat Brines
Process: Drilling is required to access the
underground salar brine deposit. Salt-rich water is
pumped to the surface and into a series of
ponds. Over a period of months, the water slowly
evaporates due to the sun, and a variety of salts,
typically potassium and sodium, precipitate out,
a brine with an ever-increasing concentration of
During the evaporation process, a slurry of
(Ca(OH)2) is added to the brine to precipitate out
unwanted elements, particularly magnesium and
(as magnesium hydroxide and calcium boron
Facilities
usually operate several large evaporation ponds of
various ages, and may extract other metals (e.g.
potassium) from younger ponds while waiting for
Lithium content to reach a concentration optimal
further processing. In some cases, Reverse
used to concentrate the lithium brine to speed up
evaporation process.

Salt Flat Brines
When lithium concentration reaches a certain point, the brine is pumped to
a recovery facility to extract the metal, a process that usually includes the
following steps:
Brine purification to remove contaminants or
unwanted elements.
Chemical treatment to precipitate out desirable
products and by-products.
Filtration to remove the precipitated solids.
Treatment with soda ash (Na2CO3) to precipitate out
lithium carbonate (Li2CO3).
Washing and drying of the lithium carbonate into the
final product.

Salt Flat Brines
However the salars also face some general challenges in
extraction, which are as follows:
Deleterious elements, especially magnesium, can
impede recovery,
Deleterious elements also can affect product quality
and sale process,
Natural Evaporation of Brines is time-intensive
(months) and vulnerable to bad weather (albeit rare),
Remoteness can also be a problem,
The hyper-aridity of many salar regions means that
water use is a major concern.

Extraction Methods
The end product of both brine and mineral-
based lithium extraction technology is most
often lithium carbonate. It has a range of
industrial uses: from battery manufacturing to
the production of flooring treatments, cement
densifiers, adhesives and glazes. It is widely
used as a grease and lubricant and is an
essential medication (as listed by the World
Health Organization).
It can also be easily converted to
lithium hydroxide, which is fast becoming the
preferred lithium compound for electric
vehicle manufacturers, since it allows the
manufacture of higher-performing, longer-
lasting batteries.

Issues
Along with the curative effects of lithium on
climate change, it is necessary to consider
the potential ‘side effects’ related to its
extraction and the mineral itself, and to
communicate it in a transparent manner.

Alternatives
The issues caused by Lithium Mining
Operations, are serious, and cause
irreplaceable damages if not addressed
properly and timely. However, there are a
few alternatives:

The Geological Survey of India very recently,
estimated a deposited of 5.9 million tons of
Lithium resources in the country. These
resources were found in the mountainous
Salal-Haimana area of Reasi district in
Jammu & Kashmir.
According to GSI the
site is an “inferred resource” of the metal,
which means it is at a preliminary
exploration stage, the second of a four-stage
process. The discovery is significant for
India’s push towards electric mobility, but
any environmental gains would be negated, if
it is not mined carefully.
India’s Big Find

Importance
This discovery is seen as a major step,
in enhancing the country’s aspiration of
becoming a green industrial power and
becoming a global player in the ongoing
Lithium race and the development of EV
markets. The deposits can be a
potential “game changer” for the
country’s clean energy manufacturing
ambitions in several ways. The discovery
placed India, sixth in terms of Lithium
Resources, just behind Australia. It also
left China behind the numbers, which is
the largest raw lithium importer and
producer of Lithium-Ion batteries.

The domestic supply of Lithium would benefit
the country by partially shielding Indian EV
makers and battery producers from high import
prices. According to Ministry of Commerce,
India spent around Rs. 26,000 crore importing
Lithium between 2018-2021, and between April-
December of 2022-2023 India shelled out Rs.
163 billion for the import of Lithium & Lithium-
Ion.
Moreover, it
would help insulate India from geopolitical risks
of rising tensions between China & United
States. It would also bring down the battery
production cost by around 5 to 7%.
Importance

Issues
Geopolitics:
The dispute of Kashmir, existing for more than 7
is no longer new to us. The territory is one of the
politically volatile region and has seen countless
attacks & violent skirmishes. It is the world’s most
militarized zone and the identified resources sit
45 kms. From the Line of Control. A local armed
People’s Anti-Fascist Front (a local proxy for Jaish-
Mohammed), has already warned that it will not
the government to develop the resources.
There are a number of Internal
Political obstacles too, that needs to be addressed.
region is home to a conflictive religious group. The
political groups have often acted as a dual agent
instigated communal tensions in the region. Jammu
Kashmir accounted for just 1% of India’s
2019, but 57% of all deaths due to armed conflict
country between 2019 and 2021

Issues
Technology:
Lithium resources-concentrations of minerals
are potentially economically viable to extract,
not particularly rare. What matters is how
these resources can be developed into
minerals that are both recoverable and
minable in a given price environment. Many
countries with vast lithium resources have yet
begin mining at any appreciable scale. Even
countries with high technological
satisfy their domestic needs from the imports.
A highly self-sufficient and advance
capacity will be required by the country, to
the most out of the discovery.

Issues
Environment:
The region of Kashmir is called “Paradise of
due to its impeccable ecology and bio-diversity.
home to one of the most scenic landscapes and
haven for global tourists due to its natural
large-scale Lithium mine has a destructive
on the nature and ecology of the region The
mining in the Lithium Triangle, has already led
concerns over soil degradation, water shortages
contamination, air pollution and biodiversity
The Lithium Mining
operations are also extremely water-intensive
large-scale mining makes demands for a huge
quantity of water. According to the reports,
approximately 2.2 million litres of water are
to produce 1 tonne of lithium.

Issues
Geography:
The region where deposits are
are located in the Himalayan zone
country. The terrain of this area, is
extremely undulated, making the
logistics and other developmental
extremely problematic. Moreover,
according to the seismic zonation
of India, whole of J&K, which lies
to the Himalayas, comes under
and is also ecologically sensitive.

Issues
Worth:
The entire issue might not be even worth the
the deposits as still at a G3 level, meaning that
researchers are still at the “preliminary
phase.
The deposit is yet to travel two more
G2 (general exploration, where more studies are
determine the mineral’s shape, size and grade)
(Detailed exploration, where characteristics of the
deposits are established with a high-degree of
It is after the G1 stage, that a feasibility study can
made. According to Pankaj Shrivastava, professor
Geology at Jammu University, the calculation
is low, and need to be backed with more proof to
confirm the important specifics, including whether
minerals actually are of high enough quality for
commercial use, how many years will it take to
and prepare the lithium, or whether there even
5.9 million tons of minable and usable reserves in

Conclusion
Owing to the rapidly growing world,
and the major concerns over
environment and sustainability, Lithium
demand Is growing fast. This is driven
by a wide range of battery
applications, which are in turn
changing the structure of demand, the
lithium supply chain and potentially
raw material requirements.

Conclusion
Upon considering the various facts
of the issues, it can be safely said,
that we should not stop mining for
lithium, and rather, we should
encourage industry to advance its
sustainable efforts and direct
more research and development
towards cleaner and safer
operations.

Conclusion
The discovery of the resources has came at a
crucial time, when the entire world is having
a paradigm shift towards Electric Vehicles
and Cleaner technology. If India is successful
in harnessing the resources and convert it
into meaningful exploitation, it would not
only imply economic benefits for the country
but will also have greater geo-political gains
attached to it. All of this can help the
country improve its role, on the global
platform.

Conclusion
The fulfilment of the Indian Government’s ambitious targets of
energy self-sufficiency for India by 2047, can be largely assisted
by tapping the resources, inn the most economical, safe and
timely manner possible. The Indian Government is keen to bring
these resources online as quickly as possible. To reach Prime
Minister’s surprising pledge to reach “net-zero carbon emissions
by 2070” made at the United Nations Climate Change
Conference (COP26), India will have to significantly boost EV
adoption and build solar and Wind energy capacity.
India is also trying to become an alternative to
China as a producer of Lithium-Ion Batteries, both for domestic
consumption and eventual export If successful, India could
replicate its success in exporting low-displacement motorcycles
and scooters and lower cost agricultural machinery to the
developing world.
speculation.

Conclusion
Although India would still be required to rely on global markets
for other key inputs like Nickel, Graphite and Manganese,
domestic sourcing of Lithium would be a positive start to
building some self-sufficiency in energy production and storage.
Finally, and the most importantly,
we should wait for a final proven estimate before jumping on to
a final conclusion. It is until then, that the question of mining in
this pristine Himalayan area remains only a mere speculation.

Lithium: Present and Future

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