This document provides an overview of the structure and functions of central banks, with a focus on the Federal Reserve System of the United States. It describes the key entities that make up the Federal Reserve System, including the Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. It also discusses the Federal Reserve's tools for conducting monetary policy and debates around its independence from political pressures.
This document provides an overview of monetary policy tools and how they are used by central banks. It discusses conventional tools like open market operations, reserve requirements, and the discount rate. It also covers unconventional tools used in the financial crisis like large-scale asset purchases and forward guidance. The document explains how these tools impact monetary policy objectives like inflation and economic growth. It analyzes features of desirable policy instruments and why most central banks target interest rates rather than monetary aggregates.
This document discusses key concepts in bank management including:
- The features of a bank balance sheet including assets like loans and securities, and liabilities like deposits and capital.
- How banks attempt to maximize profits through asset and liability management, managing liquidity, credit risk, and interest rate risk.
- Off-balance sheet activities allow banks to generate fee income but also expose them to additional risks if not properly controlled.
Basel III is an international regulatory framework that introduced reforms to improve banking sector regulation and risk management. It consists of 3 pillars - minimum capital requirements, supervisory review, and market discipline. The first pillar sets minimum capital requirements for credit, market and operational risk. It introduced capital buffers and distinguishes between Common Equity Tier 1, Additional Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital. The second pillar aims to ensure banks effectively monitor institution-wide risks. The third pillar promotes market discipline through financial disclosures.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to the financial system including:
- 8 basic facts about the global financial system such as the predominant role of banks and importance of debt over equity.
- How transaction costs, asymmetric information, adverse selection, and moral hazard shape the structure and functioning of the financial system.
- Tools used to address problems of adverse selection and moral hazard like monitoring, regulation, intermediation, collateral, and contract design.
- Examples of how conflicts of interest and crises emerge from these issues and their economic impacts.
This document provides an overview of financial regulation and its economic rationale. It discusses how government safety nets like deposit insurance can create moral hazard issues but are still necessary to prevent bank runs. It also describes different types of financial regulation, including restrictions on asset holdings, capital requirements, disclosure requirements, consumer protection laws, and international coordination challenges. The goal of regulation is to reduce asymmetric information problems while not unduly limiting competition.
The document discusses managing interest rate risk in banks, including defining interest rate risk, describing the types of interest rate risks such as repricing risk and basis risk, and strategies for measuring and controlling interest rate risk such as following Basel Committee recommendations and sound risk management practices.
This document discusses Value at Risk (VaR), a risk measurement technique used in finance. There are three main methods to calculate VaR: the historical method, variance-covariance method, and Monte Carlo simulation. The historical method looks at past losses and assumes history will repeat. The variance-covariance method assumes returns are normally distributed. Monte Carlo simulation models future returns through hypothetical trials. All methods make assumptions that may not reflect reality and have limitations around changing distributions over time. VaR is widely used but also faces criticism for relying on untested models and giving a false sense of confidence.
Liquidity risk arises from a bank's inability to meet its obligations. This document discusses various methods for measuring liquidity risk that were used before and after the 2008 global financial crisis. Before the crisis, models focused on bid-ask spreads, transaction volumes, and liquidity balances. Following the crisis, Basel III introduced two new ratios - the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) and Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) - to improve banks' short-term and long-term liquidity management. The LCR requires sufficient high-quality liquid assets to cover net cash outflows over 30 days, while the NSFR aims to ensure long-term assets are funded by stable sources over one year.
This document provides an overview of monetary policy tools and how they are used by central banks. It discusses conventional tools like open market operations, reserve requirements, and the discount rate. It also covers unconventional tools used in the financial crisis like large-scale asset purchases and forward guidance. The document explains how these tools impact monetary policy objectives like inflation and economic growth. It analyzes features of desirable policy instruments and why most central banks target interest rates rather than monetary aggregates.
This document discusses key concepts in bank management including:
- The features of a bank balance sheet including assets like loans and securities, and liabilities like deposits and capital.
- How banks attempt to maximize profits through asset and liability management, managing liquidity, credit risk, and interest rate risk.
- Off-balance sheet activities allow banks to generate fee income but also expose them to additional risks if not properly controlled.
Basel III is an international regulatory framework that introduced reforms to improve banking sector regulation and risk management. It consists of 3 pillars - minimum capital requirements, supervisory review, and market discipline. The first pillar sets minimum capital requirements for credit, market and operational risk. It introduced capital buffers and distinguishes between Common Equity Tier 1, Additional Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital. The second pillar aims to ensure banks effectively monitor institution-wide risks. The third pillar promotes market discipline through financial disclosures.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to the financial system including:
- 8 basic facts about the global financial system such as the predominant role of banks and importance of debt over equity.
- How transaction costs, asymmetric information, adverse selection, and moral hazard shape the structure and functioning of the financial system.
- Tools used to address problems of adverse selection and moral hazard like monitoring, regulation, intermediation, collateral, and contract design.
- Examples of how conflicts of interest and crises emerge from these issues and their economic impacts.
This document provides an overview of financial regulation and its economic rationale. It discusses how government safety nets like deposit insurance can create moral hazard issues but are still necessary to prevent bank runs. It also describes different types of financial regulation, including restrictions on asset holdings, capital requirements, disclosure requirements, consumer protection laws, and international coordination challenges. The goal of regulation is to reduce asymmetric information problems while not unduly limiting competition.
The document discusses managing interest rate risk in banks, including defining interest rate risk, describing the types of interest rate risks such as repricing risk and basis risk, and strategies for measuring and controlling interest rate risk such as following Basel Committee recommendations and sound risk management practices.
This document discusses Value at Risk (VaR), a risk measurement technique used in finance. There are three main methods to calculate VaR: the historical method, variance-covariance method, and Monte Carlo simulation. The historical method looks at past losses and assumes history will repeat. The variance-covariance method assumes returns are normally distributed. Monte Carlo simulation models future returns through hypothetical trials. All methods make assumptions that may not reflect reality and have limitations around changing distributions over time. VaR is widely used but also faces criticism for relying on untested models and giving a false sense of confidence.
Liquidity risk arises from a bank's inability to meet its obligations. This document discusses various methods for measuring liquidity risk that were used before and after the 2008 global financial crisis. Before the crisis, models focused on bid-ask spreads, transaction volumes, and liquidity balances. Following the crisis, Basel III introduced two new ratios - the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR) and Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) - to improve banks' short-term and long-term liquidity management. The LCR requires sufficient high-quality liquid assets to cover net cash outflows over 30 days, while the NSFR aims to ensure long-term assets are funded by stable sources over one year.
This presentation is the one stop point to learn about Basel Norms in the Banking
This is the most comprehensive presentation on Risk Management in Banks and Basel Norms. It presents in details the evolution of Basel Norms right form Pre Basel area till implementation of Basel III in 2019 along with factors and reason for shifting of Basel I to II and finally to III.
Links to Video's in the presentation
Risk Management in Banks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZ5_V4RW5pE
Tier 1 Capital
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tier1capital.asp
Tier 2 Capital
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tier2capital.asp
Basel I
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/basel_i.asp
Capital Adequacy Ratio
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capitaladequacyratio.asp
Basel II
http://www.investopedia.com/video/play/what-basel-ii/?header_alt=c
Basel III
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/basell-iii.asp
RBI Governor - Raghuram G Rajan on the importance if Basel III regulations
https://youtu.be/EN27ZRe_28A
Causes of Non-Performing Loan: A Study on State Owned Commercial Bank of Bang...Dhaka university
Research Objectives and Possible Research Questions, Classified Loan, Theories: Ethical theory, Moral Hazard, Political Power, Transaction Cost, Stakeholder, Conceptual framework, Research Position, References and Reviewed Literature
Treasury bills are short-term debt instruments issued by the Bangladesh government with maturities of up to one year. They are sold at a discount to their face value at maturity, with the difference representing the interest earned. Treasury bills carry essentially no default risk since they are guaranteed by the government. Major banks and non-bank financial institutions in Bangladesh participate as primary dealers in the treasury bill auction process managed by the central bank.
The document discusses the Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) and its evolution over time from Basel I, II, and III accords. CAR is a ratio used by regulators to assess a bank's capital adequacy by comparing its capital to risk-weighted assets. The Basel accords established international standards for CAR and defined components like Tier 1 capital, Tier 2 capital, and risk weighting of assets. Basel III aimed to strengthen banks' ability to absorb shocks by improving capital quality and introducing liquidity ratios and leverage ratios.
Basel III is a global regulatory standard that aims to strengthen bank capital requirements and introduce new regulatory requirements on bank liquidity and leverage. It was implemented in response to deficiencies in the previous Basel II framework that were exposed by the global financial crisis. The goals of Basel III include improving the banking sector's ability to absorb shocks, reducing systemic risk, and increasing transparency. It establishes stricter capital standards, introduces capital buffers, and imposes new liquidity measures including the liquidity coverage ratio and net stable funding ratio.
Banking and management of financial institutionsOnline
The document discusses various aspects of commercial bank financial management, including analyzing a bank's balance sheet with assets like loans and reserves on the left and liabilities like deposits on the right, how banks engage in asset transformation by borrowing short-term via deposits and lending long-term, and the goals of liquidity, asset, liability, and capital management to maximize profits while minimizing risks.
Interest rate risk exists when the value of an interest-bearing asset may change due to fluctuations in interest rates. Various hedging instruments can be used to mitigate interest rate risk, including swaptions, floors, caps, collars, forward rate agreements (FRAs), futures, and interest rate swaps (IRS). These instruments allow entities to hedge against rising or falling interest rates by locking in rates for future periods. Important considerations in managing interest rate risk include the duration and cash flows of hedging instruments used.
Chapter 07_Central Banking and the Conduct of Monetary PolicyRusman Mukhlis
The document discusses the structure and operations of central banks, focusing on the U.S. Federal Reserve System. It describes the origins of the Fed following financial panics in the 19th century. The structure of the Fed involves 12 regional banks, a Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. Central bank independence and its relationship to macroeconomic performance is also examined.
Interest rate risk management for banks under Basel II, presentation by Christine Brown, Department of Finance , The University of Melbourne, Shanghai, December 8-12, 2008
Chapter11 International Finance ManagementPiyush Gaur
International banks provide various services to facilitate international trade and foreign exchange transactions for their clients. These services include trade financing, foreign exchange, hedging currency risk, and consulting. International banks have different types of offices depending on the country's regulations, including correspondent banks, representative offices, branches, subsidiaries, affiliates, and offshore centers. The international debt crisis of the 1980s was caused by developing countries taking on large debts from international banks that they struggled to repay when oil prices collapsed. The crisis was eventually resolved through debt restructuring and new types of bonds.
Chapter 03_What Do Interest Rates Mean and What Is Their Role in Valuation?Rusman Mukhlis
This chapter discusses interest rates and their role in valuation. It defines key terms like yield to maturity, which is the most accurate measure of interest rates. It examines how to measure and understand different interest rates, the distinction between real and nominal rates, and the relationship between interest rates and returns. It also covers how the concept of present value is used to evaluate debt instruments and how duration is used to measure interest rate risk.
This document discusses Value at Risk (VaR) and related concepts over multiple learning outcomes (LOs). It introduces VaR and explains why it was widely adopted as a risk measure. It also defines how to calculate VaR for single and multiple assets, and how to convert between time periods. The document discusses assumptions of VaR calculations and reasons for using continuously compounded returns. It also addresses factors that affect portfolio risk and how to calculate VaR for linear and non-linear derivatives. Finally, it introduces cash flow at risk (CFaR) and how VaR and CFaR can be used to evaluate projects and allocate risk.
The document discusses the yield curve and term structure of interest rates. It defines the yield curve as the graphical depiction of the relationship between the interest rate of bonds of the same credit quality but different maturities. The yield curve is based on the term structure, which refers to how interest rates vary depending on the time period to maturity of the debt instrument. The document outlines several theories that attempt to explain the typical upward sloping nature of the yield curve, including expectations theory, liquidity premium theory, and preferred habitat theory.
This document summarizes a presentation on implementing the Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) liquidity framework. It discusses:
1) An overview of the NSFR and how it differs from the Liquidity Coverage Ratio in measuring long-term versus short-term liquidity;
2) How to build the NSFR into funds transfer pricing (FTP) logic by updating FTP systems to incorporate long-term funding costs and risks;
3) Integrating the NSFR into existing FTP and liquidity management systems through a liquidity transfer pricing framework that allocates liquidity costs and benefits.
Given the recent financial crisis and the extended impact on global credit market and liquidity, it is imperative that financial institutions strengthen their market risk management capabilities to effectively meet compelling business objectives and challenges which include portfolio pricing and portfolio exposure management
Basel III is a global regulatory standard that strengthens bank capital requirements and introduces new global liquidity and leverage ratio standards. It requires banks to hold more and higher quality capital, including 4.5% common equity and 6% Tier 1 capital as a percentage of risk-weighted assets by 2015. Basel III also introduces capital buffers and new liquidity standards including a liquidity coverage ratio and net stable funding ratio to be implemented by 2015 and 2018. The goals of Basel III are to strengthen transparency, coverage of risks, and risk management practices for banks globally.
Federal Reserve System
(Central Banking in USA)
Duties of Federal Reserve System.
Objectives of Monetary Policy
Board Of Governors.
Function of Federal Reserve System
The Basel Accords are agreements established by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision that provide recommendations on banking regulations and standards. The purpose is to ensure that banks have sufficient capital reserves to protect against unexpected financial risks. Basel I established initial capital requirements and risk weights. Basel II introduced refined risk management standards. Basel III was released in 2010 in response to the financial crisis to strengthen capital and liquidity standards for banks.
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a class on the debt market. It includes an introduction to the debt market and defines it as the market where trading of debt instruments like bonds, commercial papers, treasury bills, and government securities takes place. It then lists the group members and their roll numbers who presented on this topic.
The main topics covered in the presentation are then outlined, including the structure of the financial market, details on government securities, commercial papers, treasury bills, repos, and current news. Descriptions of each of these debt instruments are then provided in the document, along with their key features, guidelines, objectives, investors, and other relevant details.
This chapter discusses central banks and focuses on the Federal Reserve System. It describes the origins of the Fed in response to bank panics and lack of a lender of last resort. The chapter outlines the structure of the Fed which includes regional Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. It also examines the functions and policy tools of the Fed as well as debates around its independence.
This document provides an overview of central banking and the structure of the Federal Reserve System in the United States. It discusses the origins of the Fed following financial panics in the 19th century. The structure of the Fed is designed to diffuse power across various entities, including the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. The roles and responsibilities of these groups in determining monetary policy and regulating financial institutions are also examined.
This presentation is the one stop point to learn about Basel Norms in the Banking
This is the most comprehensive presentation on Risk Management in Banks and Basel Norms. It presents in details the evolution of Basel Norms right form Pre Basel area till implementation of Basel III in 2019 along with factors and reason for shifting of Basel I to II and finally to III.
Links to Video's in the presentation
Risk Management in Banks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZ5_V4RW5pE
Tier 1 Capital
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tier1capital.asp
Tier 2 Capital
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tier2capital.asp
Basel I
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/basel_i.asp
Capital Adequacy Ratio
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capitaladequacyratio.asp
Basel II
http://www.investopedia.com/video/play/what-basel-ii/?header_alt=c
Basel III
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/basell-iii.asp
RBI Governor - Raghuram G Rajan on the importance if Basel III regulations
https://youtu.be/EN27ZRe_28A
Causes of Non-Performing Loan: A Study on State Owned Commercial Bank of Bang...Dhaka university
Research Objectives and Possible Research Questions, Classified Loan, Theories: Ethical theory, Moral Hazard, Political Power, Transaction Cost, Stakeholder, Conceptual framework, Research Position, References and Reviewed Literature
Treasury bills are short-term debt instruments issued by the Bangladesh government with maturities of up to one year. They are sold at a discount to their face value at maturity, with the difference representing the interest earned. Treasury bills carry essentially no default risk since they are guaranteed by the government. Major banks and non-bank financial institutions in Bangladesh participate as primary dealers in the treasury bill auction process managed by the central bank.
The document discusses the Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) and its evolution over time from Basel I, II, and III accords. CAR is a ratio used by regulators to assess a bank's capital adequacy by comparing its capital to risk-weighted assets. The Basel accords established international standards for CAR and defined components like Tier 1 capital, Tier 2 capital, and risk weighting of assets. Basel III aimed to strengthen banks' ability to absorb shocks by improving capital quality and introducing liquidity ratios and leverage ratios.
Basel III is a global regulatory standard that aims to strengthen bank capital requirements and introduce new regulatory requirements on bank liquidity and leverage. It was implemented in response to deficiencies in the previous Basel II framework that were exposed by the global financial crisis. The goals of Basel III include improving the banking sector's ability to absorb shocks, reducing systemic risk, and increasing transparency. It establishes stricter capital standards, introduces capital buffers, and imposes new liquidity measures including the liquidity coverage ratio and net stable funding ratio.
Banking and management of financial institutionsOnline
The document discusses various aspects of commercial bank financial management, including analyzing a bank's balance sheet with assets like loans and reserves on the left and liabilities like deposits on the right, how banks engage in asset transformation by borrowing short-term via deposits and lending long-term, and the goals of liquidity, asset, liability, and capital management to maximize profits while minimizing risks.
Interest rate risk exists when the value of an interest-bearing asset may change due to fluctuations in interest rates. Various hedging instruments can be used to mitigate interest rate risk, including swaptions, floors, caps, collars, forward rate agreements (FRAs), futures, and interest rate swaps (IRS). These instruments allow entities to hedge against rising or falling interest rates by locking in rates for future periods. Important considerations in managing interest rate risk include the duration and cash flows of hedging instruments used.
Chapter 07_Central Banking and the Conduct of Monetary PolicyRusman Mukhlis
The document discusses the structure and operations of central banks, focusing on the U.S. Federal Reserve System. It describes the origins of the Fed following financial panics in the 19th century. The structure of the Fed involves 12 regional banks, a Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. Central bank independence and its relationship to macroeconomic performance is also examined.
Interest rate risk management for banks under Basel II, presentation by Christine Brown, Department of Finance , The University of Melbourne, Shanghai, December 8-12, 2008
Chapter11 International Finance ManagementPiyush Gaur
International banks provide various services to facilitate international trade and foreign exchange transactions for their clients. These services include trade financing, foreign exchange, hedging currency risk, and consulting. International banks have different types of offices depending on the country's regulations, including correspondent banks, representative offices, branches, subsidiaries, affiliates, and offshore centers. The international debt crisis of the 1980s was caused by developing countries taking on large debts from international banks that they struggled to repay when oil prices collapsed. The crisis was eventually resolved through debt restructuring and new types of bonds.
Chapter 03_What Do Interest Rates Mean and What Is Their Role in Valuation?Rusman Mukhlis
This chapter discusses interest rates and their role in valuation. It defines key terms like yield to maturity, which is the most accurate measure of interest rates. It examines how to measure and understand different interest rates, the distinction between real and nominal rates, and the relationship between interest rates and returns. It also covers how the concept of present value is used to evaluate debt instruments and how duration is used to measure interest rate risk.
This document discusses Value at Risk (VaR) and related concepts over multiple learning outcomes (LOs). It introduces VaR and explains why it was widely adopted as a risk measure. It also defines how to calculate VaR for single and multiple assets, and how to convert between time periods. The document discusses assumptions of VaR calculations and reasons for using continuously compounded returns. It also addresses factors that affect portfolio risk and how to calculate VaR for linear and non-linear derivatives. Finally, it introduces cash flow at risk (CFaR) and how VaR and CFaR can be used to evaluate projects and allocate risk.
The document discusses the yield curve and term structure of interest rates. It defines the yield curve as the graphical depiction of the relationship between the interest rate of bonds of the same credit quality but different maturities. The yield curve is based on the term structure, which refers to how interest rates vary depending on the time period to maturity of the debt instrument. The document outlines several theories that attempt to explain the typical upward sloping nature of the yield curve, including expectations theory, liquidity premium theory, and preferred habitat theory.
This document summarizes a presentation on implementing the Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) liquidity framework. It discusses:
1) An overview of the NSFR and how it differs from the Liquidity Coverage Ratio in measuring long-term versus short-term liquidity;
2) How to build the NSFR into funds transfer pricing (FTP) logic by updating FTP systems to incorporate long-term funding costs and risks;
3) Integrating the NSFR into existing FTP and liquidity management systems through a liquidity transfer pricing framework that allocates liquidity costs and benefits.
Given the recent financial crisis and the extended impact on global credit market and liquidity, it is imperative that financial institutions strengthen their market risk management capabilities to effectively meet compelling business objectives and challenges which include portfolio pricing and portfolio exposure management
Basel III is a global regulatory standard that strengthens bank capital requirements and introduces new global liquidity and leverage ratio standards. It requires banks to hold more and higher quality capital, including 4.5% common equity and 6% Tier 1 capital as a percentage of risk-weighted assets by 2015. Basel III also introduces capital buffers and new liquidity standards including a liquidity coverage ratio and net stable funding ratio to be implemented by 2015 and 2018. The goals of Basel III are to strengthen transparency, coverage of risks, and risk management practices for banks globally.
Federal Reserve System
(Central Banking in USA)
Duties of Federal Reserve System.
Objectives of Monetary Policy
Board Of Governors.
Function of Federal Reserve System
The Basel Accords are agreements established by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision that provide recommendations on banking regulations and standards. The purpose is to ensure that banks have sufficient capital reserves to protect against unexpected financial risks. Basel I established initial capital requirements and risk weights. Basel II introduced refined risk management standards. Basel III was released in 2010 in response to the financial crisis to strengthen capital and liquidity standards for banks.
This document provides an overview of topics covered in a class on the debt market. It includes an introduction to the debt market and defines it as the market where trading of debt instruments like bonds, commercial papers, treasury bills, and government securities takes place. It then lists the group members and their roll numbers who presented on this topic.
The main topics covered in the presentation are then outlined, including the structure of the financial market, details on government securities, commercial papers, treasury bills, repos, and current news. Descriptions of each of these debt instruments are then provided in the document, along with their key features, guidelines, objectives, investors, and other relevant details.
This chapter discusses central banks and focuses on the Federal Reserve System. It describes the origins of the Fed in response to bank panics and lack of a lender of last resort. The chapter outlines the structure of the Fed which includes regional Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. It also examines the functions and policy tools of the Fed as well as debates around its independence.
This document provides an overview of central banking and the structure of the Federal Reserve System in the United States. It discusses the origins of the Fed following financial panics in the 19th century. The structure of the Fed is designed to diffuse power across various entities, including the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. The roles and responsibilities of these groups in determining monetary policy and regulating financial institutions are also examined.
Econ315 Money and Banking: Learning Unit #20 sakanor
The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States, consisting of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks overseen by a Board of Governors. It was established in 1913 to conduct monetary policy and regulate banking. The Federal Reserve pursues goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates through tools like open market operations and interest rate targets. It aims to maintain independence from political pressure to ensure decisions are made in the best economic interests of the country.
The FOMC determines monetary policy for the United States. It is composed of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the presidents of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks. The FOMC meets regularly to set short-term interest rates and decide other economic policies based on reports on employment, inflation, and growth. It seeks to promote maximum employment and stable prices. In its most recent meeting, the FOMC voted to maintain near-zero interest rates given moderate economic expansion and below-target inflation.
This document discusses central banking and the conduct of monetary policy. It covers topics such as the structure and functions of central banks, the tools used to conduct monetary policy including interest rates, reserve requirements, and open market operations, and how central banks influence monetary conditions in an economy. It also discusses the money supply process, determinants of money supply, and classification of monetary policy multipliers.
The document is a report on the Federal Reserve System created by a group of students. It includes sections on the history of central banking in the United States, the structure of the Federal Reserve System, and the roles and responsibilities of its components. It discusses the Board of Governors, the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, the Federal Open Market Committee, and provides details on monetary policy tools like open market operations, the discount rate, and reserve requirements. Individual students contributed sections on the structure of the Federal Reserve, its duties and responsibilities, the FOMC, and how monetary policy is conducted.
The document discusses key aspects of the US banking system including:
1) Types of money like demand deposits that depositors can access through checks and the central bank that controls monetary policy.
2) How the Federal Reserve ("the Fed") regulates banks and implements monetary policy through tools like open market operations and adjusting reserve requirements.
3) Why the Chairman of the Fed is powerful as monetary policy changes can increase or decrease the money supply and reserve rates.
The Federal Reserve System serves as the central bank of the United States and uses monetary policy to influence economic activity. It was established in 1913 with the Federal Reserve Act and consists of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and a Board of Governors. The Federal Reserve System regulates banks, provides banking services to the government, clears checks, acts as a lender of last resort during financial crises, and influences the money supply and interest rates to promote maximum employment and stable prices.
Central banks are institutions that manage a state's currency, money supply, and interest rates. They have a monopoly on increasing the money supply and often print the national currency. The primary functions of central banks are to manage the money supply, act as a lender of last resort during financial crises, promote monetary and financial stability, and oversee the banking system. Central banks also maintain commercial bank reserves and implement monetary policy through tools like open market operations and adjusting interest rates. Several major central banks discussed in the document are the Federal Reserve System, Bank of England, Bank of Japan, and State Bank of Pakistan, each with their own objectives and functions for monetary policy and financial stability.
This document discusses the structure and purpose of the Federal Reserve System. It begins by providing background on the development of central banking in the United States. It then describes the key components of the Federal Reserve System, including the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, the Board of Governors, and the Federal Open Market Committee. It explains how these components work together to implement monetary policy and regulate financial institutions. The document also discusses the roles and responsibilities of commercial banks that choose to join the Federal Reserve System.
The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States. It was established in 1913 with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act in response to a series of financial panics. The Federal Reserve System has a three-part structure - the Board of Governors, the Federal Open Market Committee, and the 12 Federal Reserve Banks. It uses various monetary policy tools like open market operations, the discount rate, and reserve requirements to regulate the supply of money and achieve its mandates of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates. Despite its efforts, the Federal Reserve faces ongoing scrutiny over its ability to stimulate economic recovery in the aftermath of the late 2000s recession.
Smart Directions: The Banking System and Federal Reserve 11/5/2015emmetoneallibrary
The first in a new series of Smart Investing programs available at the Emmet O'Neal Library, funded by the American Library Association and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority.
The document summarizes the structure and functions of the Federal Reserve System. It is comprised of 12 Federal Reserve Banks located throughout the US, overseen by the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee. The Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services, examine other banks, and implement monetary policy set by the FOMC through open market operations. The Board of Governors and FOMC determine US monetary policy and are independent from political pressure to maintain effectiveness.
The Federal Reserve and Monetary Policy.pptPadmaN24
The Federal Reserve uses monetary policy tools to influence the money supply and interest rates in order to stabilize and grow the economy. Its main tools are open market operations, adjusting reserve requirements, and setting the discount rate. Increasing the money supply through actions like bond purchases and rate cuts pursues an "easy money" policy aimed at stimulation, while decreasing the money supply through bond sales and rate hikes constitutes a "tight money" policy aimed at slowing growth. Proper timing is important, as there are lags before monetary policy takes full effect.
Here are two 300-word assignments summarizing the roles of RBI during the Covid-19 crisis and analyzing its independence over the last 10 years:
Role of RBI during Covid-19 Crisis:
The Covid-19 pandemic severely impacted the Indian economy. RBI played a crucial role in mitigating the crisis through various monetary and regulatory policies. It slashed policy rates to record lows, injected massive liquidity, and announced loan moratoriums to support businesses and individuals. RBI ensured ample rupee and dollar liquidity in the system through open market operations, forex swaps, CRR cuts and targeted long term repo operations. It took measures to boost exports and imports and stabilized the currency. R
This document discusses monetary policy and the role of the Federal Reserve. It defines monetary policy as how the Federal Reserve influences the money supply to bring the country out of recession or inflation. It describes the Federal Reserve as the national system of banks that controls the money supply and economy. The Federal Reserve uses three tools - the reserve requirement, discount rate, and open market operations - to adjust the money supply and influence interest rates. Raising the money supply through lowering reserve requirements, rates, and buying bonds can help stimulate the economy during a recession, while lowering the money supply through the opposite actions can help curb inflation.
This document discusses monetary policy and the role of the Federal Reserve. It defines monetary policy as how the Federal Reserve influences the money supply to bring the country out of recession or inflation. It describes the Federal Reserve as the national system of banks that controls the money supply and economy. The Federal Reserve uses three tools - the reserve requirement, discount rate, and open market operations - to expand or contract the money supply and thus influence economic growth or slowdown. During recessions, the Fed engages in easy money policies like decreasing the reserve requirement and discount rate and buying bonds to increase the money supply. During inflation, it does the reverse through tight money policies.
This document discusses the Great Recession and policy responses to the financial crisis. It introduces financial considerations like a risk premium into the short-run model to understand the crisis. A rising risk premium interfered with monetary policy and shifted the AD curve down. This led to deflation concerns. Policy responses included unconventional monetary policy by expanding the Fed's balance sheet, fiscal stimulus, and the TARP program. Financial reform aimed to prevent future crises and address issues like moral hazard.
The document provides an overview of aggregate demand and aggregate supply (AD/AS) analysis. It discusses how monetary policy rules can be used to derive an aggregate demand curve and how the Phillips curve can be interpreted as an aggregate supply curve. The AD and AS curves can then be combined in a single framework to analyze macroeconomic effects. Specific events like inflation shocks, disinflation, and positive aggregate demand shocks are examined using the AD/AS model. Empirical evidence on inflation-output dynamics and modern monetary policy approaches are also reviewed.
This document provides an overview of monetary policy and the tools used by central banks. It discusses:
- The monetary policy (MP) curve which describes how central banks set the nominal interest rate in the short-run.
- The Phillips curve which shows how inflation responds to changes in economic activity.
- How the MP curve, Phillips curve, and aggregate demand curve (IS curve) make up the short-run macroeconomic model used to analyze the effects of monetary policy.
- How the Federal Reserve uses interest rate adjustments to influence output and inflation by shifting the MP curve and thereby affecting the real interest rate in the short-run.
This document provides an overview of the IS curve model. It begins with an introduction that establishes the relationship between interest rates and output in the short run. The IS curve captures this relationship graphically.
It then goes on to describe how to set up the basic IS curve model, which involves deriving the IS curve equation from the national income identity and consumption, investment, government spending, export, and import functions. It also discusses how to use the IS curve to show the effects of interest rate changes and aggregate demand shocks.
Finally, it discusses the microeconomic foundations of consumption behavior, investment decisions, and multiplier effects that provide the underlying basis for the IS curve relationship.
The document discusses the causes and impacts of the Great Recession that began in December 2007. It analyzes factors like the housing bubble and subprime lending crisis that contributed to the recession. It then examines the macroeconomic outcomes of the recession, including a decline in GDP of over 3%, a rise in unemployment to over 10%, and the loss of over 8 million jobs by February 2010. The recession had larger negative impacts on output and employment than typical past recessions. It also explores international impacts and compares the recession to previous financial crises.
This document provides an overview of key concepts relating to analyzing an economy in the short run, including:
- The difference between potential output in the long run and actual output which can fluctuate in the short run due to economic shocks.
- How the gap between actual and potential GDP indicates the state of the economy and whether it is in a recession.
- The relationship between output and inflation shown through the Phillips Curve, where higher output leads to increased inflation.
- Okun's Law which describes the inverse relationship between changes in output and the unemployment rate.
This document summarizes key concepts about inflation from Chapter 8 of an economics textbook. It defines inflation and discusses the quantity theory of money, explaining how the money supply, velocity of money, and nominal GDP are related. It also covers the relationship between real and nominal interest rates using the Fisher equation. The document discusses the costs of inflation and how fiscal policy and large government deficits can contribute to higher inflation, especially if a central bank lacks independence. It provides examples of hyperinflation and analyzes the causes of the Great Inflation of the 1970s.
This document summarizes key topics from a chapter on labor markets, including:
1) It describes the U.S. labor market trends of rising wages, employment-population ratios, and unemployment rates over time.
2) It explains the basic supply and demand model of the labor market and how taxes, regulations, and wage rigidities can create distortions.
3) It discusses different types of unemployment and the "bathtub model" for how employment and unemployment levels change over time.
4) It provides an overview of international labor market comparisons and differences between the U.S., Europe, and Japan.
5) It covers concepts of valuing human capital using present discounted values and explains the rising return
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 6 of an economics textbook on long-run economic growth. It introduces the Romer model of economic growth, which distinguishes between ideas and objects. Ideas are nonrival and lead to increasing returns. The Romer model generates sustained long-run growth through expanding knowledge. The document also combines the Solow and Romer models to develop a full theory of long-run growth accounting for both physical capital and ideas. It shows how growth accounting can be used to analyze sources of economic growth.
The document provides an overview of the Solow growth model, which models economic growth through capital accumulation over time. It describes the key components of the model, including the production function, capital accumulation equation, investment determination, and steady state. The model predicts that economies will eventually stop growing as they approach the steady state, due to diminishing returns to capital. However, it does not fully explain long-run economic growth. The document also discusses how the model can be used to analyze the effects of changes to parameters like the investment and depreciation rates.
This document provides an overview of a macroeconomic model of production. It introduces a Cobb-Douglas production function to model how output is determined by capital and labor inputs. The model assumes constant returns to scale and is solved to find the equilibrium levels of output, capital, labor, wage rates and rental rates. The model predicts that countries with more capital per person will have higher output per person. However, the model initially overpredicts output for many countries. Accounting for differences in total factor productivity across countries significantly improves the model's predictive power.
This document provides an overview of long-run economic growth by covering several topics:
1) Growth has dramatically improved living standards recently but this is a new phenomenon historically. Per capita GDP differs greatly around the world.
2) Sustained growth first emerged in different places and times, leading to a "Great Divergence" where countries now differ in per capita GDP by a factor of 50.
3) Modern economic growth is defined as growth in per capita GDP, which can be used to predict future output levels based on growth rates.
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on measuring macroeconomic indicators like GDP. It discusses three methods for calculating GDP - production, expenditure, and income - and how they provide identical measures. It also explains how GDP is measured over time using nominal and real GDP, and different price indexes like Laspeyres, Paasche, and chain-weighting which is preferred. Real GDP growth rates and inflation rates are calculated using these concepts.
This document provides guidance and information for a student project involving data analysis. It discusses selecting a topic related to macroeconomics or international economics and finding related data sources. It also provides instructions on conducting a literature review and summarizing research papers. The document demonstrates how to merge and reshape different data files in Stata and describes other potential data sources for economic research.
This document discusses global income inequality and its causes. It notes that inequality is rising within many countries even as it falls globally. Technological change is a major driver of rising inequality, contributing 55% of the increase. Other factors include declining unions, falling minimum wages, and trade. Racial inequality is also examined, with policies around housing and lending continuing to disadvantage minorities. The document explores potential solutions like redistribution, universal basic income, education access, and increased competition.
This document provides guidance on how to read and understand papers that use regression analysis. It discusses key elements to look for, such as the research question, dependent and independent variables, data sources, results, and interpretation. Examples of published papers are referenced and questions are provided for each that focus on understanding the methodology, variables, data, results, and conclusions. Understanding these components is important for correctly interpreting the analysis and findings presented in regression-based research papers.
This document provides an overview of multiple regression analysis in Stata. It discusses including multiple independent variables in a regression to control for other factors, using commands like preserve and restore. It also covers creating tables of regression results in Stata using outreg2, issues like multicollinearity, and interpreting coefficients in regressions with dummy variables. Examples use housing data to examine the relationship between price, age, size and other characteristics.
The document discusses model specification for multiple regression analysis, focusing on measures of fit including R-squared and standard error of regression, and how to properly interpret these statistics. It emphasizes the importance of random sampling to establish causal relationships and warns of potential biases from non-random samples, such as when evaluating mutual fund performance or estimating political support based on telephone and automobile owners.
1. The document discusses multiple regression analysis in Stata. It covers including multiple independent variables, interpreting regression coefficients, detecting multicollinearity issues, and creating tables to present regression results.
2. Examples show regressing house price on characteristics like size, age, bedrooms and bathrooms. Interpreting coefficients depends on what other variables are held constant.
3. Detecting multicollinearity involves adding variables one by one; it leads to insignificant coefficients but errs on the conservative side rather than false relationships. Perfect multicollinearity occurs when regressors are perfectly correlated.
- Categorical variables are variables that are described by words rather than numbers, like "cat person" vs "dog person". Continuous variables take numerical values like income or test scores.
- To analyze the effect of a categorical variable in a regression, it must be converted into a binary variable using 0s and 1s. This allows a comparison of means between the included group and omitted group.
- Difference-in-differences estimation compares the change in outcomes over time between a treatment group and a control group, allowing researchers to account for other factors to isolate the causal effect of a treatment or policy. It requires the presence of a treatment and control group as well as pre- and post-treatment observations.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
2. Preview
• This chapter considers the structure and
activities of central banks focusing primarily
on the Federal Reserve System of the United
States.
3. Learning Objectives
• Recognize the historical context of the
development of the Federal Reserve System.
• Describe the key features and functions of the
Federal Reserve System.
• Assess the degree of independence of the Federal
Reserve.
• Identify the ways in which the theory of
bureaucratic behavior can help explain Federal
Reserve actions.
4. Learning Objectives
• Summarize the arguments for and against the
independence of the central bank.
• Identify the similarities and distinctions in
structure and independence between the
European Central Bank and the Federal
Reserve.
• Assess the degree of independence of other
major central banks around the world.
5. Timeline
• Great resource for those wanting to
understand more of the history surrounding
the Federal Reserve…
7/27/20 GONZAGA UNIVERSITY 5
6. The Aldrich-Vreeland Act of
1908
• Signed by President Roosevelt
• Created the National Monetary Commission
– Which recommended the Federal Reserve Act of
1913
– Initially there was political opposition to the
creation of a central bank.
7/27/20 GONZAGA UNIVERSITY 6
7. Origins of the Federal Reserve
System
• Resistance to establishment of a central bank
– Fear of centralized power
– Distrust of moneyed interests
• No lender of last resort
– Nationwide bank panics on a regular basis
– Panic of 1907 so severe that the public was convinced
a central bank was needed
• Federal Reserve Act of 1913
– Elaborate system of checks and balances
– Decentralized
8. Structure of the Federal
Reserve System
• The writers of the Federal Reserve Act wanted
to diffuse power along regional lines, between
the private sector and the government, and
among bankers, business people, and the
public.
9. Structure of the Federal
Reserve System
• This initial diffusion of power has resulted in
the evolution of the Federal Reserve System to
include the following entities:
– The Federal Reserve banks
– The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
System
– The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)
– The Federal Advisory Council
– Around 2,900 member commercial banks
11. Federal Reserve Banks
• Quasi-public institution owned by private
commercial banks in the district that are
members of the Fed system
12. Federal Reserve Banks
• Member banks elect six directors for each district;
three more are appointed by the Board of Governors
– Three A directors are professional bankers
– Three B directors are prominent leaders from industry,
labor, agriculture, or consumer sector
– Three C directors appointed by the Board of Governors
are not allowed to be officers, employees, or stockholders
of banks
– Designed to reflect all constituencies of the public
• Nine directors appoint the president of the bank;
subject to approval by Board of Governors
14. Functions of the Federal
Reserve Banks
• Clear checks
• Issue new currency
• Withdraw damaged currency from circulation
• Administer and make discount loans to banks
in their districts
• Evaluate proposed mergers and applications
for banks to expand their activities
15. Functions of the Federal
Reserve Banks
• Act as liaisons between the business
community and the Federal Reserve System
• Examine bank holding companies and state-
chartered member banks
• Collect data on local business conditions
• Use staffs of professional economists to
research topics related to the conduct of
monetary policy
16. Special Role of the Federal
Reserve Bank of New York
• The Federal Reserve Bank of New York plays a
special role in the Federal Reserve System for
several reasons.
– First, its district contains many of the largest
commercial banks in the United States, the safety and
soundness of which are paramount to the health of
the U.S. financial system.
– The second reason for the New York Fed’s special role
is its active involvement in the bond and foreign
exchange markets.
17. Special Role of the Federal
Reserve Bank of New York
– The third reason for the Federal Reserve Bank of New
York’s prominence is that it is the only Federal Reserve
Bank to be a member of the Bank for International
Settlements (BIS).
– Finally, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of
New York is the only permanent voting member of the
FOMC among the Federal Reserve Bank presidents,
serving as the vice-chair of the committee. Thus, he or
she and the chair and vice-chair of the Board of
Governors are the three most important officials in
the Federal Reserve System.
18. Federal Reserve Banks and
Monetary Policy
• Directors “establish” the discount rate
• Decide which banks can obtain discount loans
• Directors select one commercial banker from
each district to serve on the Federal Advisory
Council which consults with the Board of
Governors and provides information to help
conduct monetary policy
• Five of the 12 bank presidents have a vote in the
Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)
19. Member Banks
• All national banks are required to be members of
the Federal Reserve System
• Commercial banks chartered by states are not
required but may choose to be members
• Depository Institutions Deregulation and
Monetary Control Act of 1980 subjected all banks
to the same reserve requirements as member
banks and gave all banks access to Federal
Reserve facilities
20. Board of Governors of the
Federal Reserve System
• Seven members headquartered in
Washington, D.C.
• Appointed by the president and confirmed by
the Senate
• 14-year non renewable term
• Required to come from different districts
• Chairman is chosen from the governors and
serves four-year term
21. Duties of the Board of
Governors
• Votes on conduct of open market operations
• Sets reserve requirements
• Controls the discount rate through “review
and determination” process
• Sets margin requirements
• Sets salaries of president and officers of each
Federal Reserve Bank and reviews each bank’s
budget
22. Duties of the Board of
Governors
• Approves bank mergers and applications for
new activities.
• Specifies the permissible activities of bank
holding companies.
• Supervises the activities of foreign banks
operating in the United States.
23. Chairman of the Board of
Governors
• Advises the president on economic policy
• Testifies in Congress
• Speaks for the Federal Reserve System to the
media
• May represent the United States in
negotiations with foreign governments on
economic matters
24. The Role of the Research Staff
• The Federal Reserve System is the largest
employer of economists not just in the United
States, but in the world.
• The most important task of the Fed’s economists
is to follow the incoming economic data from
government agencies and private sector
organizations and provide guidance to the policy-
makers on the direction in which the economy
might be headed and the potential impact of
monetary policy actions on the economy.
25. Federal Open Market
Committee (FOMC)
• Meets eight times a year
• Consists of seven members of the Board of
Governors, the president of the Federal Reserve
Bank of New York, and the presidents of four
other Reserve banks
• Chairman of the Board of Governors is also chair
of FOMC
• Issues directives to the trading desk at the
Federal Reserve Bank of New York
26. Inside the Fed: The FOMC
Meeting
• Report by the manager of system open market
operations on foreign currency and domestic
open market operations and other related issues
• Presentation of Board’s staff national economic
forecast
• Outline of different scenarios for monetary policy
actions
• Presentation on relevant Congressional actions
• Public announcement about the outcome of the
meeting
27. Green, Blue, Teal, and Beige:
What Do These Colors Mean
at the Fed?
• Up until 2010, a detailed national forecast for the next three years
was placed between green covers and was thus known as the
“green book.”
• Projections for the monetary aggregates along with typically three
alternative scenarios for the stance of monetary policy (labeled A,
B, and C) were contained in the “blue book.”
• Starting in 2010, the green and blue books were combined into the
“teal book.”
• The “beige book,” is produced by the Reserve Banks and details
evidence gleaned either from surveys or from talks with key
businesses and financial institutions on the state of the economy in
each of the Federal Reserve districts.
28. Why the Chairman of the
Board of Governors Really
Runs the Show
• Spokesperson for the Fed and negotiates with
Congress and the President
• Sets the agenda for meetings
• Speaks and votes first about monetary policy
• Supervises professional economists
and advisers
29. Styles of Federal Reserve
Chairs: Bernanke and Yellen
Versus Greenspan
• Every Federal Reserve chair has a different
style, and these styles affect how policy
decisions are made at the Fed. There has been
much discussion of how two recent chairs of
the Fed, former chair Ben Bernanke and
current chair Janet Yellen, differ from Alan
Greenspan, who was the chair of the Federal
Reserve Board for 19 years, from 1987 to
2006.
30. How Independent Is the Fed?
• Instrument and goal independence.
• Independent revenue
• Fed’s structure is written by Congress, and is
subject to change at any time.
• Presidential influence
– Influence on Congress
– Appoints members
– Appoints chairman although terms are not concurrent
31. Should the Fed Be
Independent?
• The Case for Independence
– The strongest argument for an independent central
bank rests on the view that subjecting it to more
political pressures would impart an inflationary bias to
monetary policy.
• The Case Against Independence
– Proponents of a Fed under the control of the
president or Congress argue that it is undemocratic to
have monetary policy (which affects almost everyone
in the economy) controlled by an elite group that is
responsible to no one.
32. The Case for Independence
• Political pressure would impart an inflationary
bias to monetary policy
• Political business cycle
• Could be used to facilitate Treasury financing
of large budget deficits: accommodation
• Too important to leave to politicians—the
principal-agent problem is worse for
politicians
33. The Case Against
Independence
• Undemocratic
• Unaccountable
• Difficult to coordinate fiscal and monetary
policy
• Has not used its independence successfully
34. Explaining Central Bank
Behavior
• One view of government bureaucratic behavior is
that bureaucracies serve the public interest (this
is the public interest view). Yet some economists
have developed a theory of bureaucratic behavior
that suggests other factors that influence how
bureaucracies operate.
• The theory of bureaucratic behavior may be a
useful guide to predict what motivates the Fed
and other central banks.
35. Explaining Central Bank
Behavior
• Theory of bureaucratic behavior:
objective is to maximize its own welfare that is
related to power and prestige
– Fight vigorously to preserve autonomy
– Avoid conflict with more powerful groups
• Does not rule out altruism
36. The Evolution of the Fed’s
Communication Strategy
• The Fed has dramatically increased its
transparency in recent years
– Following the January, April, June, and November
FOMC meetings, the Chair of the Board of
Governors holds a press conference to clarify
monetary policy communications.
– Greater transparency has been provided with the
announcement of a specific numerical target for
the inflation rate.
37. Structure and Independence
of the European Central Bank
• Patterned after the Federal Reserve
• Central banks from each country play similar
role as Fed banks
• Executive Board:
– President, vice-president, and four other members
– Eight year, nonrenewable terms
• Governing Council
38. Differences Between the European
System of Central Banks and the Federal
Reserve System
• National Central Banks control their own
budgets and the budget of the ECB
• Monetary operations are not centralized
• Does not supervise and regulate financial
institutions
39. Governing Council
• Monthly meetings at ECB in Frankfurt, Germany
• Nineteen National Central Bank heads and six
Executive Board members
• Operates by consensus
• ECB announces the target rate and takes
questions from the media
• To stay at a manageable size as new countries
join, the Governing Council will be on a system of
rotation.
40. How Independent Is the ECB?
• Most independent in the world
• Members of the Executive Board have long
terms
• Determines own budget
• Less goal independent
– Price stability
• Charter cannot by changed by legislation; only
by revision of the Maastricht Treaty
41. Structure and Independence
of Other Foreign Central
Banks
• Bank of Canada
– Essentially controls monetary policy
• Bank of England
– Has some instrument independence.
• Bank of Japan
– Recently (1998) gained more independence
• The trend toward greater independence