Literature as Text discusses how literature attracts linguists for two reasons: it provides data that can be analyzed linguistically, but also contains data that cannot be analyzed through linguistic models. Halliday analyzes the poem "Leda and the Swan" by looking at its nominal and verbal groups. He finds the references in the poem are anaphoric, referring back to the title. Literature deviates from grammatical rules in patterns, violating categories, sub-categories, and transformational rules. While text analysis provides one way to analyze literature, it is not a complete analysis on its own.

1. LITERATURE AS TEXT
By Mehwish Ali Khan

2. • Literature has attracted the attention of linguists for two reasons
• First reason is
• It has data which can be analyzed through the models of linguistics
• Second reason is
• It also has data which cannot be analyzed through the models of linguistics
• According to Halliday the linguistic elements in literary writing are part of the analysis of a
literary work.
• Halliday analyzes Leda and Swan, a poem by Yeats

3. • He analyzes the poem by looking at
• Nominal groups (Noun phrases) and
• Verbal group( verb phrases)
• He analyzes the nominal groups through definite article(the)
• Definite article has several grammatical functions.
• Its general function is to signal that the (nominal group) has a specific reference
This reference is of three kinds

4. This reference is of three kinds
1. Cataphoric
2. Anaphoric
3. Homophoric
Reference is said to be Cataphoric when it has a modifier or a qualifier (appears before head word
or after head word
Reference is said to be anaphoric when the head word is linked with something or someone
previously mentioned in the paragraph
Reference is said to be homophoric when the head word is sufficient itself

5. • When Leda and Swan is analyzed
• The definite article looks like cataphoric because in the poem it is either with a modifier or a
qualifier.
• They do not act so when their function is observed.
• They do not make self-contained references
• For examples the great wings and the dark webs can be defined as ones having cataphoric
articles but they do require some previous link.
• They have to be either anaphoric or homophoric
• The form of Definite article is different and the function of definite article is different.

6. • The dark webs
• The great wings
• The staggering girl
• They are identified anaphorically as they refer back to the title The Leda and The Swan
• The poem looks like an exhibition catalogue
• Halliday analyses the text only
• He makes use of only language in his analysis
• This prepares the ground for understanding poem as a discourse
• To understand the message of the text through language

7. • Some of the phrases can be related anaphorically but not all
• For instance the burning roof or the broken wall
• They are not cataphoric either because they are not self contained,
• The nominal groups may be functioning as deictic (pointing things)
• As used in tourist guides or exhibition brochures
• This indicates that the poet might be looking at a painting or a picture

8. • Text analysis provides a way of literary analysis
• It is not a complete analysis

9. The second reason
• Which has attracted the linguists is that
• it has data which cannot be analyzed according to the models of linguistics
• Specially the linguists working with transformational generative grammar are concerned with
this problem
• according to TGG all the sentences generated by the grammar of any language
• if grammar of any language cannot generate such sentences than they are wrong sentences
• But in literature we come across with many such sentences which cannot be generated by the
grammar
• But they are nonetheless interpretable

10. • Literature deviates from the grammatical models.
• For instance they use nouns as verbs in sentences
• They violate the grammatical rules
• These deviations are always in patterns.
• Deviations occur at different levels
• Phonological
• Graphological (capital letters)
• Syntactic (subject verb agreement)

11. These violations can be of
1. Category rule violations and sub-category
2. Sub- category rule violation
3. Selection and Restriction rule violation
4. Transformational Generative Grammar rule violation

12. Category rule violation
• Use of noun as verb
• “Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness” Shakespeare
• Lexical item boy is transferred from the category of noun to category of verb

13. Sub-category rule violation
• When writer uses transitive verb as intransitive verbs

14. Selection restriction rule violation
• Giving features of non animate things to animate things.
• The yellow fog that rubs its muzzle
• The thistle saw the gardener
• Winds stampeding the fields

15. TGG rule violation
• Addition
• And mas in mirth like to a comedy
• Deletion
• E.g. A page clad in crimson
• Instead a page who is clad in crimson
• Substitution
• E.g Blank day, bald street
• Instead of empty street
• E.g. Reorder
• E.g no loyal knight and true
• Instead of no loyal and true knight

16. Let us review
• The points needed for treatment of literary writing as text which cannot be analyzed
linguistically.
1. In Literature there are sentences which will not be generated by grammatical rules.
2. In literature there are deviation which can be specified by referring to base rules of deep
structure like
• category rules
• Sub-category rules
• selection restriction rules and
• transformational rules