Lignin
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Lignin is a complex polymer that provides rigidity to plant cell walls. The document appears to be about lignin and secondary cell walls written by Dr. Sujit Ghosh from J K College in Purulia. It likely discusses the composition and role of lignin in strengthening secondary cell walls in plants.
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Immunogenecity and antigenecity
The document discusses antigenicity and immunogenicity. It defines antigens as substances that bind to antibodies or immune cell receptors, while immunogens are antigens capable of inducing an immune response. All immunogens are antigens, but not all antigens are immunogenic. The document outlines key characteristics that determine a substance's immunogenicity, including its foreignness, chemical composition, complexity, size, and dose. It also discusses factors like the host's genetic makeup and route of entry that influence the immune response. Overall, the document provides an overview of the differences between antigens and immunogens, and the features that determine a substance's ability to induce immunity.
Translation
1. Protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm by free ribosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and in the ER and organelles by attached ribosomes in eukaryotes.
2. The process of protein synthesis requires ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, GTP, and various initiation, elongation, and termination factors.
3. Initiation involves assembly of the ribosome and positioning of the start codon in the P site. Elongation is a cyclic process of aminoacyl-tRNA binding, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Termination occurs when a release factor binds to a stop codon and causes hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA.
Charging of tRNA, Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
Ribosome structure and assembly
ribosome types-prokaryotes and eukaryotes,, Structural model in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, chemistry , biogenesis
https://youtu.be/BfHIr8YiHjc
Classification of plant diseases
This document discusses different ways of classifying plant diseases. It can be classified based on the plant part affected (localized or systemic), perpetuation and spread (soil-borne, seed-borne, or air-borne), signs and symptoms (rusts, smuts, powdery mildews, etc.), host plants affected (cereal crops, forage crops, etc.), causal organism (fungal, bacterial, viral, etc.), occurrence (endemic, epidemic, sporadic, or pandemic), and pathogen generation (monocyclic, polycyclic, or polyetic). The classification systems provide ways of categorizing diseases based on factors like anatomy, life cycle, transmission, symptoms and epidemiology.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway generates reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH and produces ribose-5-phosphate. It functions primarily in anabolic biosynthesis reactions that require NADPH, such as fatty acid and nucleic acid synthesis. Cells with high levels of these biosynthetic pathways, such as liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland cells, have high levels of pentose phosphate pathway enzymes. The pathway oxidizes glucose through a series of reactions that ultimately produce ribulose-5-phosphate, which can be converted back into glucose-6-phosphate or other three and six carbon intermediates.
Bentham Hooker system of classification
George Bentham and Joseph Hooker jointly presented a comprehensive system of plant classification in their work Genera Plantarum, published in 3 volumes. Their system classified seed plants into 97,205 species under 202 orders or families, divided into 3 classes - dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Dicots were further divided into 3 divisions and 14 series based on natural and visual characteristics to provide a key for plant identification. This system was widely adopted because the descriptions of each taxon were based on detailed examination of actual herbarium specimens.
Introduction to cell
1. The document discusses cells and their structures. It describes the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and lists the major organelles in plant and animal cells.
2. Microscopes allow us to see cells. Early pioneers like Hooke, van Leewenhoek, Schwann, and Schleiden made important discoveries that led to the cell theory.
3. The endosymbiotic theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from ancient prokaryotes that were engulfed by other cells but not destroyed, and instead survived as intracellular organelles.
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Immunogenecity and antigenecity
The document discusses antigenicity and immunogenicity. It defines antigens as substances that bind to antibodies or immune cell receptors, while immunogens are antigens capable of inducing an immune response. All immunogens are antigens, but not all antigens are immunogenic. The document outlines key characteristics that determine a substance's immunogenicity, including its foreignness, chemical composition, complexity, size, and dose. It also discusses factors like the host's genetic makeup and route of entry that influence the immune response. Overall, the document provides an overview of the differences between antigens and immunogens, and the features that determine a substance's ability to induce immunity.
Translation
1. Protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm by free ribosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and in the ER and organelles by attached ribosomes in eukaryotes.
2. The process of protein synthesis requires ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, GTP, and various initiation, elongation, and termination factors.
3. Initiation involves assembly of the ribosome and positioning of the start codon in the P site. Elongation is a cyclic process of aminoacyl-tRNA binding, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Termination occurs when a release factor binds to a stop codon and causes hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA.
Charging of tRNA, Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
Ribosome structure and assembly
ribosome types-prokaryotes and eukaryotes,, Structural model in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, chemistry , biogenesis
https://youtu.be/BfHIr8YiHjc
Classification of plant diseases
This document discusses different ways of classifying plant diseases. It can be classified based on the plant part affected (localized or systemic), perpetuation and spread (soil-borne, seed-borne, or air-borne), signs and symptoms (rusts, smuts, powdery mildews, etc.), host plants affected (cereal crops, forage crops, etc.), causal organism (fungal, bacterial, viral, etc.), occurrence (endemic, epidemic, sporadic, or pandemic), and pathogen generation (monocyclic, polycyclic, or polyetic). The classification systems provide ways of categorizing diseases based on factors like anatomy, life cycle, transmission, symptoms and epidemiology.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway generates reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH and produces ribose-5-phosphate. It functions primarily in anabolic biosynthesis reactions that require NADPH, such as fatty acid and nucleic acid synthesis. Cells with high levels of these biosynthetic pathways, such as liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland cells, have high levels of pentose phosphate pathway enzymes. The pathway oxidizes glucose through a series of reactions that ultimately produce ribulose-5-phosphate, which can be converted back into glucose-6-phosphate or other three and six carbon intermediates.
Bentham Hooker system of classification
George Bentham and Joseph Hooker jointly presented a comprehensive system of plant classification in their work Genera Plantarum, published in 3 volumes. Their system classified seed plants into 97,205 species under 202 orders or families, divided into 3 classes - dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Dicots were further divided into 3 divisions and 14 series based on natural and visual characteristics to provide a key for plant identification. This system was widely adopted because the descriptions of each taxon were based on detailed examination of actual herbarium specimens.
Introduction to cell
1. The document discusses cells and their structures. It describes the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and lists the major organelles in plant and animal cells.
2. Microscopes allow us to see cells. Early pioneers like Hooke, van Leewenhoek, Schwann, and Schleiden made important discoveries that led to the cell theory.
3. The endosymbiotic theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from ancient prokaryotes that were engulfed by other cells but not destroyed, and instead survived as intracellular organelles.
Plant Water Relation
Plants absorb water through their roots and transport it throughout the plant. There are two main mechanisms of water absorption: active absorption which requires metabolic energy and occurs in slowly transpiring plants, and passive absorption driven by transpiration from the leaves. Most water is absorbed in the root hairs and younger root regions through osmosis as water moves from higher to lower water potential down a gradient. The water then travels upward through the xylem vessels via bulk flow and diffusion processes to reach the leaves where it is lost to transpiration.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the accumulation of nutrients in aquatic ecosystems that alters plant and animal populations and brings changes to the community structure. It occurs naturally over hundreds or thousands of years but human activities like sewage, fertilizer runoff and industrial discharges can accelerate the process through cultural eutrophication over just decades. Major sources of excess nutrients are agricultural fertilizers, domestic sewage and livestock wastes which provide both inorganic and organic nutrients. Eutrophication impacts water chemistry by increasing levels of substances like pH, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrates/nitrites and phosphates.
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Pentoxylon
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Extracellular matrix
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Nuclear envelope and nuclear lamina
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Bacterial transduction
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Nuclear transport
Nuclear transport involves the selective movement of proteins and RNA between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Large molecules are transported through the nuclear pore complex (NPC) in an energy-dependent manner mediated by transport receptors called karyopherins. Karyopherins recognize nuclear localization signals (NLS) or nuclear export signals (NES) on cargos and facilitate their transport through interactions with nucleoporins and regulation by the GTPase Ran. Different classes of RNA are exported by specific transport receptors along with RNA-binding proteins, while ribosomal subunits are assembled in the nucleolus and exported by exportin 1 after import of ribosomal proteins.
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The document describes the steps for sugarcane cultivation including bud selection, nursery preparation, main field preparation, transplanting, intercropping, weeding, mulching, and organic methods. It involves selecting healthy canes to extract buds, treating the buds, arranging a nursery tray with coco-pith, placing the buds, covering and maintaining moisture. For the main field, steps include tilling, adding organic manures, making ridges, fertilizer application, and transplanting 25-35 day old seedlings in zigzag pattern. The document also details the sugarcane harvesting and processing steps of transporting cane to a mill, crushing, extracting juice, heating, adding lime, separating crystals from molasses
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1. There are four main theories that explain stomatal opening. The active potassium transport or potassium pump theory proposes that guard cells actively transport potassium ions into the cell using ATP, increasing the osmotic pressure and causing the guard cells to swell and open the stomata.
2. Photosynthesis in guard cells and changes in carbon dioxide and pH levels also influence stomatal opening and closing.
3. Plant hormones like cytokinin promote stomatal opening by facilitating potassium ion uptake while the hormone abscisic acid favors closing by preventing potassium ion uptake and lowering pH in the guard cells. Abscisic acid acts as a stress hormone during drought.
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Viral assays allow for quantifying the number of animal viruses. While bacterial viruses can easily be grown, growing animal viruses is more difficult and expensive, often requiring whole animals or embryonating eggs. When animal cells grow as monolayers, a plaque assay can be used to count viruses by serially diluting the virus in a liquid medium and adding it to separate plates with monolayers of tissue culture cells. After the viruses attach, a semi-solid medium is added to restrict virus movement and allow only adjacent cells to become infected, forming visible plaques that can be counted.
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Some aspects of plant taxonomy
Plant taxonomy deals with the identification, nomenclature, and classification of plants. Anatomy and cytology can provide information to aid plant taxonomy. Features of the epidermis, nodes, and chromosomes like size, morphology, and behavior during meiosis can help distinguish between plant groups and families. Cytological studies have shown close associations between certain families like Cyperaceae and Juncaceae based on shared chromosome traits. They have also supported taxonomic changes like transferring Yucca and Agave to Agavaceae or submerging Godetia into Clarkia based on shared chromosome numbers and structures.
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Plant Water Relation
Plants absorb water through their roots and transport it throughout the plant. There are two main mechanisms of water absorption: active absorption which requires metabolic energy and occurs in slowly transpiring plants, and passive absorption driven by transpiration from the leaves. Most water is absorbed in the root hairs and younger root regions through osmosis as water moves from higher to lower water potential down a gradient. The water then travels upward through the xylem vessels via bulk flow and diffusion processes to reach the leaves where it is lost to transpiration.
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Papaver somniferum (opium poppy )
Papaver somniferum is the opium poppy, an annual herb growing up to 100 cm tall. It has blue to purple flowers with four petals and many stamens. The fruit is a capsule that holds many small, white to black seeds. The plant contains latex with alkaloids like morphine and codeine that have central nervous system and analgesic effects in humans.
Rauwolfia
Rauwolfia serpentina, also known as Indian snakeroot or sarpagandha, is a plant that contains alkaloids that are effective in treating high blood pressure. High blood pressure increases the workload of the heart and blood vessels and can damage organs. Rauwolfia alkaloids work by controlling nerve impulses along pathways in the heart and blood vessels, which helps to lower blood pressure. The plant is commonly used in Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine systems to treat hypertension and other conditions.
Pentoxylon
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
General characteristics of fungi
This document provides information on the classification, body plan, nutrition, and reproduction of fungi. It discusses that fungi have diverse forms ranging from microorganisms like yeasts and molds to large mushrooms. They have filamentous hyphae that can aggregate to form tissues and structures. Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from dead and decaying material or other living hosts. Reproduction can occur asexually through spores or sexually through the fusion of compatible hyphae and subsequent meiotic division.
Extracellular matrix
The extracellular matrix surrounds animal cells outside of their plasma membranes, filling spaces between cells and adhering them together. It consists of secreted proteins and polysaccharides found most abundantly in connective tissues. One example is the basal lamina, a thin sheet on which epithelial cells rest that surrounds muscle, fat, and nerve cells. The differences in extracellular matrices result from variations in types, amounts, and organization of their major components: matrix proteins, polysaccharides, and adhesion proteins. The pattern of the extracellular matrix regulates key cell processes like polarity, division, adhesion, motility, development, migration, and differentiation by responding to growth factors.
Nuclear envelope and nuclear lamina
The nuclear envelope consists of two parallel membranes separated by 10-50 nm. It serves as a barrier between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Nuclear pores are circular complexes of proteins that form openings in the nuclear envelope, allowing transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope forms through the recruitment of membrane vesicles to chromatin, fusion of these vesicles, and assembly of nuclear pore complexes. Key proteins like POM121 and NDC1 are essential for nuclear pore complex assembly after the formation of the double nuclear membrane.
Sugarcane cultivation
The document describes the steps for sugarcane cultivation including bud selection, nursery preparation, main field preparation, transplanting, intercropping, weeding, mulching, and organic methods. It involves selecting healthy canes to extract buds, treating the buds, arranging a nursery tray with coco-pith, placing the buds, maintaining moisture, and transplanting 25-35 day old seedlings. Main field preparation includes tilling, adding organic manures, making ridges, and fertilizer application. The document also details the harvesting process which involves crushing the sugarcane, extracting raw juice, heating and filtering to produce crystals and molasses.
Bacterial transduction
Bacterial transduction is the process by which bacteria can acquire genetic material from other bacteria through viruses. There are two main types: generalized transduction, where any bacterial DNA can be transferred during a lytic viral infection, and specialized transduction, where a specific region of bacterial DNA is incorporated into a temperate phage and transferred. Transduction was first discovered in 1952 by Lederberg and Zinder while studying Salmonella bacteria. It allows for genetic exchange between bacteria and influences bacterial evolution and adaptation over time.
Nuclear transport
Nuclear transport involves the selective movement of proteins and RNA between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Large molecules are transported through the nuclear pore complex (NPC) in an energy-dependent manner mediated by transport receptors called karyopherins. Karyopherins recognize nuclear localization signals (NLS) or nuclear export signals (NES) on cargos and facilitate their transport through interactions with nucleoporins and regulation by the GTPase Ran. Different classes of RNA are exported by specific transport receptors along with RNA-binding proteins, while ribosomal subunits are assembled in the nucleolus and exported by exportin 1 after import of ribosomal proteins.
Sugarcane cultivation
The document describes the steps for sugarcane cultivation including bud selection, nursery preparation, main field preparation, transplanting, intercropping, weeding, mulching, and organic methods. It involves selecting healthy canes to extract buds, treating the buds, arranging a nursery tray with coco-pith, placing the buds, covering and maintaining moisture. For the main field, steps include tilling, adding organic manures, making ridges, fertilizer application, and transplanting 25-35 day old seedlings in zigzag pattern. The document also details the sugarcane harvesting and processing steps of transporting cane to a mill, crushing, extracting juice, heating, adding lime, separating crystals from molasses
Sphenophyllum
Sphenophyllum was a scrambling plant that formed dense thickets from the Late Devonian to late Permian periods. It had delicate, branching woody stems bearing whorls of heterophyllous leaves with morphology dependent on branch order. Whole plant reconstructions are limited due to rare preservation of roots. Sphenophyllum had a protostelic stele and tracheids with bordered pits. Reproduction occurred via cones like Bowmanites with whorls of fused bracts bearing sporangiophores and sporangia containing homosporous spores.
theories of stomatal opening
1. There are four main theories that explain stomatal opening. The active potassium transport or potassium pump theory proposes that guard cells actively transport potassium ions into the cell using ATP, increasing the osmotic pressure and causing the guard cells to swell and open the stomata.
2. Photosynthesis in guard cells and changes in carbon dioxide and pH levels also influence stomatal opening and closing.
3. Plant hormones like cytokinin promote stomatal opening by facilitating potassium ion uptake while the hormone abscisic acid favors closing by preventing potassium ion uptake and lowering pH in the guard cells. Abscisic acid acts as a stress hormone during drought.
Vaccine and immunity
This document discusses vaccination and immunity. It describes passive immunization, which provides rapid but temporary protection through administration of preformed antibodies. It also discusses principles of vaccination, including inducing memory responses using non-toxic antigens to provide long-term protection. Effective vaccines are described as being safe, protective, inducing long-lasting immunity, cost-effective, and easy to administer. Approaches to vaccine design include use of intact pathogens, subunits, vectors, and adjuvants. The immune response to vaccines is also summarized, including the roles of innate immunity, antigen presentation, memory responses, and the goal of vaccination to generate antigen-specific immune cells providing protection.
Viral assay
Viral assays allow for quantifying the number of animal viruses. While bacterial viruses can easily be grown, growing animal viruses is more difficult and expensive, often requiring whole animals or embryonating eggs. When animal cells grow as monolayers, a plaque assay can be used to count viruses by serially diluting the virus in a liquid medium and adding it to separate plates with monolayers of tissue culture cells. After the viruses attach, a semi-solid medium is added to restrict virus movement and allow only adjacent cells to become infected, forming visible plaques that can be counted.
Amino acid classification
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They contain both a carboxyl and amino group attached to the same carbon atom. Although commonly depicted as neutral molecules, amino acids exist as zwitterions with both positive and negative charges.
The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain. Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds formed via a condensation reaction between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the next. This results in a chain of amino acid residues with different properties at each end.
Protein structure
The document discusses new research that provides the most detailed view yet of tau protein structures found in Alzheimer's disease. Scientists from the UK and Indiana University were able to present high-resolution structures of tau filaments from an Alzheimer's patient's brain. These findings represent a major discovery and will help design new therapeutic agents by providing insight into tau's role in disease progression at the atomic level.
Mutation breeding
1. Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA that may occur in somatic or germ cells. Most mutations are neutral or harmful, but some may provide benefits.
2. Mutations arise from errors in DNA replication or distribution that result in heritable changes to organism characteristics. Gene and chromosomal mutations can both produce phenotypic effects.
3. Mutations are caused by physical mutagens like radiation or chemical mutagens like alkylating agents and deamination agents. Common chemical mutagens include EMS, MMS, and sodium azide.
Some aspects of plant taxonomy
Plant taxonomy deals with the identification, nomenclature, and classification of plants. Anatomy and cytology can provide information to aid plant taxonomy. Features of the epidermis, nodes, and chromosomes like size, morphology, and behavior during meiosis can help distinguish between plant groups and families. Cytological studies have shown close associations between certain families like Cyperaceae and Juncaceae based on shared chromosome traits. They have also supported taxonomic changes like transferring Yucca and Agave to Agavaceae or submerging Godetia into Clarkia based on shared chromosome numbers and structures.
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Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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