Human evolution and culture were enabled by developments in human anatomy including brain size, vocal tract structure, dexterous hands, and bipedal locomotion. Over time, these biological capacities facilitated increasingly complex stone tool industries that began with Oldowan tools 2.6 million years ago used by Homo habilis. The Acheulean industry begun by Homo erectus 1.5 million years ago featured hand axes. Neanderthals developed the Mousterian industry 300,000 years ago combining Acheulean and Levallois techniques. Later industries like Aurignacian 45,000 years ago showed early symbolic expression through art and materials.

1. Lesson 2: Human Evolution and Culture

2. Biological Capacity for Culture
• The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand
culture is indispensable.
• Physical and cultural anthropologists argue that we could
trace how culture became possible by understanding our
biological makeup.

3. 1. Our thinking capacity
• The primary biological
component of humans that
allowed for culture is the
developed brain. It has the
necessary parts for
facilitating pertinent skills
such as speaking,
touching, feeling, seeing,
and smelling.

4. • The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for
cognition and motor abilities. The parietal lobe allows for
touch and taste abilities. The temporal lobe allows for
hearing skills. The occipital lobe allows for visual skills.

5. • Compared with other primates,
humans have a larger brain,
weighing 1.4 kg. Chimpanzees
have a brain weighing only 420 g,
and those of gorillas weigh 500 g.
• Due to the size of their brain and
the complexity of its parts, humans
were able to create survival skills
that helped them adapt to their
environment and outlive their less
adaptive biological relatives.

6. 2. Our speaking capacity
• As the brain is the primary source of humans' capacity to
comprehend sound and provide meaning to it, the vocal
tract acts as the mechanism by which sounds are
produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and values.

7. • Notice in Figure 2.3 that the vocal
tract of a human is longer than that
of a chimpanzee.
• A longer vocal tract means that
there is a longer vibration surface,
allowing humans to produce a
wider array of sounds than
chimpanzees.
• The tongue of humans is also more
flexible than that of a chimpanzee,
allowing for more control in making
sounds.

8. • Years ago, making it an exclusive trait of the modern
human. However, Dan Dediu from the Max Planck
Institute for Psycholinguistics in the Netherlands argued
that the origin of language may be rooted as far back as
500 000 years ago, based on the discovered bone
fragment from an ancestor known as Homo
heidelbergensis.

9. • This fossil is a hyoid bone which is “crucial for speaking
as it supports the root of the tongue” (Hogenboom, 2013).
• Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals), our nearest
relative, was also found to have the same bone, which
functions similarly as ours.
• Hence, current arguments include that Neanderthals were
a truly human species.

10. 3.Our gripping capacity
• Look at your hands. Notice how
your thumb relates with your other
fingers.
• This capacity to directly oppose
your thumb with your other fingers
is an exclusive trait of humans.
• It allowed us to have a finer grip.
• Thus, we have the capability to
craft materials with precision.

11. • He hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with
the curved ones of the other primates. Notice that the thumb of the human is
proportionately longer than those of the other primates.
• These characteristics of the human hand allow for two types of grip: power
and precision.
• Power grip enables humans to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object; it
became the cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for hunting and
other activities.
• Precision grip enables humans to hold and pick objects steadily using their
fingers. This capacity is crucial for tool-making activities.

12. 4.Our walking/standing capacity
• Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadropedalism.
• Bipedalism is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas
quadropedalism uses all four limbs.
• Although apes are semibipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates.
Being bipedal, humans gained more capacity to move while carrying objects
with their free hands.
• This is an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their
hands. Apart from this, humans gained a more efficient form of locomotion
suitable for hunting and foraging.

13. Human Origins and the Capacity for Culture
• Our evolution toward humanity as we know it has been a long journey of survival
against the elements of the environment and against competing species.
• As our ancestors evolved biologically in response to their environment, they have
also developed cultural technologies that aided them to efficiently obtain food and
deter predators.
• Archaeologists refer to these early traditions as stone tool industries, instead of
culture, as the material products of these periods merely display the methods used
by early humans in creating tools and not the modern context by which we define it.

14. • It is believed that the crudest methods of toolmaking may
have been practiced by the earlier Australopithecines (A.
afarensis and A. africanus).
• These methods may have involved the use of wood as
digging sticks or even crude spears.
• Although there is no archaeological evidence to prove this
claim, it is being assumed that the earlier homos had at
least this capacity, which is observed among present-day
chimpanzees.

15. • Some contest this perspective, arguing that the evidence of stone tool usage
found in the Dikika area in Ethiopia puts the timeframe to 3.4 million years
ago, the period of the Australopithecines.
• These pieces of evidence include grooved and fractured bone fossils.
However, as the pieces of evidence are not as conclusive as the other
discoveries, current archaeological and anthropological timelines suggest
that toolmaking started 2.6 million years ago.

16. The Oldowan Industry
• The Oldowan industry, a stone tool industry, is
characterized by the use of “hard water-worn creek
cobbles made out of volcanic rock” (O'Neil, 2012). These
raw materials were then made into tools through
percussion flaking, which is a process involving the
systematic collision of a hammer stone with a core stone.
• The impact of the collision produces a core tool (used for
general purposes) and a flake tool (used as a knife).

17. • Supporting the existence
of this industry is the
evidence found by Mary
and Louis Leakey at
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania,
which was dated at 2.6
million years ago.
• This industry is known to
have been used by Homo
habilis.

18. • These forms of technology allowed for the species to
“butcher large animals, because human teeth and fingers
are totally inadequate for cutting through thick skins and
slicing off pieces of meat.
• Evidence of their use in this manner can be seen in cut
marks that still are visible on bones and it improved their
food gathering skills using the ‘hammering, digging, and
chopping implements’” (O'Neil, 2012).

19. • From Africa, this industry spread to Europe and Asia
during the migration of Homo erectus, who acquired it
from Homo habilis within 1.9– 1.8 million years ago.
• By 1.8–1.6 million years ago, the Oldowan industry has
already reached Java, Indonesia, and Northern China.

20. The Acheulian Industry
• Homo erectus developed a more complex industry from
what they inherited from Homo habilis.
• Using the same process of percussion flaking, Homo
erectus created hand axes that were bifacial, shaped in
both sides, and with straighter and sharper edges.

21. • Some archaeologists contest the general label of “hand
axes,” as the stone implements may have been used in
different context. However, it is still generally accepted
that these stone implements were used in multiple
activities such as light chopping of wood, digging up roots
and bulbs, butchering animals, and cracking nuts and
small bones.

22. • Tools that were made were
kept and not disposed of
like the tools in the
Oldowan industry, as the
tools of the latter set were
more useful due to their
generic application. Homo
erectus made other tools
such as “choppers,
cleavers, and hammers as
well as flakes used as

23. • France, as these artifacts were discovered in the area.
The artifacts date to 1.5 million years ago.
• Although this industry is believed to have originated in
East Africa, scholars argue that its extensive use may
have been out of Africa as Homo erectus invented this
industry and brought it to Europe 900 000–500 000 years
ago and to China 800 000 years ago.

24. • As no evidence is found in other parts of Asia signifying
the usage of this industry, scholars proposed that the
region may have accommodated an industry that used
perishable materials such as bamboo and other trees.

25. The Mousterian Industry
• This industry was developed by Homo neanderthalensis
(Neanderthals) in Europe and West Asia between 300
000 and 30 000 years ago. This industry was named after
a site in France called Le Moustier, where evidence was
uncovered in 1860.

26. • The tools from this
industry combined
Acheulian industry
techniques with the
Levalloisian technique,
which involved the use of
a premade core tool and
the extraction of a flake
tool that has sharpened
edges. This type of tool is
very efficient as all the

27. • Evidence of this industry
dating back 100 000 years
was also found in Northern
Africa and West Asia,
where modern humans,
such as that of Qafze,
migrated.
• Most archaeologists
hypothesize that this
industry could be an
evidence of acculturation
of modern humans with

28. • You can see that the tools in Figure 2.9 are different in
terms of size, shape, and sharpened sides.
• These differences are primarily due to the shifting
needs of the users who were adapting to their
environment as they addressed their need for food and
security.

29. • By the end of the Paleolithic period, early humans have
been engaged in proto-culture type of industries wherein
they did not just create tools but also started creating art
and other symbolic materials.
• For the purposes of our discussion, two industries shall
be discussed: Aurignacian and Magdalenian.

30. The Aurignacian Industry
• This industry was mainly present in Europe and
southwest Asia from 45 000 to 35 000 years ago.
• The term Aurignacian was derived from Aurignac, an area
in France where the evidence for this industry was found.
Users of this industry used raw materials such as flint,
animal bones, and antlers.
• The method they employed in creating tools such as fine
blades was similar to the one used in the Mousterian

31. • Apart from a more advanced toolmaking industry, what
made this industry a cultural milestone for the modern
humans in Europe is their development of self-awareness.
• This development was projected through cave paintings
and the fabrication of accessories such as figurines,
bracelets, and beads.

32. • The cave paintings found
in the El Castillo Cave in
Cantabaria, Spain provide
us with a glimpse of the
environment that the early
humans lived in. Most of
the paintings are that of
the animals that existed at
that time.

33. • Apart from the animal-themed figurines,
archaeologists also unearthed human-
inspired figurines. Figure 2.11 shows the
Venus of Schelklingen, which is also called
the Venus of Hohle Fels.
• This figurine was sculpted from a woolly
mammoth tusk. Emphasis was also made
by the artisan on several parts of the body
such as the breasts and the hips. Scholars
theorize that this emphasis may be due to
the importance of these parts in
childbearing or child-rearing.

34. • The earliest evidence of
music appreciation was
also related to this period
through the discovery of a
bone flute in Hohle Fels,
Germany.

35. The Magdalenian Industry
• This industry saw the end of the Paleolithic period as it
transformed to the Neolithic period. The industry was
named after the La Madeleine site in Dordogne, France.
• This industry, which is also a proto-culture used by the
early humans, was defined by several revolutionary
advancements in technology such as the creation of
microliths from flint, bone, antler, and ivory.

36. • Apart from functional tools which were at times beautified
by artistic engravings, the early humans during this period
were engrossed in creating figurines, personal
adornments, and other forms of mobiliary art.
• A defining method used in toolmaking during this period
was the application of heat on the material prior to the
flaking process. This was done by casting the raw
material on fire, which allowed for a more precise cut
upon flaking.

37. • The creation of specialized
weapons, such as barbed
harpoons, is evidence of
the growing sophistication
of the hunting skills and
technology of the early
humans.

38. • Another cultural milestone for the users of this industry
was the use of temporary man-made shelters such as
tents made of animal skin.
• Although the use of rock shelters and caves were still
predominant during this period, the creation of tents
allowed the early humans to be more mobile.

39. • The technological development in this industry has
allowed the early humans to have more leisure time, as
evidenced by their preoccupation with decorative
materials.
• By 10 000 BCE, this industry has spread to parts of
Europe including contemporary territories such as Great
Britain, Germany, Spain, and Poland.

40. Processes of Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution
• In reference to cultural formation, the Paleolithic stage
has provided the bases for the development of complex
human groups through the establishment of culture.
• At this period, we must situate the early humans in terms
of their physical environment. This way, we understand
the succeeding adaptations that they made which
revolutionized how the human species have existed in this
planet.

41. • By the end of the Paleolithic period, Earth was getting
warmer as the Ice Age was already at its last stages. This
implies that Earth's surface was changing. The sea level
was rising again as the polar caps were melting. Land
surface decreased as some parts became submerged in
water.
• The warm climate allowed for the blossoming of new
plants and the extinction of others. The same
phenomenon was also seen among animals.

42. • Early humans have always been dependent on the
environment, which made foraging (hunting and
gathering) the primary mode of subsistence.
• With the drastic changes in geography and food sources,
early humans were once again faced with the need to
adapt new strategies to survive.
• It was in this setting that the “Neolithic Revolution”
(Childe, 1936) spread throughout the planet.

43. The Neolithic Revolution
• This period is characterized by a major shift in economic
subsistence of the early humans from foraging to
agriculture.
• This dramatic shift affected the other aspects of their
lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and agriculture
encouraged permanent settlement.
• This shift in itself changed the entire array of behaviors,
attitudes, beliefs, and corresponding material inventions.

44. Characteristic Paleolithic Neolithic
Characteristic Paleolithic Neolithic
This period is characterized by a major shift
in economic subsistence of the early humans
from foraging to agriculture. This dramatic
shift affected the other aspects of their
lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and
agriculture encouraged permanent settlement.
This shift in itself changed the entire array of
behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and
corresponding material inventions.
This period is characterized by a
major shift in economic
subsistence of the early humans
from foraging to agriculture.
This dramatic shift affected the
other aspects of their lifestyle, as
foraging made them nomads and
agriculture encouraged
permanent settlement. This shift
in itself changed the entire array
of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs,
and corresponding material
inventions.
This period is characterized by a major
shift in economic subsistence of the early
humans from foraging to agriculture. This
dramatic shift affected the other aspects
of their lifestyle, as foraging made them
nomads and agriculture encouraged
permanent settlement. This shift in itself
changed the entire array of behaviors,
attitudes, beliefs, and corresponding
material inventions.
Personal properties Limited to personal accessories
and small tools that could easily
be carried around
Included structures (e.g., houses),
decorative ornaments, large containers
Art Small and limited to personal
ornaments, bigger artworks were
done but not within a long time
frame(e.g., cave paintings)
Included the creation of artworks that
required a longer length of time and a
greater number of people
(e.g.,Stonehenge)
Subsistence Foraging Agriculture
Leadership Not rigid; based on age and
knowledge
Semirigid; based on legitimacy(religious
beliefs, social status)
Social divisions None; communal lifestyle Elite vs. working class
Population size Small (30–50 people) Large (in thousands)

45. • There are generally two
perspectives on the impact of the
Neolithic revolution on human
populations.
• Traditionally, it is being argued
that with the development of
agriculture and technology,
humans were able to develop
sociopolitically, as the existence of
systematic food production has
resulted in food surplus that
enabled members of the
population to indulge in self-

46. • Opposing this perspective, progressive scholars argue
that the same phenomenon of surplus production has had
negative impacts on human populations such as social
divisions, high population density, and gender inequality.

47. Early Civilization and the Rise of the State
• The earliest civilizations rose by the end of the Neolithic
period as the complexities brought about by the shift in
food production demanded a more rigid social structure
that would manage the opposing perspectives of various
sectors.
• As conflicts between groups developed and intensified,
the need to create a more cohesive society became
definite.

48. • Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of
city-states, a system of writing, and a ceremonial center
where public debates and decision-making were
conducted.
• However, it must be noted that not all societies during
this period could be considered as civilizations as not all
possessed a political system that could be equated to a
state.
• A state is a political entity that has four requisite
elements: territory, sovereignty, people, and government.

49. 1. Divine right theory
• Rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to
rule is based on their filial relationship with supernatural
forces and entities. The concept of the god-king that was
upheld in the city of Sumer is an example.
• People were made subjects to these monarchs, as the
latter were perceived by the former as direct descendants
or representatives of their gods.

50. 2.Force theory
• A group forces members of another group to subject
themselves to their rules.
• This was observed among the Mayans, as conflict over
access to rivers resulted in the subjugation of one group
by another.

51. 3.Paternalistic theory
• The father essentially is the leader of the first political unit,
which grew as the number of the members of his family
grew.
• This is true for highly patriarchal, maledominated
societies.

52. 4.Social contract
• The creation of a state was a mutual agreement between
the ruler and the ruled to ensure order and security from
outside threats.