This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification, textures, and mineralogy. It discusses:
1. The classification of igneous rocks based on texture (phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, etc.) and composition (felsic, mafic, ultramafic).
2. The main igneous minerals like quartz, feldspars, olivines, and pyroxenes.
3. How mineral assemblages in igneous rocks are determined by melt composition and cooling rate. Texture is influenced by the rate of nucleation and crystal growth.
4. Different types of igneous textures including glassy, vesicular
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
This document discusses igneous rock classifications and Bowen's reaction series. It begins by classifying igneous rocks based on their silica content into felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic compositions. It then explains Bowen's reaction series, which showed that minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures in a predictable order. Certain minerals tend to form together based on their crystallization temperatures. The document also discusses how igneous intrusive bodies like sills, dikes, batholiths and stocks form underground from crystallizing magma.
Petrological microscopes are used to identify minerals and determine microstructure in rocks. This information is used to classify rock types and infer their formation histories. Microstructure refers to the shape and arrangement of mineral components in rocks. The microstructures of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are diagnostic of rock type. Thin sections of rock samples are analyzed under microscope using plane and crossed polarized light to identify minerals and microstructures.
Igneous Rock Textures plutonic rocks.pptAnwarQadir
The document discusses various textures found in igneous rocks that provide clues about how the rocks formed. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures from rapid cooling, while intrusive rocks like granite have larger crystals from slower cooling. Textures include aphanitic (too fine to see crystals), porphyritic (large and small crystals), vesicular (with gas bubbles), and phaneritic (large visible crystals). These textures reflect differences in cooling rates and mineral compositions that help identify the rocks.
This document discusses different textures in igneous rocks that are determined by cooling rates. Rapid cooling of lava at the surface results in fine-grained extrusive rocks like obsidian, while slower cooling of magma underground forms larger crystals in intrusive rocks like granites. Specific textures include aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, and phaneritic. Pegmatites have exceptionally large crystals due to late-stage concentration of volatiles in the magma.
This document provides information on various classification schemes for igneous and volcanic rocks, including:
- The classification of plutonic, hypabyssal, and volcanic rocks based on their depth of crystallization.
- A triangular diagram classification of phaneritic igneous rocks based on their quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase percentages.
- Additional classifications of gabbroic and ultramafic rocks, as well as volcanic rocks, based on their mineralogical compositions.
This document provides an overview of igneous rock classification and composition. It begins by outlining formal classification schemes that involve identifying minerals and textures. Igneous rocks are then divided into three main compositional types - mafic, intermediate, and felsic - based on their silica and magnesium/iron content. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, forming large crystals, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, with smaller or no crystals. Examples of different igneous rock types are shown and described.
This document describes different textural classifications of igneous rocks based on grain size and composition. It discusses phaneritic rocks, which have visible crystals; aphanitic rocks with crystals too small to see; and porphyritic rocks with two grain sizes. Fragmental rocks are composed of volcanic material. Pegmatitic and glassy textures form from slow and fast cooling respectively. Vesicular textures have gas bubbles. The document also classifies igneous rocks based on their chemical composition and provides diagrams to classify common rock types.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
This document discusses igneous rock classifications and Bowen's reaction series. It begins by classifying igneous rocks based on their silica content into felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic compositions. It then explains Bowen's reaction series, which showed that minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures in a predictable order. Certain minerals tend to form together based on their crystallization temperatures. The document also discusses how igneous intrusive bodies like sills, dikes, batholiths and stocks form underground from crystallizing magma.
Petrological microscopes are used to identify minerals and determine microstructure in rocks. This information is used to classify rock types and infer their formation histories. Microstructure refers to the shape and arrangement of mineral components in rocks. The microstructures of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are diagnostic of rock type. Thin sections of rock samples are analyzed under microscope using plane and crossed polarized light to identify minerals and microstructures.
Igneous Rock Textures plutonic rocks.pptAnwarQadir
The document discusses various textures found in igneous rocks that provide clues about how the rocks formed. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures from rapid cooling, while intrusive rocks like granite have larger crystals from slower cooling. Textures include aphanitic (too fine to see crystals), porphyritic (large and small crystals), vesicular (with gas bubbles), and phaneritic (large visible crystals). These textures reflect differences in cooling rates and mineral compositions that help identify the rocks.
This document discusses different textures in igneous rocks that are determined by cooling rates. Rapid cooling of lava at the surface results in fine-grained extrusive rocks like obsidian, while slower cooling of magma underground forms larger crystals in intrusive rocks like granites. Specific textures include aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, and phaneritic. Pegmatites have exceptionally large crystals due to late-stage concentration of volatiles in the magma.
This document provides information on various classification schemes for igneous and volcanic rocks, including:
- The classification of plutonic, hypabyssal, and volcanic rocks based on their depth of crystallization.
- A triangular diagram classification of phaneritic igneous rocks based on their quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase percentages.
- Additional classifications of gabbroic and ultramafic rocks, as well as volcanic rocks, based on their mineralogical compositions.
This document provides an overview of igneous rock classification and composition. It begins by outlining formal classification schemes that involve identifying minerals and textures. Igneous rocks are then divided into three main compositional types - mafic, intermediate, and felsic - based on their silica and magnesium/iron content. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, forming large crystals, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, with smaller or no crystals. Examples of different igneous rock types are shown and described.
This document describes different textural classifications of igneous rocks based on grain size and composition. It discusses phaneritic rocks, which have visible crystals; aphanitic rocks with crystals too small to see; and porphyritic rocks with two grain sizes. Fragmental rocks are composed of volcanic material. Pegmatitic and glassy textures form from slow and fast cooling respectively. Vesicular textures have gas bubbles. The document also classifies igneous rocks based on their chemical composition and provides diagrams to classify common rock types.
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies either underground or on the Earth's surface. They occur in various forms such as lava flows, domes, and intrusive bodies. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition. Mineralogical classification divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic groups based on their mineral content. Textural classification considers features like crystal size. Chemical plots involving elements like silica and alkalis are also used in classification.
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
The document describes two types of endogenous (internally driven) landform-building processes: igneous and tectonic processes. Igneous processes create landforms such as volcanoes through volcanic eruptions and igneous intrusions. Tectonic processes like folding, faulting, and lateral faulting form landforms including mountains, rift valleys, escarpments, and are responsible for earthquakes through ongoing tectonic activity.
This document summarizes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either below the surface (intrusive) or above (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks that were changed by heat, pressure, and chemical fluids within the Earth. Examples of each rock type are provided along with brief descriptions of their characteristics and formation processes.
Core Subject: Earth and Life Science
II. Earth Materials and Processes
A. Minerals and Rocks
The learners
demonstrate an
understanding of:
1. the three main categories of rocks
2. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
The learners:
1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties
2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
This document discusses different types of rocks and how they form. It describes the three major rock types as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing other rocks, and sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The document then discusses the rock cycle, how rocks are transformed between types through geological processes. It provides details on the formation of different igneous rock textures based on cooling rates and crystal sizes. Various igneous rock classifications including their mineralogy and chemistry are also summarized.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They can be intrusive or extrusive, depending on where the magma cools. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, resulting in small mineral grains or a glassy texture. The mineral assemblage and texture of an igneous rock provides clues about its composition and conditions of formation. Bowen's reaction series describes the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools.
Dacite is commonly occur volcanic rock types of rock categorize and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. In this slide will discuss about the short notes on the chemical composition of dacite, texture, geological context and formation and distribution of the dacite rock.
The document outlines specific learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to: identify and describe the three basic rock types; describe how each rock type forms and define their environments of formation; describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle; and identify and describe different geologic processes in the rock cycle.
The document outlines specific learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to: identify and describe the three basic rock types; describe how each rock type forms and define their environments of formation; describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle; and identify and describe different geologic processes in the rock cycle.
The document provides an overview of the structure and composition of Earth, including its core, mantle, crust, and lithosphere. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. It also covers plate tectonics, minerals, landforms, and the methods used to study Earth's geomorphology across different scales.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
Andesite is an extrusive igneous rock of intermediate composition typically dominated by plagioclase feldspar with pyroxene and/or hornblende. It forms from the mixing of basaltic and crustal magmas in continental margins above subduction zones. Andesites are the most abundant volcanic rocks in island arcs, occurring in belts above Benioff zones. They have been used historically as ornamental stone for buildings.
The document describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It provides details on their formation processes and characteristics. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress without melting. The document also provides classifications and examples of different rock types within each main category.
Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: clastic sedimentary rocks which form from fragments of other rocks; chemical sedimentary rocks which form from precipitation of minerals from solution; and organic sedimentary rocks which form from remains of plants and animals. Sedimentary rocks preserve features that reflect the environment of deposition such as layering, fossils, ripple marks, and mud cracks.
Minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. Physical properties used to identify minerals include color, luster, streak, cleavage, fracture, and hardness.
Rocks are composed of one or more minerals and are classified based on their formation process as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction or cementation of sediments or by mineral precipitation. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks by heat, pressure, or other processes.
The document discusses magma and igneous rocks. It defines magma as geological material formed below Earth's surface through endogenic processes like volcanism and plutonism. Magma is composed of molten or semi-molten rock. Upon cooling and solidifying, magma forms intrusive igneous rocks like granite below ground or extrusive igneous rocks like basalt at the surface. The document outlines different igneous rock types and textures, and how their naming depends on composition and crystallization history.
The document discusses magma and igneous rocks. It defines magma as geological material formed below Earth's surface through endogenic processes like volcanism and plutonism. It describes the properties and composition of magma and different types of igneous rocks, including their textures and how they are named based on their mineral content and cooling histories. Common igneous rock types are discussed like granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, gabbro and basalt. The role of tectonic processes in the formation and evolution of igneous rocks is also summarized.
The document outlines learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types:
a) Identify and describe the three basic rock types;
b) Describe how each rock type forms and define their environments;
c) Describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle;
d) Identify and describe geologic processes in the rock cycle.
This document contains 38 figures summarizing igneous structures and field relationships. The figures depict various volcanic landforms, intrusive bodies, and pluton emplacement mechanisms. Key volcanic landforms shown include stratovolcanoes, lava domes, cinder cones, and maars. Intrusive structures include dikes, sills, laccoliths, and salt diapirs. Pluton emplacement is proposed to occur through processes such as stoping, assimilation, and magma injection in increments over time. Hydrothermal systems above magma chambers are also depicted.
Dams are solid barriers constructed across rivers to store flowing water for uses like hydropower, irrigation, water supply, flood control, and navigation. The key parts of a dam include the heel, toe, abutments, galleries, diversion tunnels, spillways, and sluice ways. There are several types of dams - gravity dams rely entirely on their weight and have foundations in competent rock; buttress dams are gravity dams reinforced with supports; arch dams are curved to transmit water pressure to abutments; and earth dams are constructed of clay, sand and gravel where foundations are weak. The Bhakra Dam in India is the highest concrete gravity dam in Asia.
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies either underground or on the Earth's surface. They occur in various forms such as lava flows, domes, and intrusive bodies. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition. Mineralogical classification divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic groups based on their mineral content. Textural classification considers features like crystal size. Chemical plots involving elements like silica and alkalis are also used in classification.
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
The document describes two types of endogenous (internally driven) landform-building processes: igneous and tectonic processes. Igneous processes create landforms such as volcanoes through volcanic eruptions and igneous intrusions. Tectonic processes like folding, faulting, and lateral faulting form landforms including mountains, rift valleys, escarpments, and are responsible for earthquakes through ongoing tectonic activity.
This document summarizes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either below the surface (intrusive) or above (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks that were changed by heat, pressure, and chemical fluids within the Earth. Examples of each rock type are provided along with brief descriptions of their characteristics and formation processes.
Core Subject: Earth and Life Science
II. Earth Materials and Processes
A. Minerals and Rocks
The learners
demonstrate an
understanding of:
1. the three main categories of rocks
2. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
The learners:
1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties
2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
This document discusses different types of rocks and how they form. It describes the three major rock types as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing other rocks, and sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The document then discusses the rock cycle, how rocks are transformed between types through geological processes. It provides details on the formation of different igneous rock textures based on cooling rates and crystal sizes. Various igneous rock classifications including their mineralogy and chemistry are also summarized.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They can be intrusive or extrusive, depending on where the magma cools. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, resulting in small mineral grains or a glassy texture. The mineral assemblage and texture of an igneous rock provides clues about its composition and conditions of formation. Bowen's reaction series describes the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools.
Dacite is commonly occur volcanic rock types of rock categorize and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. In this slide will discuss about the short notes on the chemical composition of dacite, texture, geological context and formation and distribution of the dacite rock.
The document outlines specific learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to: identify and describe the three basic rock types; describe how each rock type forms and define their environments of formation; describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle; and identify and describe different geologic processes in the rock cycle.
The document outlines specific learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to: identify and describe the three basic rock types; describe how each rock type forms and define their environments of formation; describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle; and identify and describe different geologic processes in the rock cycle.
The document provides an overview of the structure and composition of Earth, including its core, mantle, crust, and lithosphere. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. It also covers plate tectonics, minerals, landforms, and the methods used to study Earth's geomorphology across different scales.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
Andesite is an extrusive igneous rock of intermediate composition typically dominated by plagioclase feldspar with pyroxene and/or hornblende. It forms from the mixing of basaltic and crustal magmas in continental margins above subduction zones. Andesites are the most abundant volcanic rocks in island arcs, occurring in belts above Benioff zones. They have been used historically as ornamental stone for buildings.
The document describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It provides details on their formation processes and characteristics. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress without melting. The document also provides classifications and examples of different rock types within each main category.
Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: clastic sedimentary rocks which form from fragments of other rocks; chemical sedimentary rocks which form from precipitation of minerals from solution; and organic sedimentary rocks which form from remains of plants and animals. Sedimentary rocks preserve features that reflect the environment of deposition such as layering, fossils, ripple marks, and mud cracks.
Minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. Physical properties used to identify minerals include color, luster, streak, cleavage, fracture, and hardness.
Rocks are composed of one or more minerals and are classified based on their formation process as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction or cementation of sediments or by mineral precipitation. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks by heat, pressure, or other processes.
The document discusses magma and igneous rocks. It defines magma as geological material formed below Earth's surface through endogenic processes like volcanism and plutonism. Magma is composed of molten or semi-molten rock. Upon cooling and solidifying, magma forms intrusive igneous rocks like granite below ground or extrusive igneous rocks like basalt at the surface. The document outlines different igneous rock types and textures, and how their naming depends on composition and crystallization history.
The document discusses magma and igneous rocks. It defines magma as geological material formed below Earth's surface through endogenic processes like volcanism and plutonism. It describes the properties and composition of magma and different types of igneous rocks, including their textures and how they are named based on their mineral content and cooling histories. Common igneous rock types are discussed like granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, gabbro and basalt. The role of tectonic processes in the formation and evolution of igneous rocks is also summarized.
The document outlines learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types:
a) Identify and describe the three basic rock types;
b) Describe how each rock type forms and define their environments;
c) Describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle;
d) Identify and describe geologic processes in the rock cycle.
Similar to Lecture 23 - Igneous Rocks (1).ppt (20)
This document contains 38 figures summarizing igneous structures and field relationships. The figures depict various volcanic landforms, intrusive bodies, and pluton emplacement mechanisms. Key volcanic landforms shown include stratovolcanoes, lava domes, cinder cones, and maars. Intrusive structures include dikes, sills, laccoliths, and salt diapirs. Pluton emplacement is proposed to occur through processes such as stoping, assimilation, and magma injection in increments over time. Hydrothermal systems above magma chambers are also depicted.
Dams are solid barriers constructed across rivers to store flowing water for uses like hydropower, irrigation, water supply, flood control, and navigation. The key parts of a dam include the heel, toe, abutments, galleries, diversion tunnels, spillways, and sluice ways. There are several types of dams - gravity dams rely entirely on their weight and have foundations in competent rock; buttress dams are gravity dams reinforced with supports; arch dams are curved to transmit water pressure to abutments; and earth dams are constructed of clay, sand and gravel where foundations are weak. The Bhakra Dam in India is the highest concrete gravity dam in Asia.
Landslides refer to the downward movement of land masses along steep slopes under the influence of gravity. They are classified based on speed and type of movement. Slow movements include solifluction, creep, and soil creep. Rapid movements are rapid flows. Landslides occur due to internal causes like steep slopes, groundwater, and lithology as well as external causes like earthquakes. Preventive measures include controlling slope angles, installing drainage systems, and stabilizing weak geological structures.
This document discusses ecosystems and ecological concepts. It defines key terms like ecology, biotic and abiotic factors, populations, communities, and ecosystems. It explains that ecosystems vary in size and diversity promotes stability. Ecosystems experience energy flow, chemical cycling, and change over time. Various biomes and aquatic ecosystems are described. The document also covers primary production, energy flow through trophic levels, biogeochemical cycles like water, nitrogen, carbon, and how materials cycle between organisms and the environment through biological and chemical processes.
This document discusses flaws in rails and ultrasonic flaw detection testing. It covers three main points:
1. Flaws inevitably develop in rails due to inherent defects and fatigue from train traffic. Rail stresses are increasing, exceeding the mechanical properties of rail steel.
2. Various types of flaws can occur on the surface or internally in different planes of the rail. Examples of flaws shown include cracks in the head, web, and bolt holes.
3. Ultrasonic testing uses probes with piezoelectric crystals to generate and receive sound waves. Reflections from flaws are detected to locate and size defects. Factors like wave types, frequencies, velocities and attenuation in different materials are explained for accurate flaw detection
The Rare Earth Elements
The rare earth elements (REE) are a group of 17 elements that appear together on the periodic table. Three key points about REE:
1. Light REE (LREE) are more abundant in the Earth's crust than heavy REE (HREE) due to the lanthanide contraction trend of decreasing ionic radius across the REE series.
2. Elements with odd atomic numbers are generally less abundant than even atomic numbers due to nucleosynthesis processes (Oddo-Harkins rule).
3. REE form stable aqueous complexes with ligands like fluoride and chloride depending on factors like pH, atomic number, and ligand type according to Pearson's HSAB principles
Volcanoes form at plate boundaries and hot spots where magma rises from below the Earth's crust. There are three main types of volcanoes - shield volcanoes which are wide and gently sloping due to low viscosity basaltic lava flows, cinder cone volcanoes which are steep-sided due to explosive eruptions of thicker granitic lava, and composite volcanoes which have characteristics of both types. Factors like the amount of trapped gases and magma viscosity determine eruption styles from quiet effusions to violent explosions. Monitoring volcanoes helps predict eruptions by detecting signs like earthquakes and gas changes. Eruptions release lava and ash that shape landscapes but can also endanger lives and property.
- Earthquakes are caused by the accumulation of strain along faults until rupture occurs, releasing seismic waves.
- Their magnitude is measured using different scales based on the amplitude and period of seismic waves or the rupture area and displacement.
- Recurrence refers to the frequency of earthquakes in a given area, which can be estimated from historical records and geology.
- While prediction of individual quakes remains difficult, hazards can be assessed through evaluating faults, recurrence, and the effects of local geology on shaking intensity. Preparedness involves building design, codes, and public education.
The document discusses laminar and turbulent flow in pipes. Laminar flow occurs at low velocities where fluid particle paths do not intersect and viscous forces dominate. Turbulent flow occurs at higher velocities where paths do intersect and inertial forces dominate. The transition from laminar to turbulent occurs around a Reynolds number of 2000. Head loss due to friction is directly proportional to velocity for laminar flow but varies with velocity to the power of 1.75-2 for turbulent flow. Reynolds number characterizes the transition based on the ratio of inertial to viscous forces.
Alkali-aggregate reaction is the reaction between the active mineral constituents of some aggregates and the alkali hydroxides in concrete. This reaction is only harmful when it produces significant expansion. There are two main forms: alkali-silica reaction and alkali-carbonate reaction.
Alkali-silica reaction, also known as ASR, causes cracking in concrete due to the reaction between alkalis and reactive silica in some aggregates. Symptoms include cracking and pop outs. Reactive aggregates include certain rocks and synthetic materials.
Alkali-carbonate reaction is influenced by factors like clay or calcite/dolomite content and crystal size in aggregates. It can be controlled by selective
Groundwater is water stored underground in rock pores and sediments. Over 65% of groundwater used in the US supports agriculture. Demand has depleted groundwater supplies in many areas, so new sources must be found and existing ones protected. Groundwater is capable of shaping landscapes through erosion and depositing materials. Porosity refers to empty rock spaces while permeability means how well fluids can move through rock. Materials like sand and gravel that are porous and permeable make good aquifers for groundwater storage and flow. Overpumping groundwater can lower water tables, reduce pressure, allow saltwater intrusion, cause land subsidence, and enable contamination. Wetlands are often connected to and supported by groundwater systems. Karst landscapes
Volcanic eruptions occur when hot molten rock (magma) rises up from below the Earth's surface and reaches the vent of a volcano. The type of eruption depends on the viscosity and gas content of the magma. Explosive eruptions are driven by gas and eject ash and rock high into the air, while effusive eruptions allow lava to flow slowly. Major hazards from eruptions include pyroclastic flows, ash falls, lava flows, lahars, earthquakes, and noxious gases. Volcano observatories monitor seismic activity, deformation, and gas emissions to study volcanoes and provide warnings of impending eruptions to reduce risks to nearby populations.
This document discusses igneous rocks and magma. It describes how igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma. Magma is the molten rock located either at the surface as lava or at depth. Factors like cooling rate and composition determine the texture of the igneous rock. The document also examines the compositions of different igneous rocks and how magmas evolve during crystallization through processes like differentiation and assimilation.
1. There are three methods for determining the optic sign of a biaxial mineral using an interference figure: Biaxial (BXA) figure, centered Optic Axis (OA) figure, and off-centered BXA or OA figure.
2. For all three methods, the mineral is biaxial positive if the gray area between or outside the isogyres turns yellow when a compensator is inserted. The mineral is biaxial negative if the gray area inside the isogyres turns yellow.
3. The 2V angle, which indicates the strength of birefringence, can be estimated from the separation of melatopes in a BXA figure or the
GPS uses a network of satellites and receivers to calculate locations on Earth. The GPS network consists of 24 satellites that orbit Earth twice a day transmitting navigation signals. GPS receivers detect these signals and use trilateration to calculate the user's position by computing distances to four or more satellites. Accuracy can be affected by factors like atmospheric conditions, satellite geometry, and interference. Differential correction improves accuracy by comparing mobile receiver locations to a known base station location.
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2. Igneous Minerals
Quartz, Feldspars (plagioclase and alkaline),
Olivines, Pyroxenes, Amphiboles
Accessory Minerals – mostly in small quantities
or in ‘special’ rocks
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)
Zircon (ZrSiO4)
Titanite (CaTiSiO5)
Pyrite (FeS2)
Fluorite (CaF2)
3.
4. Minerals which form are thus a
function of melt composition and
how fast it cools (re-equilibration?)
governed by the stability of
those minerals and how quickly
they may or may not react with the
melt during crystallization
General Compositions Silicic
(Si-rich), Sialic (Si and Al rich),
Intermediate, Mafic (Mg and Fe-
rich), Ultramafic
Also ID’d based on alkalic (K and
Na) or alkaline (Ca-rich)
Liquid hot
MAGMA
Ca2+ Na+
Mg2+
Fe2+
Si4+
Si4+
Si4+
O2-
O2-
O2-
O2-
O2- O2-
O2-
O2-
O2-
O2-
rock
cooling
Mg2+
Fe2+
Mg2+
5. Composition
From Magma we saw how a crystal’s
composition can change on crystallization
different elemental composition from melt on
partial crystallization
6. Silica and Aluminum Content
Silica
Oversaturated if it contains Quartz
Undersaturated if it has silica-deficient minerals
(like the feldspathoids, ex: nepheline)
Aluminum
Peraluminous if it has a great excess of aluminum
after feldspars form, more Al left over for Al-rich
phases like corumndum, garnet, kyanite, etc.
Peralkaline – So little Al left after feldspars form,
only Al-deficient minerals like aegerine (type of
pyroxene) and riebekite (sodic amphibole)
7. Classification of Igneous Rocks
Figure 2-4. A chemical classification of volcanics based on total alkalis vs. silica. After Le Bas et al.
(1986) J. Petrol., 27, 745-750. Oxford University Press.
9. Igneous Textures
Figure 3-1. Idealized rates of crystal
nucleation and growth as a function
of temperature below the melting
point. Slow cooling results in only
minor undercooling (Ta), so that
rapid growth and slow nucleation
produce fewer coarse-grained
crystals. Rapid cooling permits more
undercooling (Tb), so that slower
growth and rapid nucleation produce
many fine-grained crystals. Very
rapid cooling involves little if any
nucleation or growth (Tc) producing
a glass.
11. Textures I
Aphanitic - fine grain size (< 1 mm); result of
quick cooling
Rhyolite, Basalt, Rhyolite, Andesite
Phaneritic - coarse grain size; visible grains (1-
10 mm); result of slow cooling
Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
Pegmatitic - very large crystals (many over 2
cm)
Granite pegmatite or pegmatitic granite
12. Porphyritic- Mixture of grain sizes caused by mixed cooling history;
slow cooling first, followed by a period of somewhat faster cooling.
Terms for the textural components:
Phenocrysts - the large crystals
Groundmass or matrix - the finer crystals surrounding the large
crystals. The groundmass may be either aphanitic or phaneritic.
Types of porphyritic textures:
Porphyritic-aphanitic
Porphyritic-phaneritic
Origin: mixed grain sizes and hence cooling rates, imply upward
movement of magma from a deeper (hotter) location of extremely slow
cooling, to either:
a much shallower (cooler) location with fast cooling (porphyritic-
aphanitic), or
a somewhat shallower (slightly cooler) location with continued
fairly slow cooling (porphyritic-phaneritic).
13. Typically Volcanic Textures
Glassy - instantaneous cooling
Obsidian = volcanic glass
Vesicular - contains tiny holes called vesicles which formed due to
gas bubbles in the lava or magma. Very porous. May resemble a
sponge. Commonly low density; may float on water.
Vesicular Basalt, Pumice, Scoria
Pyroclastic or Fragmental - pieces of rock and ash come out of a
volcano and get welded together by heat. May resemble rhyolite or
andesite, but close examination shows pieces of fine-grained rock
fragments in it. May also resemble a sedimentary conglomerate or
breccia, except that rock fragments are all fine-grained igneous or
vesicular.
Tuff - made of volcanic ash
Volcanic breccia - contains fragments of fine-grained igneous rocks
that are larger than ash.
14. Classification based on Field Relations
Extrusive or volcanic rocks: typically aphanitic or glassy.
Many varieties are porphyritic and some have fragmental
(volcaniclastic) fabric. High-T disordered fsp is common
(e.g. sanadine). Also see leucite, tridymite, and
cristobalite.
Intrusive or plutonic rocks: typically phaneritic.
Monomineralic rocks of plagioclase, olivine, or pyroxene
are well known but rare. Amphiboles and biotites are
commonly altered to chlorite. Muscovite found in some
granites, but rarely in volcanic rocks. Perthitic fsp,
reflecting slow cooling and exsolution is widespread.
15. Names of Igneous Rocks
Texture + Composition = name
Set up diagrams (many ternary ones again, you
remember how these work?) to represent
composition changes for rocks of a certain
texture
Composition can be related to specific
minerals, or even physical characteristics of
mineral grains
Modal Composition - % of minerals
comprising a rock
17. Classification based on Modal Mineralogy
Felsic rocks: mnemonic based on feldspar and
silica. Also applies to rocks containing abundant
feldspathoids, such as nepheline. GRANITE
Mafic rocks: mnemonic based on magnesium and
ferrous/ferric. Synonymous with ferromagnesian,
which refers to biotite, amphibole, pyroxene,
olivine, and Fe-Ti oxides. BASALT
Ultramafic rocks: very rich in Mg and Fe.
Generally have little feldspar. PERIDOTITE
Silicic rocks: dominated by quartz and alkali fsp.
Sometimes refered to as sialic (Si + Al).
22. Classification of
Igneous Rocks
Figure 2-3. A classification and nomenclature
of volcanic rocks. After IUGS.
(foid)-bearing
Trachyte
(foid)-bearing
Latite
(foid)-bearing
Andesite/Basalt
(Foid)ites
10
60 60
35 65
10
20 20
60 60
F
A P
Q
Rhyolite Dacite
Trachyte Latite Andesite/Basalt
Phonolite Tephrite
23. Classification of Igneous Rocks
Figure 2-5. Classification of the pyroclastic rocks. a. Based on type of material. After Pettijohn
(1975) Sedimentary Rocks, Harper & Row, and Schmid (1981) Geology, 9, 40-43. b. Based on the
size of the material. After Fisher (1966) Earth Sci. Rev., 1, 287-298.
24. Classification of Igneous Rocks
Figure 2-2. A classification of the phaneritic
igneous rocks. b. Gabbroic rocks. c. Ultramafic
rocks. After IUGS.
Plagioclase
Olivine
Pyroxene
G
a
b
b
r
o
T
r
o
c
t
o
l
i
t
e
Olivine
gabbro
Plagioclase-bearing ultramafic rocks
90
(b)
Anorthosite
Olivine
Clinopyroxene
Orthopyroxene
Lherzolite
Websterite
Orthopyroxenite
Clinopyroxenite
Olivine Websterite
Peridotites
Pyroxenites
90
40
10
10
Dunite
(c)
Pyroxene Olivine
Plagioclase Feldspar
Anorthosite