This document discusses various approaches and theories of leadership. It covers topics such as the sources of a leader's power, different leadership styles, and theories like path-goal theory, leader-member exchange theory, and transformational leadership. It also addresses the relationship between leaders and followers, the impact of culture on leadership, and implicit theories about leadership traits.

1. Leadership Approaches
• Positional Power (e.g., based on job title, rank)
• The Leader [e.g., Traits, Transformational & Charismatic
leadership]
• The Led [e.g., Follower characteristics]
• The Influence Process (e.g., Leader-Member Exchange)
• The Situation (e.g., Path-Goal Theory)

2. Leader Acceptance
& Effectiveness
Leadership
Decline
Leader
Emergence
Typical Leadership Process
Role of demographic
variables, mental
ability, Big 5
personality factors,
self-monitoring

3. 1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.
2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.
4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.
5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information.
6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people.
7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues.
8. I would probably make a good actor.
9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music.
10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am.
11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone.
12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention.
13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons.
14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me.
15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time.
16. I'm not always the person I appear to be.
17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor.
18. I have considered being an entertainer.
19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else.
20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting.
21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations.
22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going.
23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should.
24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end).
25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.
Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974)

4. Self-Monitoring (Form of Social Intelligence)
• Awareness of how one is being received by others (cognitive,
perceptual process)
• Ability to alter one’s behavior (if necessary) depending on how
one thinks they are being received (adaptability)

5. ~ Some Leadership Traits ~
Traits associated with leader effectiveness
• Consciensciousness
• Extraversion
Leader skills related to effectiveness
• Technical skills
• Conceptual skills
• Interpersonal skills

6. Types of Power
• Reward [Based on the ability to administer rewards and benefits e.g.,
raises, promotions, positive performance evaluations]
• Coercive [Based on the ability to administer punishments to subordinates]
• Legitimate [Authority based on one’s official title or position e.g., CEO,
General, Police Officer]
• Expert [Possession of a given body of knowledge and/or skills. Can often
be rather limited in scope]
• Referent [Identification, attraction, or respect for someone. Common for
Charismatic leaders]

7. Referent Expert Legitimate Reward Coercive
Unlikely
Possible
Likely
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Typical Reactions to Power

8. Leadership Behaviors
Consideration Style
(expressing warmth,
caring concern for workers)
Structured Style
(organized, planned,
use of deadlines)
Factors
• Ability level of employees
• Number of subordinates
• Difficulty of job
• Best for a leader to use both styles when appropriate

9. Consideration:
• Is easy to get along with _____.
• Explains actions to group members
• Usually treats everyone in the same manner
• Let's followers know of changes in advance
• Puts group ideas into operation
Structure:
• Informs subordinates about what is expected
• Clarifies roles among group members
• Makes decisions regarding work methods
• Advocates the use of standardized procedures
• Sets specific goals and monitors performance
Measurement of Leader’s Behaviors
(Based on the Leader Behavior Descriptive
Questionnaire; LBDQ)

10. _______ I encourage my team to participate when it comes decision making time and I try to
implement their ideas and suggestions.
_______ Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task.
_______ I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time.
_______ I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.
_______ The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it.
_______ I encourage my employees to be creative about their job.
_______ When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for.
_______ I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership, and
psychology; and then putting what I have read into action.
_______ When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships.
_______ I manage my time very efficiently.
_______ I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees.
_______ Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me.
_______ Nothing is more important than building a great team.
_______ I enjoy analyzing problems.
_______ I honor other people's boundaries.
_______ Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession; and then
implementing the new procedures I have learned.
Leadership Questionnaire
(From the perspective of leaders)

11. Path-Goal Theory
Leader is seen as important in providing a
path for employees to attain desired goals
• Directive [leader tells subordinates how to perform tasks; provides
guidelines and structure]
• Supportive [leader shows caring and concern for subordinates’ well-
being]
• Participative [leader involves subordinates in decision-making]
• Achievement-oriented [leader sets specific and challenging goals;
promotes high work-related aspirations and goal attainment]
Leadership Behaviors (must be able to use all four
types when necessary. Use varies with such factors as
employee ability, work environment, group size)

12. Path Goal (cont.)
What can leaders do to help employees attain goals?
1) Remove obstacles/problems to gain attainment
2) Provide valued incentives to employees
3) Clarify paths to goals (e.g., use of feedback)
Job Rewards Satisfaction
Leader Rewards Acceptance of Leader
Effort Performance
Performance Rewards
Motivation

13. Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model
[A Model of Decision Making]
Autocratic
A1: Use available information; makes sole
decision
A2: Get employee to acquire some information;
makes sole decision
Consultative
C1: Leader gets individual input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
C2: Leader get group input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
Group G2: Total group decision-making; leader is
an equal member in the group

14. Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)
General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy
A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)
B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision
required)
C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)

15. 1. Does the problem require a quality solution?
2. Does the leader have enough information to make a high-quality decision?
3. Is the problem structured?
4. Is acceptance by subordinates important for the effective implementation of
the solution?
5. Is the leader certain that the decision will be accepted by subordinates if he/she
makes the decision alone?
6. Do subordinates have the same organizational goals that will be obtained by
solving the problem?
7. Is conflict among subordinates probable in obtaining a solution?
~ Specific Vroom-Yetton Decision-Making Tree Questions ~

16. Participative Decision-Making
Pros:
• Increases cooperation and communication
• Enhances employee identification & acceptance of decisions
• Can lead to better quality decisions
• Gives employees better understanding of decision complexity and
issues
Cons:
• Takes more time to make decisions
• Who to involve in decision-making (e.g., employee knowledge &
motivation issues)
• What decisions to involve employees in making (all, some) and who
decides

17. ~ Leadership & Self-Fulfilling Prophecy ~
Supervisor Expectancy Leadership Behaviors
Subordinate
Self-Expectancy
Subordinate
Motivation
Subordinate Performance
1
2
3
4
5
6

18. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
(LMX)
Leader
Subordinates
Evaluation of
subordinates on:
• Ability
• Trust
• Responsibility
In-Group
[e.g., better job duties,
greater rewards, more
visibility, treated with
warmth and caring by
the leader, greater
access to information]
Perceived similarity
Gender

19. High Quality of
Leader-Member
Exchange
~ Employee Outcomes ~
High
Satisfaction
Performance ratings
Organizational commimtment
Role clarity
Low
Role conflict
Turnover intentions
~ LMX Outcomes ~

20. • 10 Fortune 500 companies are run by women
• 20 Fortune 1000 companies are run by women
Source:
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/womenceos/
Female Leaders in Business
• In 2007, 23% of university presidents are female,
more than double the 9.5% in 1986, but only 2% more
than 2001
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United
States
Female Representation in Academics

21. Rate traits of
typical males
Rate traits of
typical females
Rate traits of typical of
leaders
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
~ Female Traits and Leadership ~

22. ~ Implicit Leadership Theory ~
Key: The perception of leader behaviors and
prototype matching process
Prototype of effective
leadership
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Good interpersonal Skills
Observed Leadership
Behaviors
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Prototype
matching
Leader
Evaluation
My boss is a
good leader
Rating Behaviors (using global impressions)
Question: Does your bosss have good social skills?
Answer: Yes, he’s a good leader so he must have
good social skills

23. ~ Transformational Leadership ~
Basic Dimensions
Idealized Influence (charasmatic, establishing visions, role-modeling)
Inspirational Motivation (providing challanges, goal sharing, go beyond self-
interests)
Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem solving, critical
thinking, flexible)
Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support, empowerment)
Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice perceptions, high trust,
more organizational citizenship behaviors
Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader

24. ~ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership Approaches ~
Transformational Transactional
Behaviors Inspirational,
empowering
Use of
reinforcements
(e.g., rewarding
desired
behaviors)
Goals Group/organizational
interests
Employee self
interest
Desired
change
Major, innovative Regular, routine
Combination of both styles is common (or needed)

25. ~ Impact of Culture on Leadership ~
Are there cultural difference in such things as leader expectations,
acceptable leader behaviors and/or traits, leader use of incentives (e.g.,
leadership prototypes)?
Are some leadership styles, behaviors universally accepted and effective?
Japanese Sample
Prototype
Disciplined
Intelligent
Trustworthy
Educated
Responsible
U.S. Sample
Prototype
Persistent
Industrious
High Verbal Skills
Goal-Oriented
Determined
No single trait emerged in the Top 5 of the eight countries surveyed.
Eastern
Western

26. “... the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more
followers.” --- Ralph Nader
~ Interdependence of Leaders and Followers ~
Some Basic Points
• Leadership is a process, not a person
• Process is dynamic and reciprocal (not top down)
• Situational context is crucial (e.g., demands, resources)
• Importance of follower characteristics (needs, expectation,
perceptions) and their responses

27. Leader
Characteristics/T
raits
Leader behavior,
responses (e.g.,
sensitivity,
praise)
Employee
leadership
prototypes
Employee
expectationsEmployee
perceptions of
leader (e.g.,
competance,
motivations) Employee
behavior
~ Leader-Follower Process ~
Situation (e.g.,
task demands,
resources)
Employee
characteristics

28. 1. I prioritize tasks when faced with limited time and/or resources.
2. Once I make a suggestion about an issue, I don't think about it further.
3. I follow through on every commitment I make.
4. I steer through ambiguity and 'information clutter' to resolve complex problems.
5. I ask questions to try to piece together 'unrelated' information, events. etc.
6. I build momementum by spending 90% of my time on the top 10% of my priority list.
7. I view my 'wins' with pride and humility.
8. I sacrifice my principles if they are not working.
9. I sort out alternatives by 'winging it'.
10. I make connections that reveal key issues, problems,
or opportunites.
11. I direct my energy equally at all pending issues.
12. I emphasize positive features of situations even after setbacks or when facing huge
obstacles.13. I ignore requests from people below me, if I don't have time.
14. I test ideas and assumptions by reviewing them first with leaders and critical thinkers.
15. I accept a problem at face value, even though there may be less obvious underlying
factors
driving the problem.
16. I find a way to 'get it done' and will sacrifice personally to achieve a goal.
17. I understand my own emotions and feelings and how they impact a situation.
18. I help individuals and teams reach higher levels of performance by displaying confidence in
them at critical junctures.
19. I am receptive to new ideas of others and try to improve or enhance them in a non-
threatening
manner.
20. I take into account the potential implications of a decision, before moving forward.
Sample Leadership Self-Assessment (Total 45 items)
Measures 5 dimensions: Focused drive, Emotional intelligence, Building trust/enabling others,
Conceptual thinking, Systems thinking